STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS
BY
ALMOJUELA | COMIA | DE CASTRO
MANALO | SALAZAR
CHAPTER 5
STRESSES IN BEAMS
INTRODUCTION
The stresses on a beam caused by bending are important. Here, in order to get a clear
understanding, we will precisely visualize the beam. The relationships between the bending moment and
the flexure stresses it generates as well as between the vertical shear and the shearing stresses will be
derived in this chapter. We make the following assumptions for deriving these relations:
1. The beam's plane components remain plane.
2. The homogeneous material in the beam complies with Hooke's law.
3. Both the tension and compression elasticity moduli are equivalent.
4. The beam has a constant cross section at first and is initially straight
5. The major axis of the beam cross section must be present in the plane of loading, and the loads
must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
DERIVATION OF FLEXURAL FORMULA
Simple bending, also known as pure bending, is the occurrence where stresses build throughout
the length of the beam solely as a result of the action of the bending force. Bending stress refers to the
buildup of stress throughout the length of the beam. The bending or flexural stresses are those brought on
by the bending moment, and the flexure formula expresses the relationship between these stresses and the
bending moment. This relationship is derived using the same methodology as the torsion formula.
SIMPLE BENDING THEORY
Simple bending can be explained by the below beam and load arrangement. As shown in the
figure, the BM diagram of the corresponding beam arrangement has a constant moment along the beam
length AB and the SF has nothing to contribute to that length.
Fig.1. Simple Bending Theory Explanation
This beam section AB is said to be in the condition of simple bending or pure bending.
The flexural formula is given by the relation: M/I = E/R = 𝛔/y
When we study torsion, we make some assumptions to make things simpler. Here are some common
assumptions we make:
● Stretchy Materials: We assume that the materials we are studying can stretch and return to their
original shape easily. This helps us understand how they twist without breaking.
● Round Shape: We imagine that the things we study, like rods, have a circular shape. This makes
it easier to do the calculations and understand how they twist.
● Same Material: We pretend that the material in the rod is the same all the way through, like a
candy bar. In reality, some materials can be different on the inside, but assuming they're the same
makes things easier for us.
● Small Twists: We assume that the twists we are studying are small compared to the size of the
rod. It's like twisting a pencil slightly instead of completely turning it around. This way, we can
use simple math to understand what's happening.
● Straight and Undistorted: We imagine that the rod stays straight and doesn't bend or change its
shape while it twists. It's like a ruler that stays flat even when you twist it. This helps us focus on
the twisting part.
Simple bending theory can be explained by following beam element consideration, as shown in figure-2
below.
In the given diagram, a beam section ABCD with a small length of dx is shown, with the neutral
axis N-N passing through it. The sections AB and CD are perpendicular to the neutral axis. Under the
influence of bending, the beam element deforms, as depicted in figure-2(b).
The layers of the beam before bending are not retained after bending, with AC and BD transforming
into A'C' and B'D', respectively. The top layer undergoes compression and shortening, while the bottom
layer experiences elongation and tensile stress. However, the neutral layer remains unaffected.
Consequently, the maximum compressive stress occurs at the top layer, and the maximum tensile stress
occurs at the bottom layer.
NN = dx = N'N'
Moreover, the length of the layers decreases as we move from the bottom layer to the neutral layer.
The extent of increase or decrease in the layer's length is dependent on its distance from the neutral axis.
This theory of bending is known as the theory of simple bending.
DERIVATION OF BENDING EQUATION
As shown in figure-2(a), consider a layer EF from a distance 'y' from the neutral axis. After bending, EF
gets deformed to E'F' as shown in 2(b).
Given:
The radius of the Neutral layer = R
The angle subtended by A'B' and C'D' at O = θ
Then,
Strain Variation along the Depth of Beam
Original length of layer = EF = dx;
Original length of Neutral layer = NN = N'N' = dx
From Figure,
N'N' = R x θ = dx
E'F' = (R + y ) θ
Strain in the layer EF = Increase in the length of layer EF / (Original Length)
= (E'F' -EF)/EF
= ( (R +y) θ - (Rx θ))/dx
= (R θ + y θ - R θ)/ dx
= y θ/dx
= y θ/R θ
=y/R
Hence, the strain in layer EF is directly proportional to the distance of the layer from the neutral axis. This
relation shows the variation of the strain along the depth of the beam. The variation of strain is linear.
Stress Variation along Depth of Beam Young's modulus E = stress in layer EF / Strain in layer
E = 𝛔 /(y/R)
=> E = 𝜎R/y
=> E/R = 𝛔/y
Moment of Resistance The layer above the neutral axis experiences compressive force Fc and the layers
below the neutral axis experience tensile force Ft.
For equilibrium:
Fc= Ft
The moments caused due to these internal forces must be equal and opposite the BM caused at section f of
the beam.
