GROUP 1 (HANDOUTS)

The Origins of Language

There is so much more that is fascinating about language studies. For instance, have you
ever wondered how human language started? We have all read or heard stories about the
evolution of the human species and about the history of the world and of civilization, but none of
them seem to tell us exactly at what point and how human language began. Yes, our studies in
literature tell us when the system of writing might have begun based on found artifacts, but what
about human speech? Did early human beings already possess the kind of human language as
we know it?
There are many hypotheses and theories that seek to explain the origins of language.
1. The "mama" theory. This is the belief that language began with the easiest syllables
referring to the objects that were most significant to the speakers. The 'm' sound is easily
produced by a baby because it merely involves pressing both lips together to make a sound, and
since the mother is the human that the baby is traditionally closest to, the sound 'mama' came to
be associated with the mother.
2. The "ta-ta" theory. The proponents of this theory believe that body movement came
before language, which began as an unconscious vocal imitation of the body movements. For
example, the way a child's mouth will move when they use scissors, or how your tongue might
stick out when you are reading a book, led to the idea that perhaps language was derived from
gestures.
3. The "bow-wow" theory. This one proposes that imitations of sounds heard from Nature
produced language - sounds such as moo, choo-choo, crash, clang, buzz, bang, meow. This is
also referred to as 'onomatopoeia' or 'echoism'.
4. The "pooh-pooh" theory. This one opines that language started with interjections, like
the instinctive emotive cries "Oh!" for surprise and "Ouch!" for pain. 5. The "tick-tock" and "ding-
dong" theory. Scholars, like the linguist Max Muller, have pointed out that there seems to be a
correspondence between sounds and meanings. They say, for instance, that small, sharp, high
things tend to have words with high front vowels in many languages, while big, round, low things
tend to have round back vowels. Some examples given are "itsy bitsy teeny weeny" as compared
to "moon." This is also referred to as "sound symbolism."
6. The "yo-he-ho" theory. This believes that language began as rhythmic chants, like the
grunts of heavy work (heave-ho!), or calls for help accompanied by related gestures, as suggested
by the linguist A. S. Diamond. The yo-he-ho theory is, thus, related to the ding-dong theory in such
words as cut, break, crush, and strike.
7. The "sing-song" theory. Jesperson, another linguist, suggested that language might
have come out of such activities as play, courtship, laughter, a baby's cooing, and other mutterings
generated by some kind of emotion.
8. The "hey you!" or "contact" theory. The linguist Revesz suggested that the human
need for interpersonal contact led to the production of sounds to identify self (here I am!) and
assert belongingness (I'm with you!). We may also cry out in fear, anger, or hurt (help me!).
9. The "hocus pocus" theory. Dr. C. G. Boeree contributed the notion that the roots of
language may be in some magical or religious aspect of the lives of early humans who, he
suggests, may have begun producing language by calling out to animals with magical sounds.
These sounds, he opined, then became their names.
10. The "eureka!" theory. Of course, it is also possible that language did not begin by
chance or accident but was intentionally created or invented. Perhaps, some scholars say, early
humans decided to assign arbitrary sounds to refer to certain things. Then, eventually, his or her
group (aka 'society') accepted these arbitrary sounds as being signs (labels) for the things they
were indicating.
 LESSON 2
Linguistics and the Language Teacher
 Lesson Objectives
During the lesson, the students will:
1. Read and offer analyses on assigned reading.
2. investigate claims, in scholarly texts during their own reading time, that there is evidence
to support the notion of brain laterization.
3. practice critical analysis of information found on the internet.
4. demonstrate an understanding of what constitutes valid, research-based knowledge; and
5. write a coherent and logically organized reflection essay.

Language and Brain Development

According to neuroscientists, a baby is born with millions of brain cells, each with appendages
called "dendrites," which connect with other brain cells. Those connection points between neurons
are gaps called "synapses," which are crossed as electrical signals pass from brain cell to brain
cell through the release of special chemicals or neurotransmitters. Synapses thus create
connections between neurons and are developed through experiences involving repetition and
emotion. As neurons connect and become insulated with a fatty coating called "myelin," the brain
and nervous system mature. Each new wave of myelination will enable a different language ability
in the baby: comprehending, then speech, and then phrase and clause construction. With
repeated stimulation of the synapses, the pattern of neural connections becomes "hard-wired" in
the brain, thus making it possible for signals to be transmitted quickly and accurately. Brain-
imaging technology has confirmed this process and allows us to see physical differences in a
child's brain that indicate appropriate stimulation as opposed to areas that lack stimulation. This
can be seen because connections that are not stimulated by repeated experiences atrophy. This is
the principle of "use-it-or-lose-it" in action. Critical periods in brain development thus allow for the
development of such specific skills as language. Such critical developments in abilities develop
during certain times in a child's life, when the brain actively forms connections for specific skills
and abilities.
Language Acquisition
Before we proceed, we need to understand the differences between acquisition and
learning.

