Module 1

Operating Systems Fundamentals

A. Functions and Components of an Operating System

B. OS Boot Process and Boot Configuration
C. File Systems and Disk Management in Windows
D. User Management and Access Control
E. Introduction to Windows Registry
F. System Performance Monitoring in Windows

A. An operating system (OS) is the backbone of any computer system, managing both hardware
and software resources. Here are the key functions and components of an OS:

Functions of an Operating System

1. Process Management: Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes. It

ensures that each process gets the necessary resources and manages the execution of
processes efficiently.

2. Memory Management: Manages the allocation and deallocation of memory space. It keeps
track of each byte in a computer's memory and ensures that memory is used efficiently.

3. File System Management: Controls the creation, deletion, and access of files. It organizes
files in directories and manages file permissions and storage.

4. Device Management: Manages device communication via their respective drivers. It ensures
that input/output devices like keyboards, printers, and disk drives function correctly.

5. Security and Access Control: Protects data and resources from unauthorized access. It
implements user authentication and access control mechanisms.

6. User Interface: Provides a user interface, either graphical (GUI) or command-line (CLI), for
users to interact with the computer system.

7. Error Detection and Handling: Monitors the system for errors and takes appropriate actions
to ensure smooth operation.

Components of an Operating System

1. Kernel: The core component that manages system resources, including CPU, memory, and
devices. It operates at the lowest level and interacts directly with hardware.

2. Shell: The interface between the user and the kernel. It interprets user commands and
executes them.

3. File System: Manages files and directories, providing a way to store, retrieve, and organize
data.

4. Device Drivers: Specialized programs that allow the OS to communicate with hardware
devices.

5. System Utilities: Programs that perform system maintenance tasks, such as disk cleanup,
antivirus scans, and system backups.
 6. User Interface: The part of the OS that users interact with, which can be a GUI or CLI.

B. The boot process is the sequence of steps that a computer system goes through to start up
and load the operating system. Here's an overview of the OS boot process and boot
configuration:

OS Boot Process

1. Power-On Self Test (POST): When the computer is powered on, the BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) performs a POST to check the
hardware components and ensure they are functioning correctly.

2. Bootloader: After the POST, the BIOS/UEFI looks for a bootable device (such as a hard drive,
SSD, or USB drive) and loads the bootloader from the Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID
Partition Table (GPT). The bootloader is a small program that loads the operating system into
memory.

3. Kernel Loading: The bootloader loads the OS kernel into memory. The kernel is the core
component of the operating system that manages system resources and hardware.

4. Kernel Initialization: The kernel initializes hardware components, sets up memory

management, and starts essential system processes.

5. System Initialization: The operating system starts system services and background processes.
It also mounts file systems and initializes device drivers.

6. User Login: Finally, the OS presents the user with a login screen or desktop environment,
allowing the user to interact with the system.

Boot Configuration

Boot configuration refers to the settings and parameters that control the boot process. These settings
can be configured through the BIOS/UEFI or the operating system. Key boot configuration
components include:

1. Boot Order: The sequence in which the BIOS/UEFI checks devices for a bootable operating
system. Common boot order options include hard drives, SSDs, USB drives, and network
boot.

2. Bootloader Configuration: The bootloader (e.g., GRUB, Windows Boot Manager) can be
configured to manage multiple operating systems, set default OS, and pass parameters to the
kernel.

3. Kernel Parameters: Parameters passed to the kernel during boot to control its behavior.
These parameters can be set in the bootloader configuration file.

4. Startup Services: Services and processes that are started automatically during the boot
process. These can be managed through system configuration tools (e.g., systemd, init).
 5. Recovery and Safe Mode: Special boot options that allow the user to troubleshoot and
repair the system. Recovery mode provides tools for system repair, while safe mode starts
the OS with minimal drivers and services.

C. File systems and disk management are crucial aspects of Windows operating systems. Here's
a brief overview:

File Systems

1. NTFS (New Technology File System): The default file system for Windows. It supports large
files, encryption, disk quotas, and file permissions.

2. FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32): An older file system that is compatible with many operating
systems but has a file size limit of 4GB.

3. exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table): Designed for flash drives, it supports larger files than
FAT32 and is compatible with both Windows and macOS.

Disk Management

1. Disk Partitioning: Dividing a hard drive into multiple sections, each acting as a separate
drive. This can help organize data and improve performance.