The moment of resistance is defined as the algebraic sum of moments about the neutral axis of the
internal forces developed in the beam.
If the cross-sectional area of the element is dA, then
Total Moment of resistance
M = ∫ (𝛔 dA . y) = ∫(Ey. y. dA)/R
=> M = (E/R)∫y^2 . dA
Moment of Inertia I = ∫y^2. dA
Hence, we get
M = EI/R
Hence, we get
M/I = E/R = 𝛔/y ;
The above equation is called the Bending Equation/ Flexural Formula.
ECONOMIC SECTIONS
The fibers close to the neutral axis in a beam with a rectangular or circular cross section are under
stress in comparison to those at the top or bottom. It is ineffective in resisting flexure because a sizable
piece of the cross section is thereby under stress.
According to the flexural formula, M = sigma*1/c, if the area of a beam with a rectangular section
could be changed to achieve the shape indicated in Fig. 5-6b, causing a significant increase in the moment
of inertia and a rise in the resistive moment. Physically speaking, the increase in resisting moment is due
to more fibers being located at a greater distance from the NA, for such fibers carry a greater stress and
have a larger moment arm about the NA to resist the applied bending moment.
The efficient use of material in a force-resisting member involves (a) the selection of available
material to be well suited to the use of the member, and (b) the distribution of the material in the member
so that it can best resist the forces acting on the member. The use of material, however, always, must be
considered in relation to the cost involved.
The main point to be considered here is the effect of the distribution of the material in a beam on
the resistance of the beam to external loads; this involves (a) the effect of the shape of cross-section and
(b) the effect of a variation of size of cross section along the beam.
(a) Effect of Shape of Cross Section. — If a beam having a constant cross section safely resists static
loads, the maximum fiber unit stress at the dangerous section must not exceed the allowable or working
unit stress that experiments and experience have shown to be permissible. That is, s in the flexure
formula, s = Mc/I, must not be greater than the working unit stress when M is the maximum bending
moment. The flexure formula shows that, when a given unit stress s is developed in the beam, the bending
moment M required to develop this unit stress is large when l\c is large. Furthermore, I\c is made large by
forming the cross section so that the greater part of the area is as far from the neutral axis as is practicable,
for, although both I and с are increased by this procedure; I is increased much more than is c. Thus; metal
beams made of steel, aluminum, etc, are rolled in the form of I sections channel sections, etc. Built-up
metal beams of various shapes are made to conform to this principle. Steel beams are made with the two
flanges equal in area, the proportional limits in compression and tension being approximately equal.
Cast-iron beams, however, frequently are cast with the tensile flanges larger in area than the compressive
flange, the compressive strength of cast iron being much (about four times) larger than the tensile
strength. Although cast-iron beams rarely are used in buildings or bridges, they frequently are used in
machine frames that are subjected to bending.
(b) Effect of a Varying Section along the Beam. —The bending moment, in general, varies along a
beam and is maximum at one section of the beam. If, then, a beam has a constant cross section (I/c = a
constant), the maximum fiber unit stress will occur on the outer fiber of the section at which the bending
moment is maximum, and the unit stress in the outer fibers at all other sections will be less than that at the
dangerous section. Therefore, when the beam is carrying the load that causes the allowable fiber unit
stress in the beam, there is much material in the beam on either side of the dangerous section that is
under-stressed, and hence this under-stressed material could be saved by varying the cross section of the
beam so that the I/c would vary as the bending moment M varies.
Torsion torsion of a circular shaft
Consider a circular shaft built in at the upper end and twisted by a couple applied to the lower end
(Fig. 17a). It can be shown by measurements at the surface that circular sections of the shaft remain
circular during twist, and that their diameters and the distances between them do not change provided the
angle of twist is small.
A disk-like element of the shaft, such as that adjacent to the section mn and shown isolated as in
Fig. 17b, will be in the following state of strain. There will be a rotation of its bottom cross section with
reference to its top through an angle d. An element
abcd of the surface of the disc whose sides were vertical before strain takes the form shown in Fig 17b.
The lengths of the sides remain essentially the same and only the angles at the corners Change. The
element is in a state of pure shear and the magnitude of the shearing strain, measured by the angle cac’, is
given very closely by
=c’c/ac’
Since c'c is the small arc of radius r or d/2 subtended by the angle d, c'c = rd. Then
=c’c/ac’=rd/dx
For a shaft twisted by a torque at the end, the angle of twist is proportional to the length and the quotient
d/dx is constant. It represents the angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and will be called . Then, from
(13),
= r (14)
The shearing stresses, which act on the sides of the element and produce the above shear, have the
directions shown. The magnitude of each
S=Gr=1/2Gd
So much for the state of stress of an element at the surface of the shaft.