It is said that the first language (L1) is acquired, with the acquisition happening naturally,
as the child imbibes and infers the patterns and rules of the language as he or she is exposed to it
and experiments with its use. On the other hand, the second language (L2) and languages taught
in school or in any other structured environment, are learned instead of acquired.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Children acquire a language that is normally spoken in in the surrounding community.
Acquisition takes place naturally in communicative situations with others who know the language.
Acquisition is relatively faster; it takes place with no language system in the background.

LANGUAGE LEARNING
Adults learn a language that is NOT normally spoken in the surrounding community.
Learning is a more conscious process of accumulating knowledge or language in an institutional
setting.
Learning is slower; it takes place against an already acquired language system.

The ability to produce speech sounds starts with the onset of babbling, when a baby is
around six months old. During this babbling stage, when the sounds they produce (usually
"bababa," "dada," and "mammam") children experiment and practice their vocal abilities, which is
important for later speech development. Before this stage, babies' sounds are mostly crying and
cooing (zero to two months), which are followed by other simple sounds like gurgling and laughing,
and even combinations of vowels and consonants ("ga" and "goo," for example). They will also
establish eye contact and make gestures before the babbling stage.

During the babbling stage, babies will also copy some of the sounds and gestures that their
caregivers and other adults make like coughing, laughing, clicking or "making raspberries" (making
the farting sound from the mouth), as well as waving, pointing or clapping. They also play with
different sounds like "aaieee," "booo," and "ahh" at different pitches and volumes. Furthermore,
they will put sounds together with rhythm and tone, in ways that sound like normal speech. This is
sometimes called the "jargon phase" that can continue even after the production of first intelligible
words.

A significant development at this stage is that babies now use intelligible sounds to convey
their own needs and wants and have very specific and appropriate reactions when communicating
with others. For instance, aside from producing actual words to convey their desire for milk or be
carried, or to indicate that they are uncomfortable, they will show excitement or become quiet (and
seem to listen intently) when talked to or when they hear their name. They also smile and play with
others, enjoy games like peekaboo or point-to, and so on. Caregivers, parents, and other family
members often respond by using 'Baby Talk' to adjust their speech to the children's still-developing
competence of their first language (L1). Babbling will continue until the age of about 12 months,
when children will be able to produce intelligible words. By their eighteenth month, children will
normally have acquired at least fifty words, and they will begin to adopt regular patterns of
pronunciation. According to Archibald O'Grady, Mark Aronoff, and Janie Rees- Miller in
Contemporary Linguistics; An Introduction (2017), 'children adopt three strategies in learning the
meanings of new words: the "whole object" assumption, where a new word refers to a whole
object; the "type" assumption, where a new word refers to a type of thing, not just a particular
thing; and the "basic level" assumption where a new word refers to types of objects that are alike
in basic ways.

Children acquiring L1 generally make errors in meaning in the form of overextensions and
overextensions. Overextension is when a child uses a more specific word to substitute for a word
with a less specific meaning (calling all eating utensils "spoon" for instance), which happens
because children are recognizing similarities among objects and concepts and are in the process
of refining their understanding of meanings. Under-extensions occur when a child uses a more
general word to refer to something more specific, such as calling a dog "doggie" but not accepting
that other dogs are also "doggie." Other general patterns in L1 development that children manifest
in their development are: the frequent occurrence in utterance in the final position (for example, it
is the last thing they hear that they will remember most, so when you give them a choice, they will
choose the last thing you mentioned); syllabicity, for example -ing and 's; and a few or no
exceptions in the way grammar rules are applied (for example, they will add the 's' to everything to
make it plural, even in the case of irregular nouns: mouses, child’s, and so on).

