- Energy is the ability of a system to cause exterior impacts, for instance a force - finite energy resources like fossil

ssil fuels have major environmental impacts,

across a distance.  Input or output of work changes the energy content of a accounting for over 40% of energy-related CO2 emissions globally. Fossil fuel
body. Energy exists in many different forms such as: • mechanical energy • … combustion remains the dominant source of greenhouse gas emissions,
- Energy resources can be divided into two main types: representing around 91% of total global emissions in 2022. While other
non-renewable and renewable. Non-renewable sources like fossil fuels and electricity generation technologies like nuclear fission produce less direct
nuclear energy are limited and need to be extracted. Renewable sources like emissions, the finite nature of fossil fuels means this reliance is unsustainable
solar, wind, and hydropower are naturally replenished and continuously flow and will need to be addressed to mitigate climate change.
through the environment, providing sustainable energy - This slide discusses Non-renewable/Finite Energy Resources with a focus on
- The finite nature of fossil fuel reserves, which may only last 50-150 years fossil fuel production. The graph shows the relationship between world oil
with a peak in production occurring much earlier, coupled with the estimated production and time, considering different amounts of ultimate recoverable
1000 gigatons of cumulative carbon emissions that would be released into the resources:
atmosphere by 2030 if present fossil fuel usage patterns continue without 2000 Billion barrels (b)
carbon sequestration, presents a serious threat in light of the 300 gigatons of 3000 Billion barrels
carbon already emitted that have raised major concerns about global climate 4000 Billion barrels
change. Key observations:
- Natural gas reserves are not explored as much as oil, suggesting there may be 1. Production peaks:
more to find. In 2004, global reserves were about 179.5 trillion cubic meters, 2004 for 2000 Billion barrels.
enough for 67 years at the current rate. Gas reserves might be 50% larger than 2019 for 3000 Billion barrels.
oil reserves, possibly lasting around 60 years. However, production is rising by 2030 for 4000 Billion barrels.
2.5% each year, which could shorten the lifespan of these reserves, though 2. The graph indicates that as ultimate recoverable oil increases, the
new discoveries might help. production peak shifts to a later year but still declines over time.
- Coal is the largest fossil fuel but poses significant environmental issues. Its This visualization underscores the concept of finite resources and the
reserves are much greater than those of oil and gas and could last for hundreds inevitable decline in production as reserves are depleted.
of years. Global coal use for power is expected to rise, especially in countries - In summary, the world must address the problems of global warming and
like China and India. This growth is unsustainable without advanced "clean coal environmental pollution brought on by the use of non-renewable energy
tech" that includes carbon capture. One such method, integrated gasification sources! Answer
combined-cycle (IGCC), converts coal into gas for electricity while removing - Fortunately, renewable energy (RE) is endless and has no long-term negative
CO2 &pollutants. environmental effects because it comes from naturally occurring energy flows.
- Nuclear power offers the potential for carbon-free electricity generation, but Because of this, it will eventually form the foundation of the energy supply
also raises concerns over nuclear waste, fuel security, and weaponization, with system and most likely be the only way to produce electricity.
nuclear fission currently providing 16% of the world's electricity at a capacity of The primary sources of useful energy can be divided into renewable and finite
368 GW in 2004 and an additional 20 GW under construction, while the categories: - Renewable energy comes from the sun, motion/gravity of celestial
International Atomic Energy Agency estimates global nuclear power capacity bodies, and geothermal energy from the Earth. - Finite energy comes from
will grow at a rate of 0.5% to 2.2% until 2030, though current known uranium fossil fuels, geothermal hot rocks, nuclear reactions, and chemical reactions
reserves of 2.3–3.2 million tonnes are projected to last until 2030–2037 and from minerals. - The most significant global energy sources are solar and
total estimated reserves of 5.1 million tonnes could be depleted by 2050, nuclear. - The fifth category of chemical reactions from minerals is relatively
presenting challenges for the long-term sustainability of nuclear resources. minor, but useful for primary batteries.