FLOOR FRAMING
In floor framing, the subfloor is supported by light beams called floor joists or simply joists which
in turn are supported by heavier beams and girders then girders pass the load to columns. Typically, joist
act as simply supported beam carrying a uniform load of magnitude p over an area of sL, where
p = floor load per unit area
L = length (or span) of joist
s = center to center spacing of joists and
wo = sp = intensity of distributed load in joist.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Floor joists 50 mm wide by 200 mm high, simply supported on a 4-m span, carry a floor loaded at 5
kN/m2. Compute the center-line spacing between joists to develop a bending stress of 8 MPa. What safe
floor load could be carried on a center-line spacing of 0.40 m?
Solution:
(fb)max=Mc/I
where:
(fb)max=8MPa
M=1/8(5s)(42)
M=10skN⋅m
c=h/2=200/2
c=100mm
I=bh312=50(2003)12
I=33.33×10^6mm^4
Thus,
8=10(100)(1000^2)33.33×10^6
s=0.267m
answer
Part 2:
538-point4-load.jpg(fb)max=McI
where:
M=18woL2=18(0.4p)(42)
M=0.8p
Thus,
8=0.8p(100)(10002)33.33×106
p=3.33kN/m^2
UNSYMMETRICAL BEAMS
All the beams discussed so far have had a symmetrical cross-section with respect to the neutral axis.
This is because flexural stresses increase proportionally with the distance from the neutral axis, which is
the centroidal axis. Such symmetrical beam sections are advantageous for materials that have similar
strength in tension and compression. However, for materials that are relatively weak in tension and strong
in compression, like cast iron, it is more advantageous to use non-symmetrical beam sections. In this way,
the stronger fibers can be located further from the neutral axis than the weaker fibers. To optimize the use
of these materials, the neutral axis should be positioned in such a way that the ratio of the distances from
it to the fibers in tension and compression is the same as the ratio of the allowable stresses in tension and
compression. This ensures that the allowable stresses are reached simultaneously for both types of fibers.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
SOLUTION:
ANALYSIS OF FLEXURAL ACTION
Flexural strength, also known as bending strength, is a mechanical property that describes a
material's ability to resist deformation when subjected to a load. The flexural properties are typically
determined using a three-point bending setup, where the sample is supported at both ends and a load is
applied at the midpoint. The maximum stress experienced by the material on the tension side of the
sample at the point of failure is known as the ultimate flexural strength.
DERIVATION OF FORMULA FOR SHEARING STRESS
● The vertical shear force at the section of beam results in shear stress that varies along the depth of
the beam. Variation of shear stress along the depth of the beam is of significant importance and is
analyzed below.
● Consider two sections xx and yy in the loaded beam as shown in the figure. Let the distance
between the two sections be 'dx'.
● Let M and M+dM be the bending moments at sections xx and yy respectively.
● Let us consider plane EF at a distance from N.A.
Consider an elemental area 'da' at the distance 'y' from N.A If is the bending stress on the elemental
area on the section xx and is the bending stress on the elemental area on the section yy.
Then and
● The thrust on elemental area 'da' on the face AA'E'E of the section xx is =
and on the face CC'F'F on the section yy is
● The thrust on face AA'E'E of section xx is and on face CC'F'F of section yy is
The resultant thrust experienced by the portion of the beam between two sections xx and yy and the
planes AA'C'C and EE'F'F is (P2-P1) from right to left. This resultant thrust causes shearing of the portion
of the beam at the plane EE'F'F. This shearing force is resisted by shear stress 'q' generated on the surface
EE'F'F.
Therefore, where b is the width of beam i.e FF'.
or
● SInce is the shear force and is the moment of area of X-section of the
beam above the plane EE'F'F about N.A
i.e is Shear Stress Formula
Where A is the area of X-section of the beam above EF or FF' and is the distance of the centroid of
this area from N.A.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A 200-mm-diameter pulley is prevented from rotating relative to 60-mm-diameter shaft by a 70-mm-long
key, as shown in Fig. P-118. If a torque T = 2.2 kN·m is applied to the shaft, determine the width b if the
allowable shearing stress in the key is 60 MPa.
Solution:
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE AND SHEAR
For a cross-section with at-least one axis of symmetry, the neutral axis corresponds to the centroidal
axis in the elastic range. However, at Mp, the neutral axis will correspond to the plastic centroidal axis.
• For a doubly symmetric cross-section, the elastic and the plastic centroid lie at the same point.
• Mp = σy x A/2 x (y1+y2)
• As shown in Figure 5, y1 and y2 are the distance from the plastic centroid to the centroid of area A1 and
A2, respectively.
• A/2 x (y1+y2) is called Z, the plastic section modulus of the cross-section. Values for Z are tabulated for
various cross-sections in the properties section of the LRFD manual.