The acquisition of their L1 continues to proceed rapidly in the holophrastic stage, when
they utter single words. At around 18 to 24 months, they can combine words in two-word stages.
At around two years of age and shortly afterward, they move into the telegraphic stage, which is
when they can produce a clear phrase structure with head-complement and subject-VP patterns.
As the children's physical growth proceeds and their bodies mature, so too, does their linguistic
ability develop, such that they expand their vocabularies and understanding of the relationship
between language and their immediate social surroundings, thus enabling them to internalize
more complex linguistic structures.

In neurolinguistics, acquisition and learning are said to undergo different processes in the
brain. The two main areas in the brain (there are many) where these processes take place are the
following:
1. BROCA'S AREA is found in the left frontal cortex and functions as the word-production
center of the brain. This means that it is responsible for the production of patterns in vocal and
sign language.
2. WERNICKE's AREA, found in the left temporal cortex, functions as the word-recognition
center, which is primarily involved in language acquisition.

To learn more about how the brain works in language acquisition and learning, you may
want to look for the video of Linguists Online on "Language and Literacy Development: Global and
Local Issues" featuring Kenneth Pugh of Yale University and Arturo E. Hernandez of the University
of Houston, which was streamed live on June 19, 2020.

Different Schools of Thought: Behaviorism, Innatism, and Interactionism

Behaviorism in Language Acquisition and Learning
Behaviorists believe that oral language is learned from other humans via imitation, practice,
and appreciation. Stimulus-response learning, as exemplified by B.F. Skinner's operant
conditioning model, shows all learning to be habit formation due to reinforcement or reward. This
suggests Pavlov's experiments that we are all familiar with of the salivating dog and the bell-which
show how stimulus and response work together.
The behaviorist theory of language learning rests on the same principles- that, by imitation
and repetition, language is acquired. The child-learner hears words repeated by others-whether it
is the primary caregivers (usually the parents) or a teacher. When learners imitate correctly by
repeating these words accurately, a stimulus is given in the form of praise or reward, which then
motivates the learners to produce more responses. There is a process of trial and error, where
successful imitation is praised and rewarded. A child's language behavior is, thus, molded by the
kind of language (quality) and how much of it (quantity) he or she hears and how consistently the
reinforcement is provided.

The following are the principles of behaviorist theory:

 The focus is on spoken language, with the primary medium of language being oral, and so
the oral aspect should be prioritized in language teaching.

 The focus of language learning is on the formation of habit based on conditioned reflexes.

 This habit is based on conditioning from the stimulus-response (S-R) chain: the stimulus
elicits a response, and each response is provoked by the stimulus.

 Reinforcement in the form of rewards or appreciation is called positive reinforcement, while

reinforcement in the form of punishment or criticism is called negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement results in a strong relationship between stimulus and response and
results in the conditioning that leads to habit formation. Learning can be duplicated and can
be the same for many because of its socially conditioned nature. This means that, given the
same conditions, all learners can form the same habits that lead to learning.

Innatism in Language Acquisition and Learning

Unlike behaviorists, innatisms do not believe that language development is shaped by responses
to stimuli. As early as the 1960s, the linguist and social critic Noam Chomsky (1965) posited that
humans have the innate ability to acquire language and develop linguistic competence because
there is what he called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in the brain. According to
innatisms, children go beyond mere imitation of sounds heard when acquiring a language; they
are also able to process rules of syntax as they develop. They also believe that there is a critical
period for language learning (critical period hypothesis), and so assert that learning a new
language is more difficult for adults once this period has passed.
In 1981, linguist and author Stephen Krashen further developed Chomsky's concept of
linguistic competence in his own language theory via his "monitor model," a significant and
influential concept in second language (L2) learning and foreign language learning. In it, Krashen
clearly distinguishes between acquisition and learning. He defines acquisition as a subconscious
process in which language learners acquire a language, much like Chomsky's own concept of
children's L1 acquisition.
Acquisition leads to proficient language use. Learning, however, involves a more conscious
effort to know vocabulary and understand language rules (their competence), which focuses more
on usage the structure and workings of a language-rather than use, and often takes place in
formal and structured teaching settings (like school classrooms). The learned material, according
to Krashen, then helps learners monitor the correctness of the acquired knowledge when they
produce language (their performance). In Krashen's monitor hypothesis, L2 learners are not
innately acquiring language rules but are consciously using language principles and rules learned,
and this monitor helps them self-edit their L2 progress.
Another of Krashen's hypotheses that is valuable for language teaching is the Input
Hypothesis, where language learners receiving comprehensible input can acquire language
because they understand the messages (the comprehensible input). This is strongly connected to
his affective filter hypothesis, which holds that learning occurs best in the absence of barriers or
filters that impede the intake of input. The affective filter rises when motivation and self-esteem are
low and anxiety is high; by contrast, the affective filter lowers (thus allowing more input to become
intake) when motivation and self-esteem are high, and anxiety is low. When the filter is low, new
information (input) is more efficiently processed and integrated (thus becoming "intake") into the
body of knowledge already possessed by the learners.
Krashen also states that, for input to be comprehensible, it must not be too far beyond the
scope of the learners existing knowledge; learners should be able to connect the new input to
what they already know. Too much that is unknown or too difficult causes anxiety due to a lack of
understanding. This is the "input +1" hypothesis, where the "+1" indicates the degree of difficulty
(the next level of knowledge to be learned that is yet unknown) that is best for optimal learning.
A"+2" degree of difficulty may be too high, since learners need to be able to deconstruct and
understand new input. The learners' output reflects understanding.

