(2) Elementary transformation of a matrix.

The following operations, three of

three to columns are known as elementary transformations :
1. The interchange of any two rows (columns).
which refer
I. The multiplication of any row (column) by a non-zero number.
II1. The addition ofa constant multiple of the elements of any row (column) to
the
any other row (column).
Notation. The elementary row transformations will be denoted by the following symbols :
(7)R, for the interchange of the ith and jth rows.
corresponding.
(i) kR, for multiplication of the ith row by k.
(ui)) R, + pR, for addition to the ith row, p times the jth row.
The corresponding column transformation will be denoted by
Elementary transformations do not change either the order or rankwritingCin place of R.
changed by the transformation Iand II, their zero or of amatrix. While the value of the mi
(3) Equivalent matrix. Two non-zero character remains unaffected.
other by a sequence of elementary natrices A and B are said to be
equivalent if one can be obtain
rank. The symbol - is used for transformations. Two equivalent matrices have the same order a
equivalence.
Example 2.23. Determine the rank of the following
matrices :
12 3 |0 1 -3 -1|
(i) 1 4 2 1 0
2 6 5
(ii) 3 7 2 (
1 1 --2
Solution. (i) Operate R, - R, and R, - 2R, so that the
given matrix
1 2 3
0 2 -1|=A (say)
0 2 -1|
Obviously, the
3rd order minor of A
vanishes. Also its 2nd order minors formed by its 2nd
are all zero. But another 2nd order 31
minor is 0 i-1 0.
pA) = 2. Hence the rank of the given matrix is 2.
(ii)Given matrix
0 1 -3 -1
1 0 0
01 -3 - 1
1 0 0 (0
3 1-3 - 1 3 0 0 0
1 1 -3 -1
1 0 0 0
|Operating C, -C, C4-C| IOperating R, -R,, R, - R|
|0 1 - 3 -1
1 0 |0 1 0 0
10 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 =A (say)
0
0 0
0
0
0 00 0
IOperating R, - 3R, R, -R,) |Operating C, + 3C, C, + C,
the 4th order But, of
Obviously, minor of A is zero. Also every Brd order minor of Ais zero.

order minors, only io-1 0. .. pA) = 2.

therank of the given matrix is 2,

 LINEAR ALGEBRA: DETERMINANTS, MATRICES 37

(4) Elementary matrices. Anelementary matrix is that, which is obtained from a unit matrix, by subject
ing it to any of the elemen tary transformations.
Examples of elementary matrices obtained from
1 0 0 |1 0 0 1 0 0] 1 p 0
I =0 1 0 are Rpg =0 1 =Ca ; kR, = k o:R, +pR,=0 10
0 0 1 01 0| 0 0 1 0 0 1
(5) Theorem. Elementary row (column) transformations of amatrix Acan be obtained by pre-multiplying
(post-multiplying) Aby the corresponding elementary matrices.
C%

Consider the matrix A= a b Cz

1 0 0 b C b
Then Ro x A=0 0 1x b, b C
|0 1 b, b
So a pre-multiplication by Ro, has interchanged the 2nd and 3rd rows ofA. Similarly, pre-multiplication
y kR, willmultiply the 2nd row ofà by kand pre-multiplication by R, +pk, will result in theaddition ofp times
he 2nd row ofA to its lst row.
Thus the pre-multiplication of A by elementary matrices results in the corresponding elementary row
ransformation of A. It can easily be seen that post mutiplication will perform the elementary column transfor
nations.
(6) Gauss-Jordan method of finding the inverse*, Those elementary row transformations which
educe a given squarematrix A tothe unit matrix, when applied to unit matrix I give the inverse of A.
Let the successive row transformations which reduce A to I result from pre-multiplication by the elemen
ary matrices R,, R,, ... R, so that
R,R,_1... RzR,A = I
h, R,1..R,R,AA- =IA-1
h, R;_j...RzR,l=A-1 [: AA-l = II
Hence the result.
Working rule to evaluate A-1, Write the two matrices Aand I side by side. Then perform the same row
ansformations on both. As soon as Ais reduced to I, the other matrix represents A-!,
Example 2.24.Using theGauss-Jordan method, find the inverse of the matrix
1 3|
1 3 -3 (C.S.V.T.U., 2015 ; Anna, 2012; Kurukshetra, 2006)
2 -4 4|
Solution. Writing the same matrix side by side with the unit matrix of order 3, we have
3: 1 00
1 3 -3: 01 0
2 -4 -4: 0 0 1
(Operate R,- R, and R, +2R)
1 3: 10 0
2 -6: -1 1 0
0 2 2: 2 0 1 (Operate R, and R)
1 1 3: 1
1 1
0 1 -3: 0
2 2
1
(Operate R-R, and R, +R)
|0 -1 1: 1 0

amed atter the great German mathematician Carl

udent at Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) who made his first great
uations, Gottingen. His important contributions are to algebra, discovery
number theory, mechanics, complex analysis, differential
differential 'geometry,
ecame director of the
observatorv non-Euclidean geometry, numerical analysis, astronomy and electromagnetism. He
at Gottingen in 1807.
ame after another German
mathematician and geodesist Wilhelm Jordan (1842-1899).
38 o
and
1 0 6:
2
1 Operate R, +3Rg, R, -R,
0 1 -3: 2
1
l0 0 -2: 2 2

3 1
1 0 0:
1 3
5
0 1 0: 4
4
1 1
0 0 1: -4 4 4

3 1

5 3 [cf. Example 2.21]

Hence the inverse of the given matrix is 4 4 4
1 1
4 4
a sequence of.
non-zero matrix A of rank r, can be reduced by
(7) Normal form of a matrix. Every
tary transformations, to the form
, 0] called the normal form ofA.
0 0