- Carbon diosixe emission: The burning of fossil fuels releases CO2, which has Possible Ways to
risen from 280 ppm to 380 ppm since the industrial revolution, while emissions Generate Electricity: The
of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) contribute to acid rain, image presents a
prompting measures like flue gas desulfurization that can reduce efficiency and comprehensive overview
increase CO2 emissions, with coal extraction posing significant environmental of the various electricity
disruption. generation methods,
- Nuclear Energy Problem: The key challenges with nuclear energy include the including both renewable
complexities and costs associated with radioactive waste disposal, emissions, sources that harness
decommissioning, and the environmental impacts of uranium mining, which natural phenomena like
must be carefully accounted for to properly assess its potential to mitigate the sun, wind, and tides,
global emissions. as well as non-renewable
- Air Poluttion: The environmental impact of energy use involves complex sources that rely on the combustion of fossil fuels or nuclear processes, with
interactions between air pollution and climate. Ozone pollution from fossil fuel the latter demonstrating higher efficiency in converting their respective energy
combustion is causing warming in the Arctic, while aerosols from the same sources into usable electricity, though the sustainability and environmental
sources can have both cooling and warming effects on the climate, depending impact of each approach must be carefully considered.
on their properties. The net impact is further influenced by the persistence of
greenhouse gases versus aerosols in the atmosphere. Overall, the energy - Renewable Energy Flow Paths: The main renewable energy sources are the
sector is a major contributor to these environmental challenge sun, gravitational forces, and the Earth's internal heat. -The sun provides about
- Air pollution for health: Air pollution from various sources, including energy 120,000 TW of energy that is absorbed by the Earth, which is 8,000 times
use, is a major public health concern globally, exposing almost the entire larger than the current global primary energy consumption rate. This amounts
population to high levels of harmful pollutants that contribute to respiratory & to an average power of 20 MW
other diseases, with the greatest impacts in low and middle-income countries. per person on the planet.
- Global Warming: The environmental impact of energy use is heavily tied to - Solar energy can be directly
global warming, which is primarily driven by the greenhouse effect caused by harnessed through thermal or
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. photovoltaic methods, or
Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas, as it absorbs and indirectly through wind, waves,
reradiates heat, supercharging the natural greenhouse effect and causing hydropower, and biofuels.
global temperatures to rise. - Tidal and geothermal energy
- global electricity sector is heavily dependent on fossil fuels, particularly coal, are also considered renewable,
which account for around 64% of electricity generation and contribute nearly derived from the 3 TW of
three-quarters of the sector's CO2 emissions. While hydropower makes up the gravitational effects of the
majority with estimates of at least 60% by 2050, Moon-Sun system and the 10 TW from the Earth's internal heat, respectively.
overview of Afghanistan's current electricity generation capacity, which is - penstock is the critical component that transports the water's energy from
dominated by hydropower and thermal sources, with smaller contributions the intake to the turbine. Its design involves balancing technical and economic
from solar and diesel generators. The map also highlights the country's factors - increasing the pipe diameter reduces friction losses but raises costs.
significant wind energy potential, with high-wind regions concentrated in the For some low-head run-of-river hydropower plants, a separate penstock may
central and western parts of the country. not be necessary. Regardless, the penstock's role is to efficiently transfer the
Additionally, the text indicates that Afghanistan's energy consumption has water's energy while managing associated losses, which depend on factors like
grown rapidly in recent years, from 1.29 million MWh in 2006 to over 3 million pipe diameter, length, and surface roughness. Careful penstock design is
MWh in 2011. The peak electrical demand was 750 MW in 2014, but the essential to optimize the overall hydropower system performance.
unsuppressed demand was estimated to be 2,500 MW. Looking ahead, the - turbine is the critical component that converts the water's pressure energy
Afghanistan Power Sector Master Plan projects the unsuppressed peak into useful mechanical power. Its efficiency, represented by the turbine
demand will reach around 3,500 MW by 2032, underscoring the need to efficiency, determines how much of the available water power can be
develop the country's renewable energy resources to meet its growing harnessed, as various losses within the turbine, such as volumetric, turbulence,
electricity needs while minimizing environmental impacts. and friction losses, reduce the usable mechanical power.
- Water Cycle: The global water cycle is driven by the sun's energy, which - draft tube is an important component that improves the efficiency of reaction
causes evaporation primarily from the oceans, forming water vapor turbines by managing the outlet flow and pressure conditions. As the water
transported by winds. This water vapor then condenses and precipitates back exits the turbine, the draft tube reduces the flow velocity and creates a
to the land and oceans, with more precipitation on land than evaporation, pressure differential that helps minimize turbulence losses, allowing the
resulting in a net movement of water from the oceans to the continents, turbine to better utilize the available head.
feeding snow, glaciers, rivers, lakes, and groundwater - an ongoing cyclic - In a run-of-river hydroelectric power station, the key components are the
process powered by the sun's energy. water intake at the headwater, the weir, the inlets and outlets for the water
- The image depicts the flowing to and from the turbine, and the powerhouse containing the
fundamental global water cycle, machinery and electrical equipment.
which is powered by the sun's categorization and construction types of hydroelectric power stations are: -
energy. The key figures show that Hydroelectric power stations can be divided into:1- Low head 2- Medium head
evaporation from the oceans 3- High head - They can also be categorized as: 1- Run-of-river power stations
accounts for 425,000 km³ per year, 2- Hydroelectric power stations with reservoirs
which then precipitates as 496,000
km³ annually, with 111,000 km³
falling on land. This land-based
precipitation replenishes surface water bodies and groundwater, which in turn
flow back into the oceans, perpetuating the cyclic nature of the water cycle.