Interactionism in Language Acquisition and Learning

Interactionism is credited to Jerome Bruner, whose work is traced back to 1983 and is
based on Lev Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory (1978), which holds that culture and social context,
as well as the support provided by a knowledgeable person, have key roles in language learning.
Within this context of language learning are such socio-pragmatic cues as gestures, facial
expressions, and tone, which are part of a child's language learning. The notion of scaffolding,
which was also inspired by Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development," refers to the assistance
that a more knowledgeable language user (usually a caregiver) provides to the child as the latter
learns and develops his or her language.
While emphasizing the importance of interaction and social environment, interactionists
also recognize the innate nature of language but add that children develop language out of a
desire to relate to and communicate with the world. They also posit that when communicating with
language learners, native speakers adjust their language (by simplifying vocabulary and syntax,
for example, or slowing the pace of the utterance) to the perceived competence level and
communicative abilities of the non- native speakers. We observe this when Americans, for
example, speak more slowly when speaking in English to non-native English speakers (like us
Filipinos, since English is not our native language). It can also be in the form of paraphrasing or
providing feedback. Psychologist Jerome Bruner calls such support the "Language Acquisition
Support System" (LASS).

ACQUISITION BEHAVIORIST INNATIST INTERACTIONIST

ASPECTS PERSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVE
Linguistic focus Verbal behaviors (not Child's syntax Conversations
analyzed per se): between child and
words, utterances of caregiver; focus on
child and people in caregiver speech
social environment

Process of acquisition Modeling, imitation, Hypothesis testing Acquisition emerges

practice, and selective and creative from communication;
reinforcement of construction of acts scaffolded by
correct form syntactic rules using caregivers
LAD

Role of child Secondary role: Primary role: Important role in

imitator and equipped with interaction, taking
responder to biological LAD, child more control as
environmental plays major role in language acquisition
shaping acquisition advances

Role of social Primary role: parental Minor role: language Important role in
environment modeling and used by others merely interaction, especially
reinforcement are triggers LAD in early years when
major factors caregivers modify
promoting language input and carry much
acquisition of conversational load
 INSTRUCTIONAL BEHAVIORIST INNATIST INTERACTIONIST
COMPONENTS

Source of linguistic Language dialogues Natural language from Natural language from
input and drills from teacher the teacher, friends, or the teacher, friends,
or audiotape books books
Nature of input Structured by Unstructured, but Unstructured, but
grammatical made comprehensible focused on
complexity by teacher communication
between learner and
others
Ideal All Target language Target language Native speakers
classroom learners of similar learners of similar together with target
composition second language second language language learners for
proficiency proficiency so I + 1 social interaction
can be achieved aimed at
communication
Student output Structured repetitions Output is not a Speaking occurs
and grammar pattern concern; it will occur naturally in
drill responses naturally. communication with
others.
Pressure to speak Students repeat "Silent period" No pressure to speak
immediately. expected except natural
impulse to
communicate
Treatment of errors Errors are corrected Errors are not Errors that impede
immediately. corrected; students communication will be
will correct corrected naturally as
themselves with time. meaning is
negotiated; some
errors may require
explicit corrective
instruction.