Cor. 1. The rank ofa matrix A is rif andonly if itcan be reduced to the normalform (i).
post-multiplication
Cor. 2. Since each elementary transformation can be affected by pre-multiplication or following result:
suitable elementary matrix and each elementary matrix is non-singular, therefore, we have the
Corresponding to every matrix A of rank r, there exist non-singular matrices P and Q such th
equals (i).
HAbe a m xn matrix, then P and Q are square matrices of orders m and n respectively.
Example 2.25. Reduce the following matrix into its normal form and hence find itsrank.
2, 3 -1
A=
1'-1.-2 -4|
3 -2 (J.N.T.U., 2015; V.T.U., 2012: U.P. T.U.
6 3 0 -7
|1 -1 -2 - 41
Solution. A~
2 3 -1 -1 (po
3 1 3 -2
|6 3 0 -7|
|1 -1 -2 4
|0 5 3 7
4 9
0 9 12
10 By R, - 2R,, R,-3R
17
1 0 0 0
0 5 3 7
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17 By C, +C,C, +20y
|1 0 0 0
|0 5 8 7
0 4 9 10 (By k, wh
0 0 0 0
 39
LINEAR ALGEBRA: DETERMINANTS, MATRICES

1 0
0 1 -6 -3 A:
0 4 9 10
(By R,-R)
0 0 0 0

1 0
01 -6 -3 (By R,- 4R,]
00 33 22
0 0 0

1
0 0 0
0 1
0 0 33 22 (By C, +6C,, C, +3C,)
|0 0 0
|1 0 0
0 0 10 1
By 33
00 1 22
|0 0 0 0
|1 0 0 0
01 0 0
(By C,-22C,)
00 1.0
0 0 0 0|

Hence pA) = 3.

21
VExample 2.26.For the matrix A= 1 2 3
|0 -1 -1|
find non-singular matrices P andQ such that PAQ is in the normal form. Hence find the rank of A.
(Rohtak, 2011; Kurukshetra, 2005)
1 1 2 [1 0 01 1 00
Solution, We write A = IAI, i.e., 1 2 01 0A|0 1 0
|0 -1 -1| |0 0 1 |0 0 1
We shall affect every elementary row (column) transformation of the product by subjecting the pre-factor
(post-factor) of A to the same.
1 0 [1 0 0] |1 -1 -2
Operate C, -C,. C;-2C,, 1 1 1|=0 1 1
0 -1 -1 0 0 1 0 1

[1 0 1 1 0] 1 -1 -2|
Operate R, -R, 0 1 1 1 0 0Al0 1
|0 -1 00 1 0 1

1 0 0] [1 -1 -1|
Operate C, -Cz 1 0|A|0 1 -1|
0 01 0 1
1 0 0] 1 0 0] 1 -1 -1]
Operate R, + Rz 0 1 0=-1 1 0A|0
-1
0 0 0-1 1 1 0 0 1
which is of the normal formn2
0 0
 LINEAR ALGEBRA :DETERMINANTS, MATRICES 41
2.8 PARTITION METHOD OF FINDING THE INVERSE
According to this method of fnding the inverse, ifthe inverse of amatrixA, of order nis known, then the
inverse of the matrix A, . , can easily be obtained by adding (n +1)th row and (n +1th column to A,
A, : A, X,: X,
Let A = and A-1= ...

A_ : |X :
where A,X, are column vectors and A,,X,' are row vectors (being transposes of column vectors A, X,) and o, *
are ordinary numbers. We also assume that A, is known.
A,: A,|| X, : X,
Then, AA-1 =I,.i.e.,
4,
...(i)
gives A,X, +A,X =I,
A,X, +A,r = 0 ...(iü)
A,X, + aX,' = 0 ...(üi)
A,X, + x = 1 ...(w)
From (i), X, =-A, A,r and using this, (iv) gives x= (a -AA,- A,)l
Hence x and then X, are given.
Alsofrom (), X =A,-l u, -A,x,)
and using this, (ii) gives X = -A, A,- (a -A,A,A,l=-A,A,- x
Then X, is determined and hence A-1 is computed.
Obs. This is also known as the Escalator method'. For evaluation of A-1 we only need to determine two inverse
matrices A, and (a-A,A,'A,,

|1 1
Example 2.27. Using the partition method, find the inverse of 4 3 -1
35 3

[1 1: 1
4 3 : -1
Solution. Let A =
|3 5: 3 Az :
so that

X, : X
Let A-1= so that AA- -1,
X
a-A, A,A, =3+ 3
1
x= (a-A, A,-' A,)1= 10

Also, x,=-A,'A= 1 4
10 -5
Then
X=-A,A,l*= (3

Finally,
X,-4,U-4,xf)=
 ERING M
8
1.4 0.27
42 1-44
55 -10|

1.4 0.2 -0.4]|

A-1 1.5 0 0.5
Hence 1.1 -0.2 -0.1

A 0T'
non-singular matrices, then show that
BC -C'BA!
Example 2.28. If Aand Care

0 20 0
Hence find inverse of 3 0 4 0
0 1 03 (Mumbai,
TP Q
Solution. Let the given matrix be M =|BC and its inverse be M-l =
|RS both in the pa
form where A, B,C, P, Q, R, S are all matrices.
MM1 = =I

or
AP + OR AQ + OS I O1
BP + CR BQ + CS
Equating corresponding elements, we have
AP + OR=1, AQ+ OS = 0, BP + CR = 0, BQ + CS = I. t
Second relation gives AQ = 0, i.e., Q =0as A is
First relation gives AP = 1, i.e., P=A-1, non-singular.
From third equation, BP + CR = 0, i.e., CR =- BP =-
BA-I
C-1 CR =-C-1BA-1 or IR
From fourth equation, BQ + CS = I, or CS = I =-C-BA-1 or R=-C-1 BA-1
or S= (-1
Hence
M1= A-1
-CBA-1 c
1 0 0 01
(ii) Let M= 0 20 0 A O
3 0 4 0
B C
|0 1 0 3|
Whence A= 1 0] 0 4 07