This overview illustrates the vast and dynamic movement of water across the
planet, driven by the continuous cycling driven by solar energy.
The hydroelectric power station setup typically includes the following key
components: - Dam or weir: Structures that control and divert the water flow.
- Intake works: The system that channels the water into the hydropower
system.- Penstock: The pipe or tunnel that conveys the water from the intake
to the powerhouse. - Powerhouse: The facility housing the turbines and
generators that convert the water's energy into electricity. - small hydropower defined differently across countries (e.g. 1 MW in
- Germany, 10 MW in Russia, 300 kW in Switzerland), and non-traditional small
hydropower stations (e.g. turbines in water supply/treatment systems, at
existing dams or for fish ladders) integrated into larger infrastructural systems
as a secondary function, in contrast to standalone traditional small
hydropower facilities focused solely on electrical/mechanical energy
production.

Tailrace: The channel that carries the water discharged from the turbines back
into the river or stream.
Principle of hydro power Generation: The hydroelectric system has key
components like the dam, intake, penstock, and turbine.
-The dotted line shows the water's elevation as it flows through the system.
-The "energy line" above indicates the overall energy levels and energy losses.
-The distance between the energy line and the line below represents
the water's kinetic energy, which increases at the narrowed intake.
-The difference between the elevation and the lower line is the
water's pressure energy.
- The intake structure is the gateway that connects the hydropower system to
the water source. It has key features like a debris screen, stoplogs, and an
emergency shut-off valve to ensure safe and reliable operation. As the water
flows through the intake, some energy is lost due to friction and resistance,
causing a drop in pressure. These energy losses are factored into the system
design. Overall, the intake is an essential part of the hydropower
infrastructure, enabling the controlled flow of water into the turbines to
generate electricity.
 - The key difference is the degree of water level control and head generation
required for the specific hydropower application.
Small hydropower plants can be categorized into two main types: Reservoir: Mountainous regions provide natural conditions for water storage
- low-head plants that harness natural river flow without significant storage, in reservoirs - daily, weekly, monthly, annual or interannual. These can balance
- run-of-river plants that are directly integrated into the riverbed. fluctuating water supply and energy demand. Pumped storage plants can also
Low-head plants can be further divided into store surplus base-load power.
- diversion-type, where the powerhouse is located outside the riverbed along Intake: The intake connects the headwater to the turbine, with a trash rack to
an artificial canal, - and run-of-river, where the powerhouse is situated directly keep debris away & gates/stoplogs to allow maintenance or emrgcy shutdown.
within the riverbed. The choice between these designs depends on local Headrace/Penstock: Water flows from the reservoir through the headrace
conditions and operational requirements. (channel/tunnel) and penstock to the turbine, minimizing hydraulic losses.
Diversion-type plants preserve the natural "instream flow" in the original river Surge tanks may reduce water hammer and pressure fluctuations.
Powerhouse: The powerhouse contains the main hydropower components -
turbines, generators, control systems, and sometimes transformers and
substation, where electricity is generated.
Turbines are the key components that convert the upstream water energy into
rotational mechanical energy.
Reaction turbines, such as Francis, Kaplan, and Straflo, convert the water's
potential and pressure energy into rotation. Kaplan turbines can generate up
to 500 MW, while Francis turbines can reach 1,000 MW.
Impulse turbines, like Pelton and cross-flow, convert the water's potential and
channel, with the water diverted through a dam and returned downstream. velocity energy directly into mechanical energy, without pressure changes.
This design, which can be side channel or meander cutoff, aims to harness the Pelton turbines can generate up to 500 MW and operate at heads from 600 to
river's flow while minimizing environmental impact. 2,000 m, while cross-flow turbines work at heads from 1 to 200 m.