2. Disk Cleanup: A utility to free up space on your hard drive by deleting unnecessary files.

3. Defragmentation: Rearranges fragmented data so your hard drive can work more efficiently.

4. Disk Management Tool: A built-in Windows tool that allows you to manage partitions,
format drives, and change drive letters.

D. User management and access control are essential for maintaining security and efficiency in
any system. Here's a breakdown:

User Management

1. User Accounts: Creating and managing user accounts, including setting up usernames,
passwords, and user profiles.

2. Groups: Organizing users into groups to simplify permissions management. For example, you
can create groups for different departments or roles.

3. User Roles: Assigning roles to users based on their responsibilities. Common roles include
administrators, standard users, and guests.

4. Account Policies: Implementing policies for password complexity, expiration, and account
lockout to enhance security.

Access Control

1. Permissions: Defining what users can and cannot do within the system. This includes read,
write, execute, and delete permissions.
 2. Access Control Lists (ACLs): Lists that specify which users or groups have access to certain
resources and what actions they can perform.

3. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Assigning permissions to roles rather than individual
users. Users are then assigned roles, making it easier to manage permissions.

4. Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Adding an extra layer of security by requiring users to

provide two or more verification factors to gain access.

E. The Windows Registry is a critical component of the Windows operating system. It acts as a
centralized database that stores configuration settings and options for both the operating
system and installed applications. Here's a brief introduction:

What is the Windows Registry?

The Windows Registry is a hierarchical database that contains information, settings, and options for
the operating system and installed software. It is used to store configuration settings for hardware,
software, user preferences, and system policies.

Structure of the Windows Registry

The Registry is organized into a tree-like structure with keys and values:

1. Keys: These are like folders that can contain other keys or values. They are organized in a
hierarchical manner.

2. Values: These are the actual settings or data stored within the keys. Each value has a name,
data type, and data.

Main Components

1. HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (HKCR): Contains information about file associations and COM

objects.

2. HKEY_CURRENT_USER (HKCU): Stores settings and preferences for the currently logged-in
user.

3. HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (HKLM): Contains configuration settings for the local computer,

including hardware and software settings.

4. HKEY_USERS (HKU): Stores settings for all user profiles on the computer.

5. HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (HKCC): Contains information about the current hardware profile.

Common Uses

1. System Configuration: Adjusting system settings, such as startup programs and hardware
configurations.

2. Software Settings: Storing application-specific settings and preferences.

3. User Preferences: Customizing the user experience, such as desktop background and screen
resolution.

4. Security Settings: Managing user permissions and security policies.

 F. Monitoring system performance in Windows is essential for maintaining a smooth and
efficient computing experience. Here are some key tools and techniques:

Task Manager

1. Performance Tab: Provides real-time data on CPU, memory, disk, and network usage.

2. Processes Tab: Lists all running processes and their resource usage, allowing you to identify
and end resource-hogging tasks.

Resource Monitor

1. Overview: Offers detailed information about CPU, memory, disk, and network activity.

2. CPU Tab: Displays CPU usage by process, service, and overall system.

3. Memory Tab: Shows memory usage, including physical memory, virtual memory, and
memory used by processes.

4. Disk Tab: Provides information on disk activity, including read/write speeds and active
processes.

5. Network Tab: Monitors network activity, including bandwidth usage and active connections.

Performance Monitor

1. Data Collector Sets: Allows you to create custom data sets to monitor specific performance
metrics over time.

2. Performance Counters: Provides a wide range of counters to track various system metrics,
such as CPU usage, disk I/O, and network activity.

3. Reports: Generates detailed reports based on the collected data, helping you analyze system
performance trends.

Reliability Monitor

1. System Stability: Tracks system stability over time, displaying a timeline of system events,
crashes, and warnings.

2. Problem Reports: Provides detailed information about system errors and issues, helping you
identify and troubleshoot problems.

Event Viewer

1. System Logs: Records system events, including errors, warnings, and informational
messages.

2. Custom Views: Allows you to create custom views to filter and display specific events of
interest.

Tips for Effective Monitoring

1. Regular Checks: Perform regular checks to identify and address performance issues before
they become critical.

2. Baseline Metrics: Establish baseline performance metrics to compare against when

diagnosing issues.

3. Automated Alerts: Set up automated alerts to notify you of significant performance changes
or issues.