A-1= 1|2 0] S

120 4
-C- (BA-) =

tl
w}

0 0
Hence, M-l= 1/2
3/4 0 1/4
0 -1/6 0 1/3|
 2.9 SOLUTION OF LINEAR SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS
1 Method of determinants-Cramer's rule
a,x+ by+ ,z= d,
Consider the equations a,* + b,y + Cy2 = dg ...(i)
a,r + b,y + c,z = d,

Ifthe determinant of coefficient be A = a, b, C

bg C3

then IA =
[Operate C, +yC, +zC,]
bg C
b, C3

L,x + b,y + C,z b, Cz d, b Cz (By (i))

x+ by + Cg2 Cg d, b, Ca
d, b, C b
Thus d, b, cC, b, C2 provided A# 0. ...u)
d, bs Ca b Cz
C bË
Similarly. y= a ,
d, ba
a d Cg bs
and
b
b, dy b C ...iv
b d, bg Cg
Equation (ii), (ii) and (iv) giving the values of x, y, z constitute the Cramer's rule, which
solution of the linear equations (i) to a problem in evaluation of determinants. reduces the
(2) Matrix inversion method

C
If A=
b, C ,X=y and D= d,
b, Cg
then the equations (i)are equivalent to the
where A is the coefficient matrix. matrix equation AX = D ...(v

Multiplying both sides of (v) by the reciprocal mnatrix A-1, we get

A-' AX =A-1D Or IX= A-1D [:: A-A =I

*Gabriel Cramer (1704-1752), a Swiss mathematician.

 B LINEAR ALO
X=A-'D i.e., B, dg
Or
C2 To
b C
A= (A0) b
a,, b, etc. in the determinant
cofactors of b C3
where, A,, B, ete. are the
Hence equating the values of'x, y, z to the corresponding elements in the product on the right i,

desired solutions. fail when the

we get the
matrix, i.e., A = 0, the above methods fail. These also number
andtheObs,
number of
When Ais a singular
unknowns are unequal. Matrices can, however, be usefully applied to deal with such equationg

be seen in §2.1O(2).

-z=- 3, x + 2y +z =4
Example 2.29. Solve the equations 3x + y+ 2z = 3, 2x- 3y
by (i) determinants(i) matrices.
Solution. (i) By determinants :
3 1 2
Here 2 -3 -1 -3(-3+ 2) 2(1 4) + (-1+6)=8 [Expanding by C,]
1 2 1
3 1 2
x=-3 -3 -1 (Expand by C,]
4 2
1
8
13(-3 + 2) +3(14) + 4(-1+6)]=1
3 2 3 3
Similarly, y= 2 -3 -1 = 2 and -3 -3 =-1
1 4
1 2 4
Hence *=1, y= 2, 2=-1.
Note. The use of Cramer's rule
cases, the numerical methods given in involves
a lot of labour when the number of
§ 28.4 to 28.6 are perferable. eguations exceeds four. In such a
(ii)By matrices :
3 1 2
Here A=|2 b C
1 2 1|=|ly b C
b
(say).
Then
A, =-1, A, = 3, A, =5;B,
Also
A=aA, + aA, + A, = 8. =-3, B, = 1, B, = 7; C=7, C, =-5, C =-11. i.e.,

A, A, A_
B, B, B, xd Solve
C, 1.
1-1 3 5 31 -3 - 9+ 20 2.
3 1 7X - 3 = 1 1 3.
-9- 3 +28
Hence x=1,y=2, z=- 1.
|7-5 -11| 4 |21+ 15 44
2 4.
-1| 5.

Example 2.30. Solve the Solve

equations x, - + X, +x4= 2; x, + X -
+ X, t , t =0, by finding the 6.
inverse by elementary row +*4
=-4;*+ 7.
Soution. Given system can be written as AX = B., operations. 8,

|1 1 1 where 9,
10.
1 1 1 2
A = 1
1 -1 -1 B 4
1 1 1 1 4
 45
LINEAR ALGEBRA : DETERMINANTS, MATRICEs

TofindA, we write
1 -1 1 1:1 0 0 0]
1 1 -1 1:0 1 0 0 R - R
[A :I]= 1 1 -1:0 0 1 0 Ry + R
1 1 1:0 0 0 1| R, + R
1 -1 1 1: 1 0 0 0
0 2 -2 0: -1 1 0 0
2 0: 10 1 0
2 2 2: 100 1 R,
1 -1 1 1: 1 0 0
1 -1 0: -1/2 1/2 0 R - Ry
0 1 0: 1/2 0 1/2 R, - R
1 1 1: 1/2 0 1/2|
1 0 0 1: 1/2 1/2 0|
0 1 -1 0: -1/2 1/2 R- R
10 1 0: 1/2 1/2 R + Rg
|0 0 0 1: 0 -1/2 1/2
1 0 0 0: 1/2 1/2 +1/2 -1/21|
1 1 0 0: 0 1/2 1/2 0 R, - R]
1 0 1 0: 1/2 1/2 R - R
0 0 0 1: 0 0 -1/2 1/2|
1 0 0 0:1/2 1/2 1/2 -1/2
0 1 0 0: -1/2 0 1/2
00 1 0: 0 -1/2 0 1/2
|0 0 0 1: 0 0 -1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 -1/21
1/2 0 1/2
Thus, A-1 =
0 -1/2 0 1/2
0 0 -1/2 1/2|
1/2 1/2 1/2 -1/2| 2 1
-1/2 0 1/2 4
Hence, X= A-'B= 0 -1/2 0 1/2 4 2
0 0 -1/2 1/2 2
L.e.,
x =1, x=- 1,x, = 2, x4 =-2.