• φ Mp = 0.90 Z Fy - See Spec. F1.1 where,
Mp = plastic moment, which must be ≤ 1.5 My for homogenous cross-sections
My = moment corresponding to onset of yielding at the extreme fiber from an elastic stress distribution =
Fy S for homogenous cross-sections and = Fyf S for hybrid sections.
Z = plastic section modulus from the Properties section of the AISC manual.
S = elastic section modulus, also from the Properties section of the AISC manual.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Determine the elastic section modulus, S, plastic section modulus, Z, yield moment, My, and the plastic
moment Mp, of the cross-section shown below. What is the design moment for the beam cross-section.
Assume 50 ksi steel.
SPACING OF RIVETS OR BOLTS IN BUILT-UP BEAMS
When two or more thin layers of beams are fastened together with a bolt or a rivet so that they act as
a unit to gain more strength, it is necessary to design the to size or spacing of these bolts or rivets so that it
can carry the shearing force acting between each adjacent layers.
Consider the beam shown in the figure.
The shearing stress at the contact surface between the two planks is
fv=VQIb
The effective area covered by each bolt group has a length equal to the spacing of the bolts. The total
shearing force F acting between the two surfaces must be equal to the total shearing force R produced by
the bolts.
R=F
R=fv(bs)
R=VQIb(bs)
Strength of bolts or screws
R=VQIs
then, for spacing of bolts or screws
s=RIVQ or s=Rq
where R is the total shearing force to be resisted by the bolts and is equal to the allowable shearing stress
× area × number of bolts in the group. R should be taken at the contact surface nearest the neutral axis
where the shearing stress is greatest. The spacing of bolts, s, is also called pitch. The shear flow is denoted
as q and Q is the moment of area.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A wide flange section is formed by bolting together three planks, each 80 mm by 200 mm, arranged as
shown in Fig. P-592. If each bolt can withstand a shearing force of 8 kN, determine the pitch if the beam
is loaded so as to cause a maximum shearing stress of 1.4 MPa.
Solution:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 SIMPLE STRESS 01
Introduction 01
Axial Stress 04
Direct Shear Stress 06
Torsional Stress 08
Bending of Flexural Stress 10
CHAPTER 2 SIMPLE STRAIN 12
Introduction 12
Strain 12
Hookes’s Law 13
Generalized Hookes’s Law and Poisson’s Ratio 14
Hooke's Law in Shear 17
CHAPTER 3 TORSION 22
Introduction 22
Derivation of Torsion Formula 23
Flanged Bolt Couplings 25
Longitudinal Shearing Stress 28
Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes; Shear Flow 29
Helical Springs 31
CHAPTER 4 SHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS 34
Introduction 34
Shear and Moment 35
Interpretation of Vertical Shear and Bending Moment 36
Relations among Load, Shear and Moment 37
Moving Load 41
CHAPTER 5 STRESSES IN BEAMS 45
Introduction 45
Derivation of Flexural Formula 45
Economic Sections 49
Floor Framing 51
Unsymmetrical Beams 53
Analysis of Flexure Action 55
Derivation of Formula For Horizontal Shearing Stress 56
Design for Flexure and Shear 58
Spacing Of Rivets or Bolts in Built-up Beams 60
CHAPTER 6 BEAM DEFLECTIONS 63
Introduction 63
Double Integration Method 63
Theorems of Area-Moment Method 65
Moment Diagram by Parts 65
Deflection of Cantilever Beams 65
Deflections in Simply Supported Beams 66
Midspan Deflections 66
Conjugate Beam Method 67
REFERENCES 70
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 SIMPLE STRESS
Introduction
Axial Stress
Direct Shear Stress
Torsional Stress
Bending of Flexural Stress
CHAPTER 2 SIMPLE STRAIN
Introduction
Strain
Hookes’s Law
Generalized Hookes’s Law and Poisson’s Ratio
Hooke's Law in Shear
CHAPTER 3 TORSION
Introduction
Derivation of Torsion Formula
Flanged Bolt Couplings
Longitudinal Shearing Stress
Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes; Shear Flow
Helical Springs
CHAPTER 4 SHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS
Introduction
Shear and Moment
Interpretation of Vertical Shear and Bending Moment
Relations among Load, Shear and Moment
Moving Load
CHAPTER 5 STRESSES IN BEAMS
Introduction
Derivation of Flexural Formula
Economic Sections
Floor Framing
Unsymmetrical Beams
Analysis of Flexure Action
Derivation of Formula For Horizontal Shearing Stress
Design for Flexure and Shear
Spacing Of Rivets or Bolts in Built-up Beams
CHAPTER 6 BEAM DEFLECTIONS
Introduction
Double Integration Method
Theorems of Area-Moment Method
Moment Diagram by Parts
Deflection of Cantilever Beams
Deflections in Simply Supported Beams
Midspan Deflections
Conjugate Beam Method
REFERENCES
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