Run-of-river plants have different design configurations, including block, twin - The choice of turbine type depends on the specific head and flow conditions
block, or in-pier arrangements, and can serve additional functions like flood of the hydropower site, with Pelton for high heads, Francis for medium heads,
management and navigation beyond just power generation. These plants are and Kaplan for low heads.
more directly integrated into the riverbed compared to diversion-type designs. Application of different turbine types: Different
1-Conventional block: Powerhouse and dam perpendicular to river flow, turbines are used based on head height and flow
requires sufficient flood conveyance rate. *Pelton turbines* work best for high heads
2- Indented powerhouse: Powerhouse set back from main river channel, (100–2,000 meters) and low flow rates, ideal for
suited for narrow streams steep mountainous regions. *Francis turbines*
3- Twin block: Powerhouses on both sides of the river, common for border handle medium heads (20–700 meters) and flow rates, making them versatile
waterways for large hydropower plants. *Kaplan and bulb turbines* are suited for low
4- In-pier: Powerhouse integrated into dam structure, efficient use of space heads (2–50 meters) and high flow rates, commonly used in rivers and tidal
5- Submersible: Combined powerhouse & dam, minimizing visible plants. *Diagonal turbines* are used for medium heads (5–100 meters) and
infrastructure above water flows, while *cross-flow turbines* are practical for small-scale projects with
Medium-head hydropower plants are typically built as barrages, with a dam low heads and flows. Each turbine is designed to maximize energy extraction
and powerhouse at the base, using the head created by the dam (20-100 based on site conditions.
meters) and managing reservoir flows to power the turbines. Diversion-type Kaplan Turbine: A Kaplan turbine operates like a reverse propeller, with
medium-head plants may also divert water from streams through channels and adjustable runner blades that allow it to adapt to different flow rates and
tunnels to a reservoir before sending it to the powerhouse. maintain high efficiency across a wide operating range.
High-head hydropower plants have a head between 100-2,000 meters, Propeller Turbine: has fixed, non-adjustable blades, achieving high efficiency at
typically located in mountainous areas and equipped with reservoirs to store its design flow rate but less flexibility in adapting to varying conditions.
the inflows. They generate power from the high head rather than high flow Bulb Turbine: A bulb turbine is a compact Kaplan-type design where the
rates. Diversion-type high-head plants divert water from the reservoir through generator is integrated directly into a bulb-shaped housing behind the turbine
tunnels or pipes to the turbines, while dam-type have the powerhouse at the runner, minimizing hydraulic losses.
foot of the dam. The reservoirs can be daily, weekly, monthly or annual to Bevel Gear Turbine: A bevel gear turbine uses a gearbox system to convert the
store water and generate electricity during peak demand. Pumped storage horizontal turbine shaft to a vertical generator shaft, allowing the generator to
plants can also be high-head, using base-load power to pump water to an be located separately and more accessible.
upper reservoir and then generating electricity during peak times by releasing S-Turbine: has a sharply bent draft tube, which allows the generator shaft to
the stored water. exit the turbine housing horizontally, keeping the generator easily accessible.
Auxiliary hydropower plants are increasingly found in drinking water systems, Straflo Turbine: The Straflo turbine has an innovative design where the
where turbines or reverse pumps generate electricity from the surplus energy generator rotor is directly attached to the outer rim of the turbine runner,
in the high-pressure pipes and reservoirs. These simple additions allow resulting in a flat, high-efficiency performance curve.
harnessing otherwise wasted hydropower potential within existing water Francis Turbine: The Francis turbine is a classic radial flow reaction design, with
infrastructure. Similar systems are also used in some wastewater plants to water entering radially through adjustable guide vanes, flowing through fixed
generate power from water level differences. runner blades, and exiting axially. Francis turbines favor high rotational speeds
- dam is a barrier that controls and stores surface water or underground for more compact and cost-effective equipment.
streams, creating a reservoir that can be used for various purposes like Pelton Turbine: he Pelton turbine is an impulse-type turbine with fixed buckets
irrigation, water supply, and hydropower generation. on its runner, where the water's pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy
- weir is a smaller-scale dam that slightly raises the water level upstream, before being directed into the buckets to generate mechanical power.
allowing water to flow over or under it. Cross-Flow Turbine: Cross-flow turbines use a simple guide vane design to
- barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam with large gates that can be direct water through the divided runner chamber, allowing for improved
opened or closed to control the upstream water level & flow for irrigation and efficiency across a range of partial flows compared to other turbine types.
other uses. Shaft coupling and transmission: In small power plants, turbines and
- The choice between a dam, weir, or barrage depends on the hydropower generators are connected either directly or through a transmission system.
system's requirements. Dams without movable parts are used for higher-head Large plants often have the turbine and generator on the same axis, using a
diversion plants, while weirs and barrages with adjustable gates maintain a
simple coupler. In smaller plants, transmissions increase the turbine speed to
constant upstream water level for run-of-river designs. Tyrolean weirs divert
match the generator. Gears or belts are used to connect them, with belts being
water through a perforated bed without impounding it.
cheaper but needing more maintenance. Transmissions are more efficient and
used for bigger units, while belts are a cost-effective option for smaller plants,
especially those with less than 50 kW of power.