PROBLEMS 2.6
Solve the following equations with the help of
1. x+y +z= 1, 3x determinants (1 to 5):
+y-3z=5, x-2y - 5z =0
2. x+3y +62 = 2;3x-y +42
=9;x- 4y + 2z=7. (Andhra, 2016)
3. x+y +2 =6.6 ;x-y +z
4. =2.2;x+ 2y + 3z = 15.2.
x'zly =e;y'zlx =et;rylz=1.
5. 2uw wu + uv =3uvw :3vw + 2wu +
4uv =
19uw: 6vw + 7wu - uw = 17uvw.
Solve the following system of
equations
DXt *, tx,=1,x, +2x, + 3x, =
by matrix method (6 to 8):
6, x, +
I.
I+y+z=3;x +2y + 3z = 4:x + 4y +3x,+ 4x,=6.
9z =6. (P.T.U., 2006)
8. 2x- 3y + 42
D
=4,x + z =0,- y+ 4z = 2.
Zx-y+ 32 =8;x-2y
-z=-4:3x
, +*;+ 2x, +x, = 6, 4x,
+ y - 42 = 0. (W.B.T. U, 2005)
+3t, + (Mumbai, 2005)
3x,-3*=-1, 6x - 6x, +6x,+ 12*, =36, 2t, +
2x,-I,tx= 10.
 equation AXB, whereA
L Ryfnding A,solvethe linear
the currents,, , are
I2 lnagiven electrical network,the equationn for
8,*,+,8,2,- ,- 2, - 6;1,+2,-bi, 0.
Caleulate , and , by (Cramer's rule obtained
the follwoing oqualions are
8 Using the loop current method on a circuit,
, , 12-4, +121,- 6, 0, - 61, +14i, 0.
Ry matrix method, solve for ,. , and i
I4 Sohe the following cquations by caleulating the inverHe by vlementary row operations

2.10 (1)CONSISTENCY OF LINEAR SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

Consider the system of mlinear equations

amj t my t ... t amny = km

containing the n unknowns &, Xoy "., X,. To determine whether the equations (i) are consistent (i,.
solution) or not, we consider the ranks of the matrices
k
A= Ln and K=
m1 am2 Cmn |Cmi Cm2
A is the co-efficient matrix and K is
called the
augmented matrixof the equations (i).
(2)Rouche's theorem. The
the augmented matrix Kare of the system of equations (i) is consistent if and only if the
same rank otherwise the system
Proof. We consider the following two is inconsistent. coefficient matr
I. Rank of A =rank possible cases :
ofK= r (rsthe smaller of the
operations, be reduced to numbers m and n). The equations (i) can, be su
bi t hg, t. +bn, =,
0.x, + bg2x, t .. +b,n =l,

and the remainingm -r 0.x, +0.x, t... +b,n, =,

The equations (ü) equations being all of the form 0.x, +0x, +
will have a solution, +0x, =0.
solution, will be unique only when r =n. thoughn -rof th¹ unknowns may be
Ve

II. Rank of A(i.e.,r) < Hence the equations (i) are chosen arbitr
reduce, by suitable row rank of K. In consistent.
operations, to particular, let the rank of Kbe r +1. In this case, the equat
0.x, +b,nx, t ... t b =l2
0.x+0.x, t... t b,, =l,,
and the remaining m-(r t 0.x, +0.x, t... +0.x,
1) equations are of =l,)
Clearly, the (r + l)th equation theform 0.x, + 0x, + ... + T
equations (i) are inconsistent. cannot be satisfied by 0.x. = 0. e v
any set of values for the
[Procedure to test the consistency of a system of unknowns.
Find the ranks of the coeffcient A in n
 47
LINEAR ALGEBRA :DETERMINANTS, MATRICEs

i)Ifr +r,the equations are inconsistent, i.e., there is no solution.

(ü) Ifr =r=n, the equations are consitent and there is a unique solution.
arbitrary
(üi) Ifr =r<n, the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions. Giving
values to n-r of the unknowns, we may express the other r unknowns in terms of these.]

Example 2.31. Test for consistency and solve

5x + 3y + 7z = 4, 3x + 26y + 2z =9, 7x + 2y + 102 =5.
(V.T.U., 2016; P.T.U., 2014; Bhopal, 2008)

5 3 7||x]
Solution. We have 3 26 2 y=|9
|7 2 10|| l5
15 9 21 12
15 130 10 45
Operate 3R, 5R, 7 2 10 2 5

15 9 21 12
Operate R, -R 0 121 -11 33
7 2 102 5

35 21 49||* 28
0 11 -1 y 3
Operate R, 5R,, 11 Ry |35 10 50|| 2 25|
|5 3 7||x| 41|
Operate R, -R, + Ry R, 0 11

The ranks of coeficient matrix and augmented matrix for the last set of equations, are both 2. Hence the
quations are consistent. Also the given system is equivalent to
3
5x +3y + 7z = 4, 1ly z = 3, y= + and x =
11 11
where z is a parameter.
Hence T3 andz= 0, is a particular solution.
Obs. In the above solution, the coefficient matrix is reduced to an upper triangular matrix by
row-transformations.
VExample 2.32. Investigate the values ofh and u so that the equations
2x + 3y + 5z =9, 7x +3y-2z =8, 2x+3y + = u,
have (i) nosolution, (ü)a unique solution and (ii) an infinite number of solutions.
(Hazaribag, 2015; C.S.V.T. U., 2014; V.T.U., 2013 ; D.T.U., 20
Solution, We have
2 3
7 3 5[*] 9
2|| y=|8
2 3
"The system admits of unique solution if,and only if,
the coefficient matrix is of rank 3. This
2 3 5
requires that
7 3 -2 = 15(5 - 2) 0
2 3
Lmus tora unique solution à5 and u may haye
hose values of u for which the any value. IfA = 5, the system will have no
matrices solution for
2 3 5 2 3
A=7 3 5 9
2 and K=|7 3 -2 8
2 3 5
|2 3
 48
and Kis not of rank 2 unless u = 9.
Thusif2 - 5
and
ERIMG
same rank. But Ais of rank 2
are not of the
of solutions.
will have no solution.
system will have an infinite number
the
If = 5and u = 9, solve them if
Example 2.33. Test for
consistencythe following equations and consistent
2x +y
+z+tz-4;4x-3v +z+7t = 8.