The Six Macro Skills of Language (Production vs. Comprehension Skills)

Many approaches have been proposed and tested in the teaching of language macro skills.
These include the direct approach, grammar translation, audiolingual, reading approach, the silent
way, communicative language teaching, task-based approach, community language learning,
integrated approach, functional-notional approach, reading approach, the natural way, total
physical response, and the socio-cognitive-transformative approach. Despite the apparent effort at
improving learners' macro skills as can be seen in the depth and breadth of approaches that have
been developed as well as the extensive literature available, many still lack the necessary
knowledge and comprehensive perspective of the macro skills. In fact, many language teachers
are unaware that as many as six language macro skills-not just four-have been identified. Some of
your readings will identify four macro skills, others will list five, and still others will identify six.

1. The four are: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing

 2. The five are: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Viewing

3. The six are divided into two categories:

 Comprehending or Receptive - Listening, Reading, and Viewing

 Productive or Expressive - Speaking, Writing, and Representing

The first four macro skills are self-explanatory; even students in the elementary levels know
what these are. What about the fifth and sixth?
Viewing and Representing

We now live in a highly visual world. There is a saying, in social media, that "if there are no
pictures, then it did not happen." There is much greater reliance on the image rather than the
word. The digital revolution that gave us the internet and hand-held devices that combine functions
that used to need separate equipment (phone, calendar, email, directory, compass, calculator,
maps, etc.) have made visual content ubiquitous: via video-sharing on social media networks. All
these have made visual communication, especially the moving image, the primary mode of
communication around the world. Think about how many times you have received a photo instead
of words as a response to something you asked; it becomes up to you to interpret the message
based on the visual image. Most of the texts that circulate today are multimodal, which means that
the communicated messages are not confined to just one mode- whether written text, audio, still
pictures, moving pictures, a gesture, use of space, etc. Digital multimodal texts come in the form of
videos, slideshows and web pages, while live multimodal texts can include the more traditional
theatre, storytelling, and dance.
"Literacy" in the twenty-first century no longer means what it meant before the advent of
digital technology; it has moved away from print- dominated texts to the new digital text mode, and
from the oral-aural medium of teacher-led lectures and discussions in the face-to-face classroom
to the computer monitor and gadget screen. These visual texts, like their traditional counterparts
delivered via the print and oral-aural channels, have many functions and serve different purposes
relevant to the audiences that use them in many different contexts in contemporary life.
To learn more about viewing as a macro skill, you may want to check out online videos and
articles on what is being called "the fifth skill."
Representing" as a macro skill includes the abilities to create their own presentations and
messages using digital and/or multi-modal texts to convey their ideas, in ways not encompassed
in traditional print and exclusively oral channels, combining and linking information in spatial and
temporal forms via different modes.
Do you understand the logic in dividing the six macro skills into two categories?
 Listening, reading, and viewing are comprehending or receptive skills, whereas
 Speaking, writing, and representing are productive or expressive skills.
The first four are macro skills of language, and the added fifth and sixth are communication
macro-skills that involve not just language but other communication strategies (such as visuals)
as well.

Receptive Language vs. Expressive Language

The difference between receptive and expressive language boils down to the difference
between listening (a receptive skill, because the learner receives information) and talking (an
expressive skill, because the learner produces information and creates the form that it takes). By
the same token, reading is a receptive skill, and writing is an expressive skill.
Human beings apply language in different social situations, using both and moving from
receptive to expressive skills within discourses and other communicative interactions to convey
ideas and negotiate meanings to achieve understanding. This is the basis of receptive and
expressive language.
 LESSON 3
Communicative Competence
 Lesson Objectives
During the lesson, the students will:
1. articulate a personal, synthesized worldview of what constitutes communicative
competence in the post-pandemic twenty-first century; and