Solution. Given equation can be

written as (Mum
2 0 3| 2
111 4
2
8
|4 -3 1 7

Operate R, - 2R,, R, - 4R,,

1 -2 0 3 21
0 5 1 -5 0
0 5 1 -5

1 2 0 3

Operate R; -R¡ 5 1 -5
0 00 0 0

Clearly, rank of the coefficient matrix is 2 and the rank of augmented matrix is also 2. Hene.
equations are consistent. But the rank 2 <4, the number of unknowns. 2
The number of parameters is 4 - 2 = 2
Thus the equations have doubly infinite solutions. Now putting t =k, and z = k, in
x-2y + 3t =2 and 5y +2-5t =0,
we get x-2y + 3k, =2 and 5y + k, - 5k, = 0
Hence
and
y=k, -ky/5
x=2+2y - 3k,
=2+ 2(k,-k/5) 3k
2
(3) System of linear =2-k-k
homogeneous equations. Consider the homogeneous linear equations.
ly1x t agny t ..+ a,X,, =0|

Cm1k1 t Cm2 t . t amnn =0|

Find the rank r of the
tions. coefficient matrix Aby reducing it to the triangular form by
I. Ifr = n, the
equations (iii) have only a trivial zero
elementary"
solution
Ifr <n,the
The number ofequation (iüi) have (n - r) linearly
the variables, the linearly independent
values of the solutions independent
is (n -r) solutions. 1t

Thus the remaining variables can be means, if arbitrary values are assIgi
II. When equations (iii)will have an infinite number uniquely found.
m<ni.e.,
other than x, X,= the number of
... =x, =0. The equations is less
of
solutions.
III. When m = n (i.e., than
number of solutions is infinite. the number of
condition for solutions other the number of variables), the so
than x, =xy =...equations
this case the equations are said
=the number of and
to be =x, =0, is
consistent and suchthata solution
the variables), the necessarymatrit
nant iscalled the
eliminant of the equations, determinant
is
of the
coefficient T
called non-trivial solution.
 49
LINEAR ALGEBRA : DETERMINANTS, MATRICES

Example 2.34. Solve the equations

(i)x+2y + 3z = 0, 3x + 4y +42 = 0, 7x+ 10y + 122 = 0
(ii) 4x + 2y +z +3w = 0, 6x + 3y + 4z + 7w = 0, 2x + y+ w =0.
Solution. () Rank of the coefficient matrix
|1 2 3 1 2 3
3 4 4 2 -5 [Operating R,-3R]
7 10 12 7 10 12

[1 2 3
0 -2 -5 [Operating R, -7R-2R,)
0 1

is 3 which = the number of variables (i.e., r = n)

The equations have only a trivial solution : z =y =z= 0.
(ü) Rank of the coefficient matrix
[4 2 1 3] 4 2 1 3
3
6 3
|2 1 0 1
4 7
0
00
0
5/2 5/2
1/2 -1/2
(Operating R,- R, R,-R,
4 2 1
0 0 5/2 5/2 (Operating R, +R,
0 0 0
s 2 which < the number of variable (i.e., r <n)
Number of independent solutions = 4-2 =2. Given system is equivalent to
4x + 2y +2 +3w = 0, z+ w = 0.
We have z = -w and y =- 2x - w
which give an infinite number of non-trivial solutions, x and w being the parameters.
Example 2.35. Find the values of kfor which the system of equations (3k 8)* +3y +3z =0, 3x +(3k-8)y
+ 3z = 0, 3x + 3y + (3k 8)z=0has a non-trivial solution. (U.P.T.U.,2006)
Solution. For the given system of equations to have a non-trivial solution, the determinant of the coeffi
ient matrix should be zero.
3k -8 3 3 3k - 2 3 3
.e., 3 3k -8 3 0 or 3k - 2 3k -8
3 3 3k -8 3k-2 3
3
3k -8
=0 (Operating C,+(C, +C4l
1 3 1 3 3
r (3k 2) 1 3k - 8 3 =0 or (3k - 2 ) 0 3k - 11 0 =0 (Operating R,-R, Rz-R)
|1 3 3k -8 0 3k - 11
(3k 2)(3k 11)² = 0whence k = 2/3, 11/3, 11/3.

Example 2.36. If the following system has non-trivial solution, prove that a + b +c =0 or a
ax + by + cz = 0, bx + cy + az = 0, cx + ay + bz = 0. =b c:
(Mumbai, 2006)
Solution. For the given system of equations to have non-trivial solution, the
ient matrix is zero. determinant of the coeffi
a b a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c|
e.,
C a =0 or
C ab C
C = 0 [Operating R, +R, +R4l
r 1 11 H
0
(a +b + c)b c = 0 or (a +b+ c)b c-b a-b
|C a
|C a-c b-c
=0 [Operating C, -C, C;-C)
or
50

(a +b+ c) (c -b) (b -c)- (a -c) (a - b)) = 0

MiGHER ENGINE RNG
(a +b+ c)(-a'-b2-'+ ab + be + ca)= 0
1.e., a +b+c = 0 or a'+62 + 2- ab -be-ca = 0

a +b+c = 0 or
1
a-b)2 +(h -c24 (e-a] = 0
a +b+c0,a b,b =c, c = a.
+b+c= 0
Hence the given system has anon-trivial solution if a
or a h=c

Example 2.37. Find the values of Àfor which the equations

à - 1)x + (3À + 1)y + 22 = 0
à- Dx +(4À - 2)y + (À +3)z =0
2x +(3)+ l)y + 30- 1)2 = 0
are consistent, and find the atios of x:y:z when à has the smallest of these values. What
the greatest of these values. happena
JN.T.U.,, 2015;Kurukshe
Solution. The given equations willbe consistent, if
À -1 3À + 1 22
A-1 4d -2 À+3 =0
2 3À +1 3A - 1)| 1Opers
|À-1 32 +1 22
if. -3 3-2 =0
2 3) +1 3(0 - 1)|
(Operay
-1 3À +1 5à +1
or if. A-3 0 =0
E
2 3À + 1 6À 2
2-1 5). +1
if, 23À + 1) =0 or if, 2(0-3) [(a- 1) (3À -1) - (5À + 1) =0
0r (à-3) 2
if. 6A(23)²=0 or if, =0 or 3.
(a)When )=0, the equations become -x +y=0
-x-2y + 3z =0
2x +y- 3z = 0
Solving (ü) and (iii), we get Hence x y=z.
6-3 6-3-1+4
(b) When =3, equations becomes identical.

PROBLEMS 2.7
Investigate for consistency of the following equations and if possible find the
4r-2y + 62 = 8, x solutions:
ty- 32 =-1, lá - 3y + 92 21.
./2. For what values of k the equations x +y+2
=1, 2r +y + 42 = k. 4r + y+ 102 have a solution ad
completely ineach case.
T:0, 2015
Investigate for what values of / and Hthe simultaneous equations ; U.P. T.U., 2011; Bhopal. 2008; Mu
x+y+z =6, x+ 2y + 32 = 10, x+ 2y + e =
u,
Lote (i) no solution, (W) a unique solution, (W) an
infinite number of solutions.
(C.S.V.T.U., 2015 ; V.T.U., 2014; P.T.U., 2013: Mu
Test for consistency and solve,
() 2x-3y + 7z = 5, 3x +y- 3z = 13, 2x + 19y - 472z = 32 2005:Ba
(ii) x + 2y +2 =3, 2x + 3y+ 22 = 0, x -by + b2 =2, 3x + 9y~4
(Bhopal, 2009; Kurukshetra,
(C.SVI
(i) 2x + 6y + 11 = 0, 6x + 20y -6z + 3= 0, 6y - 182 +le0 (Rot
-2rR
(iv)3x + 3y + 22 = 1,x+ Zy = 4, 10y + 32 = -2, 2x- 3y (UXI
 LINEAR ALGEBRA : DETERMINANTS, MATRCES 51

5. Find the values of aand bfor which the equations

*+ ay+ z=3,r + 2y+ 2* =b. x+5y +3: 9
are consistent. When will these equations have a unique solution ? (DTU,2013; Kurukshetra, 2005)
6 Show that if À*-5, the system of equations
3t -y+ 4: =3,r+2-32 =-2, 6r+ by 4de3,
have a unique solution. If à= -5, show that the equntions are consistent. Deternine the solutions in each case.
7. Show that the equations
3t + 4 + 52 = a, 4r + 5v + 62 b, 5r + 6v + 7z e
do not have a solution unless a +c= 26 i.e. a, b, c are in AP. (Andhra.. 2015;J.N. TU, 2015, D.T.U., 2013)
3.Prove that the equations 5r + 3y + 2* - 12, 2r + 4y + 5z =2, 39r +43y +452 =Care incompatible unles8 c 74; and
in that case the equations are satisfied by x= 2 +t, y- 2-3, z =-2+ 21, where t isany arbitrary quantity
A Find the values of Àfor which the equations (2 - r + 2y +3 = 0, 2r +(4 - y +7 0, 2r+ 5y + (6 - ) =0 are
consistent and find the values ofx and v corresponding to each of these values of . (Andhra, 2014)
10. Show that there are three realvalues of Àfor which the equations (a - A)x +by +cz =0, bx +(c- y +az = 0,
Cr + aY + (b- ^e =0are simultaneously true and that the product of these values of à is
a b c
D=b c a
a b

11. Determine the values of kfor which the following system of equations has non-trivial solutions and find them
(k - 1)r+ (4k - 2) y+ (k + 3) z= 0, (k - 1)x+ (3k+ 1)y + 2kz = 0, 2x + (3k + 1)y +3(k - 1)z = 0.
(Mumbai, 2005)
12. Show that the system of equations 2x, -2x, +x,=A, 2x,- 3x, +2x, =, -X, +2x, =r, can possess a non-trivial
solution only if À= 1. i=-3. Obtain the general solution in each case.
13. Determine the values of à for which the following set of equations may possesS non-trivial solution:
3*, +x,-r =0, 4x, - 2x, - 3x, =0, 2Ax, +4x, + Ax, = 0.
For each permissible value of 2, determine the general solution. (Kurukshetra, 2006)
14. Solve completely the system of equations
()x+y - 2z + 3w =0;x- 2y +2 - w= 0;4 +y -52 +8w = 0; 5x -7y+ 22- w=0.
(iü)3r + 4y-z-6w = 0;2x+ 3y + 22-3w =0;2x +y- 142 9w=0;x+3y + 13z + 3w = 0.

2.11 (1) LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Let (r,y) be the co-ordinates of a point P referred to set of rectangular axes OX, OY. Then its co-ordinates
,y) referred to 0X', OY", obtained by rotating the former axes through an angle given by
x=1 cos + y sin 0, ...(0)
y'=- sin +y cos 0
A more general transformation than (i) is
..(ii)
y'= a,t t b,y
which in matrix notation is

Such transformations as (i) and (ii), are called linear transformations in two dimensions.

Similarly, the relations of the type x'=l,x+ m,y tn,z ..(ii)

y'= l,x t m,y t ny2
z'=lx +my t ny2
give a linear transformation from (x, y, z) to(x', y', 2') in three dimensional problems.