2. create a personal blog or vlog that expresses an individual understanding and

interpretation of what kind of communicative competence is needed in the world today,
having just recently emerged from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Communicative Competence
When we speak of "Communicative Competence" (CC), we are talking about the kind
of knowledge that speakers and hearers need to have to successfully communicate in different
contexts. It was the innatism Noam Chomsky who articulated a clear distinction between
'competence' and 'performance,' but it was the sociolinguist Dell Hymes who developed the
communicative competence model. His model describes and account for the knowledge that
speakers and listeners have that enables them to communicate appropriately (i.e., convey and
interpret messages correctly') in varied social contexts via negotiation of meaning. Hymes'
communicative competence model is a central notion in sociolinguistics and other socially oriented
approaches to the study of language. How did this develop?
In Chomsky's construct, competence pertains to mastery or knowledge of syntax
rules and other language principles (usage), with an "ideal speaker and listener," while
performance refers to the language user's actual application (use) of language in specific contexts.
Chomsky posited that "an ideal speaker-listener" has completely mastered the
language that is spoken in his or her speech community. According to him, "every speaker of a
language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar" that shows their knowledge of
that language (Chomsky 1965).
Is the process of communication limited to knowing how to create well- structured
sentences, then? Is grammatic-linguistic competence the goal of language learning? To scholars
like Dell Hymes, who developed the notion of competence further to include aspects other than
linguistic competence, the answer to both questions is "No."
Hymes took the notion of competence further by saying that there is such a thing as
"appropriateness" in language use depending on context. To Hymes, Chomsky's concept is
incomplete because of "absence of a place for sociocultural factors and the linking of performance
to imperfection' (1972). Instead of just the 'ideal speaker' and listener equipped with competence,
Hymes' construct includes non-native speakers and L2 learners. To him, knowledge of usage rules
would be useless without a grasp of and a feel for language use (1972).
In the same vein, Canale and Swain (1980) stated that there are language rules that
would be useless without grammar rules, and so thus defined communicative competence as "the
relationship and interaction between grammatical competence and knowledge of the rules of
grammar and sociolinguistic competence" (or knowledge of the rules of language use). They also
say that communicative these competencies interact in the comprehension and production of
utterances (1980). There are four elements in their definition of communicative competence.

1- Grammatico-Linguistic Competence: words (vocabulary) and rules (grammar) This kind

of competence needs knowledge of language usage the rules of grammar, syntax, and diction
(i.e., correct choice of words that arises from having a wide vocabulary) This kind of
competence enables the speaker to know what words to use and how to put them together into
a well- formed sentence that conveys intended meaning
2- Sociolinguistic Competence: appropriateness This kind of competence needs knowledge of
language use (as opposed to just usage) knowing how to produce and convey messages
appropriately, as well as how to interpret intended messages accurately. The primary purpose here
is function, not form. As such, fluency is more important than accuracy and precision. Social rules
dominate in this type of competence, which needs an understanding of a shared context: the
setting, the topic, and the relationships among the interlocutors (the people who are
communicating). This kind of competence enables the speaker to know which words and phrases
are appropriate for the context, how to craft utterances to convey the right tone (without offending
or causing miscommunication) to express courtesy, professional authority, friendliness, respect,
and so on.
3- Discourse Competence: cohesion, unity, and coherence

This kind of competence needs knowledge of how to put together utterances in

continuing exchange of messages-the discourse. It needs a good grasp of the larger context and
how to interpret it correctly, so that the discourse flows and continues without any communication
gaps, whether it is an oral conversation, email exchanges, text messaging and tweeting, posting
comments back-and-forth, and so on. Obviously, the kind of discourse sin competence needed for
an oral conversation is different from an email thread, and these are also different from exchanges
of comments and replies in a social 10 media post. Discourse competence is characterized by
coherence, cohesion, and unity of utterances; combined utterances and stretches of language
must form a unified whole.
4- Strategic Competence: appropriate use of communicative strategies This kind of competence
needs knowledge of repair strategies for communicate gaps and breakdowns via paraphrasing,
asking, repeating, rephrasing, and so on. It also requires that the interlocutors know how to
anticipate and spot potential communication gaps and breakdowns. A strategically competent
communicator will be able to anticipate these based on body language, types of responses
(incomplete or irrelevant responses, for example, are a clue that your message was not fully
understood), or knowledge that the context is not shared.

Communicative Competence (Hymes 1970s; Canale and Swain 1980s)

Grammatical Discourse Sociolinguistic Strategic
Includes lexical items allows a language requires techniques that allow
(vocabulary), user to connect understanding of the users to enhance
morphology. syntax, utterances and social context to communication and
and phonology sentences into a choose and use compensate for
meaningful whole language appropriate "imperfect"
to the situation communication