In general, the relation Y = AX where Y = Y ,A = k ,X= ...(iv)

:
 HIGHER ENGINEERING |

, i.e.,the
the variables y, .
52

give linear
vector X to
transformation
the vector Y.
firom nvariables x,,
linear
yy

because the
nto
linear relations
AX, +X,) =AX, + transtory
AX, and A
transformation is called to
This transformation. transformation also is said be singular other
Ais singular,
the the inverse
hold for this
Ifthe
transformation matrix
non-singular
transformation Y= AX, we can also write
transformation.
singular. For atransformation is also called a regular given by Y= AX and another
transformation
Vo, y,)
A non-singulartransformation from(*,, , N,)to (y,, from
is is given by transformation
a transformation (x,, x, x4) to (z, y, 24)
Cor. If
2 = BY, then the
(2,, 2g,Z) isgiven by BAX) =(BA)X. is
Z= BY =
linear transformation(iv), i.e., Y= AX, said|to
be orth
transformation. The
(2) Orthogonal 2
it transforms
+y," into x, + x, + ... + x, matrix.
y,+y,t ... called an orthogonal
orthogonal transformation is
The matrix of an
2

XX= kx..*] x =x, +x, + ... +,

We have,

and similarly, YY =y' +y,' + ... +y,"

transformation, then
.. If Y =AX is an orthogonal
X'AAX which is possible only ifA'A = 1.
X'X= YY =(AX' (AX) =
transformation.
But A-'A =1, therefore, A' =A- for an orthogonal
ifAA'= A'A =l.
Hence a square matrix Ais said to be orthogonal
Obs. 1.IfA is orthogonal, A' and A-' are also orthogonal.
Since A is orthogonal, A' =A-1.
(A'Y= (A-Y= (A) iLe., B=B-1 where B=A'
Hence B(i.e.. A) is orthogonal. As A' =A-, A-1 is also orthogonal.
Obs. 2. IfA is orthogonal, then |A|=+1.
Since AA' =A'A=I |A||A'| =|I| (Mum
But |A'|= |A |, |A||A| =|1|
or |A |2=1 ie., |A| =+1.

Example 2.38. Show that the transformation

is regular. Write down the inverse transformation. (VI!

Solution. The given transformation may be written as

Y = AX

2 1 1
where, X= Y=y,,A =|1 1 2
|1 0 2

2 1 1
Now
|A|=1 1 0 1 2
2
=-1

Thus the matrixA isnon-8ingular and hence the

The inverse transformation is given by transformatiuon is regular.
X=A-1 Y
2 -2 -1
where, A-l= 4 5 3
1 -1-1|
LINEAR ALGEBRA :DETERMINANTS, MATRICES 53

Thus x=2y, - 2y,-Y; iX, =- 4y, + 5y, +8y, ; Xy =Y, -Y2-Y:

$the inverse transformation.
Example 2.39. Prove that the following matrix is orthogonal :
2/3 1/3 2/3|
2/3 2/3 1/3 (Delhi, 2012; Kurukshetra, 2005)
1/3 -2/3 2/3|
2/3 1/3 2/3 2/3 2/3 1/3
Solution. We have AA'= 2/3 2/3 1/3x 1/3 2/3 2/3
1/3 - 2/3 2/3 2/3 1/3 2/3

4/9 + 1/9 + 4/9 - 4/9 + 2/9 + 2/9 - 2/9 - 2/9 + 4/9

4/9 + 2/9 + 2/9 4/9 + 4/9 + 1/9 2/9 - 4/9 + 2/9 =1.
2/9 - 2/9 + 4/9 2/9 -4/9 +2/9 1/9 + 4/9 + 4/9
Hence the matrix is orthogonal.
2 a
1 (Mumbai, 2006)
Example 2.40. IfA = 3
2 1 b| is orthogonal, find a, b, c and A-1.
2 -2 c|

Solution. As A is orthogonal, AA' = I

1
1 2 a
1
1 2 1 0 0
2 1 b|3 2 1 -2=0 1 0
82 2 c a b C 0 0 1

1+4+ a' 2+2+ ab 2-4 +ac 9 0 0

2+2+ab 4+1+ b 4- 2+ be 0 9 0
2-4 + ac 4-2+ be 4+ 4 + c |0 0 9|
5+ a' = 9, 5 +6² = 9, 8 +¢²= 9, i.e., a' = 4, 62 = 4, c²= 1
Thus a = 2, b = 2, c = 1.
|1 2 2
1
Since Ais orthogonal, A-l =A= 2 1 -2
2 2 1

..12 (1) VECTORS

Any quantity having n-components is called a vector of order n. Therefore, the coefficients in a linear
uation or the elements in a row or column matrix will form a vector. Thus any n numbers x,, Xo, ., 1, written
a particular order, constitute a vector x.
(2) Linear dependence. The vectors x,, Xy ., X are said to be linearly dependent, if there exist
mbers 4, gy *., , not allzero, such that
,x + yx, t ... +,x, =0. ..(i)
If no such numbers, other than zero, exist, the vectors are said to be linearly independent. If 2, 0,
nsposing ,x, to the other side and dividing by - A, we write (i) in the form
Then the vector x, is said to be a linear combination of the vectors x,, Xq .., X

Example 2.41. Are the vectors x, =(1, 3,4, 2),x, =(3, - 5, 2, 2) and x, =(2, - 1, 3, 2) linearly dependent ?
so express one of these as a linear combination of the
others.
Solution, The relation x +a,x, +A,x, =0.
A,(1, 3, 4, 2) + ,(3, 5, 2, 2)+2,(2, - 1, 3, 2) = 0
 55
LINEAR ALGEBRA : DETERMINANTS, MATRICES

2.13 (1)EIGEN VALUES

where I is the nth order unit rmatríz.
IfAis any square matrix of order n, we can form the matrixA- N,
The determinant of this matrix equated to zero,
42
2 (L2n
i.e., |A - |=
n2
determinant, the characteristic equation takes the
is called the characteristic equation of A. On expanding the
form
(-1" A" + k,n-+ k,r"+... +k, = 0,
roots of this equation are called the eigenvalues or
where k's are expressible in terms of the elements a, The
A.
latentroots or characteristic roots of the matrix
(2) Eigen vectors
d42
l1 a2n then the linear transformation Y = AX ...i)
IfX = and A =

an1 n2 ann
square-matrix A. In practice, it is ofter
carries the column vector X intothe column vector Y by means of the
scalar multiple of themselves.
required to find such vectors which transform into themselves or to a transformation (i).
Let X be such a vector which transforms into X by means of the ..ii)
Then 2X= AX or AX NX0 or A -IX =0
This matrix equation represents n homogeneous linear equations
(a1 - )x + ay2t, t... + ahny =0
ag1Ë + (a2 -)t, t .. t an, =0 ...(iii )

an1y t ah2*, t ...+ (ann -)x, =0

singular, i.e., if | A - | = 0.
which willhave a non-trivial solution only if the coefficient matrix is characteristic equation
characteristic equation of the transformation and is same as the
This iscalled the
root, the equation (ii) [or (iii)) will have a non-zero
of the matrix A. It has n roots and corresponding to each
solution. latent vector.
X= , Xos ....,.x]', which is known as the eigen vector or
vectors. But when two or more eigen
Obs. 1. Corresponding to n distinct eigen values, we get n independent eigen
eigen vectors corresponding to the repeated roots.
values are equal, it may or may not be possible toget linearly independent
cX, is also a solution, where c is arbitrary
Obs. 2. IfX is a solution for aeigen value then it follows from (i) that
but may be any one of the vectors cX,.
constant. Thus the eigen vector corresponding to aeigen value is not unique

[5 4 (Bhopal, 2008)
Example 2.42. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix |1 2
Solution. The characteristic equation is [A - ]=0
5 4 or 2 7 + 6 = 0
L.e., =0
1 2-2
or (2-6) ( - 1) = 0 .:. A= 6, 1.
Thus the eigen values are 6 and 1.
Ifz,y bethe components of an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value 4, then
A - ] X=

Corresponding to =6, we have

 56
HIGHER ENGINEERINS
which gives only one independent equation - x+ 4y = 0

1
giving theeigen vector (4, 1).
JEAR

Corresponding to = 1, we have
which gives only one independent equation x +y=0.
giving the eigen vector (1, 1).
-1
Ti 1 3 14
Example 2.43. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix 1 51
|3 1 1
(Anna, 2016 ; V.T.U, 2013; Calicut.

SoBution. The characteristic equation is | A-|=

|1-à 1 3
2012;C.S VT1
1 5 1
1 1-*|
Since, =-2 satifies it, we can write this equation as
(A+ 2)(2-92+ 18) = 0 or (à +2) (23) (- 6) =0.
Thus the eigen values of Aare = -2, 3, 6.
Ifx, y z be the components of an eigen vector
corresponding to the eigen value , we have
[1-4 1-
[A-]X= 1 5-4 1 =0
3 1 1
PuttingÀ=-2, we have 3x +y + 3z = 0, x+ 7y + z=0, 3x +y + 3z = 0.
The first and third equations being the
samne, we have from the first two
Or tor
- 20 0 20 -1 0 1
Hence the eigen vector is (- 1, 0, 1). Als0
corresponding to 2=-2. every non-zero multiple of this vector is an
eiæ
Similarly, eigen
the
vectors (1, -1, 1) and (1, 2, vectors
1)whichcorresponding
to à = 3and A= 6 are the
are obtained from(i). arbitrary non-zero mult
Hence the three eigen vectors may be
taken as (- 1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1).
Example 2.44. Find the eigen values and eigen 3 1 4
vectors of the matrix A= 0 2 6 (UPI! or
0 0 5
Solution. The characteristic equation is
3-2 1 4
|A- N| =0, i.e., 0 2 6 = 0
or 0 5
(3-2) hai
Thus the eigen values of Aare 2,(2-)
(5 -)=0
3, 5.
If x, y, z be the
components of an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value À,
3-2 4
we have
[A - X= 0 2-1
0
:0
Putting =2, we have x+y+ 42 = 0, 62 =0, 32= 0,5-2|
i.e.,x +y =0 and z =0.

Hence the eigen vector corresponding to A= 2is k, (1,- 1, 0).

 LINEAR ALGEBRA:DETERMINANTSs, MATRICES 57

Putting =3, we have y+ 4z = 0, -y + 6z = 0, 2z = 0, i.e., y=0, z =0.

1
=k
Hence the eigen vector corresponding to =3is k, (1, 0, 0).
Similarly, the eigen vector corresponding to = 5 is k, (3, 2, 1).
2.14 PROPERTIES OF EIGEN VALUES
I. Any squarematrix A
and its transpose A' have the same eigen values.
We have (A- NY =A'- =A- N
|A- A1| =|A'- | |: |B| =|B|
|A- N | =0if and only if |A'- N|=0
e., à is an eigen value of A if and only if it is an eigen value of A.
. The cigen values ofa triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
a12 an
lon
Let A = be a triangular matrix of order n.
0 0
Then |A-N |= (a,, )(ag-) ....a,,-2).
Roots of | A I =0are = a1: a923 *, nn'
Hence the eigen values of Aare the diagonal elements of A, i.e., a,1, gpy ., an:
Cor. The eigen values of a diagonal matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
III. The eigen values of an idempotent matrix are either zero or unity.
Let A be an idempotent matrix so that A = A. If àbe an eigen value of A, then there exists a non-zero
ctor X such that
AX = X ...(1)
AAX) = A(2X), i.e., A2X = AAX)
AX = NAX) [: A =A and AX = X
AX = 12X ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get 12X = Xor (22- 2) X=0
22-= 0 whence =0or 1.
Hence the result.
IV. The sum ofthe eigen values ofa matrix is its trace i.e. the sum ofthe elements of the principal diagonal.
(This property will be proved for a matrix of order 3, but the method will be capable of easy extension to matrices of
y order.]
Consider the square matrix
a13
A = ..()
g1 g2 lg3
that h2
|A-I |= a1 d2 (On expanding)
ag1
...(ii)
lf4, , be the eigen values of A, then |A -N| =(-1 ( -) (a- ,)(a - A)
=-2+ (^, +Ay t Ag-.
Equating the right hand sides of (ii)and (iii) and comparing coefficients of2, we get
..(iii)

Ay + hg t g = aj1 t agg + lgg Hence the result. (Rohtak, 2011)

V. The product of theeigen values ofa matrixA is
equal to its determinant.
Putting =0in (iüü), we get the result. (Anna, 2013)
VI. If is an eigen value ofa matri A, then 1/2 is
IfX be the eigen vector corresponding to , then AXthe=eigen
\X
value of A-.
..(2)