Tailrace: Water leaves the turbine into the tailrace, and for reaction turbines, a
draft tube is used to improve the head and reduce speed, allowing part of the Power Regulation and Control; Hydroelectric systems must match the voltage
kinetic energy to be recovered before entering the tailwater. and frequency of the grid. This is done using transformers and mechanical
Generator converts mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy. systems that control turbine flow. Small systems use cheaper electronic
Synchronous generators are used for isolated or main-grid power supply, while controls, like thyristors, to adjust turbine flow and maintain power output. For
asynchronous generators are simpler but need an interconnected system. precise control, the generator output is shared between main loads and
Generator efficiency is b/w 90-95% for small plants & 95-99% for large ones. ballast, keeping constant output without constantly adjusting the turbine.
transformer changes the voltage of electrical energy to match the grid. It can System Efficiency ; Energy is lost when converting stream power (P₀) to
be up to 99% efficient. electrical output (Pₑ). The overall system efficiency is around 50%, as shown by
Regulation in a hydroelectric power station depends on its operation mode. In the formula:
isolated operation, frequency regulation is needed, while in grid-connected \frac{P_e}{P_0} \approx 0.5
operation, water flow or level is regulated. Turbine blades adjust to maintain
the desired flow or water level, and turbines always run at a constant speed
matching the grid frequency.
1. Assessing the Resource for Small Installations: To estimate the hydro-
power potential, approximate data like flow rate and head are used. The
formula helps calculate power. For example, the power available is 8 kW.
2. Measurement of Head: The head is measured based on the site’s slope. For
steep falls, trigonometric methods are used, while level and pole Additional losses occur in electricity distribution and use.
measurements work for gentler slopes. The effective head accounts for friction This is a more concise version of the content across two pages.
losses in pipes. Energy conversion chain:
3. Turbulence: Turbulence occurs when fluid motion becomes unstable due to The hydropower energy conversion chain involves converting water's potential
obstructions or disturbances. The Reynolds number characterizes whether the energy into electrical energy through several steps:
flow is laminar (smooth) or turbulent (chaotic). Turbulence occurs when. 1. Hydropower Source: Water has potential energy due to its height.
4. Friction in Pipe Flow: Friction causes energy loss as fluid moves through 2. Kinetic Energy: Flowing or released water gains kinetic energy.
pipes. The pressure drop due to friction increases with pipe length and 3. Mechanical Energy: The water’s kinetic energy spins a turbine.
decreases with pipe diameter. The friction coefficient quantifies energy loss 4. Electrical Energy: The turbine's mechanical energy powers a generator,
and depends on flow conditions and pipe size. converting it into electricity.
5. Head Loss Due to Friction: The head loss due to friction in pipes can be 5. Power Transmission: The electrical energy is transmitted for use.
calculated using the friction coefficient and factors like pipe length and A schematic would show the turbine (mechanical), generator (electrical), and
diameter. In turbulent flow, frictional losses are greater, reducing the overall the energy conversion process.
efficiency of the system. Losses: The hydropower energy conversion chain involves energy losses at
Impulse turbine force: Impulse turbines, like the Pelton wheel, convert the various stages, resulting in lower energy output than the water's available
potential energy of water into kinetic energy via jets that hit cups on a rotating energy. Losses occur at the water intake, pipes, turbines, generators, and
wheel. The force from the deflected jet causes the wheel to spin. In an ideal transformers. Additional losses happen when water is released during flooding.
case, the water leaves the cup with no speed in the jet direction, resulting in The overall efficiency of modern plants is over 80%, with some exceeding 90%,
100% efficiency. However, practical efficiency ranges from 50% for small units while older plants may be less efficient (50-70%). Efficiency can be reduced due
to 90% for larger, well-machined systems. to partial loads and unutilized water during floods, leading to lower utilization
Jet velocity: In impulse turbines, the jet factors, typically ranging from 70% to 90%.
velocity is determined by the available head using the formula. The nozzle size Operation behavior: The performance of a run-of-river power station depends
is chosen to keep the jet velocity constant. With nozzles, the total flow is . The on the flow and head available throughout the year. In summer, the head
mechanical power output depends on the efficiency and is given by: increases as the tailwater level drops, while in winter and spring, the head
decreases and outflow rises. The turbine flow is linked to river discharge, and if
the discharge exceeds the design flow, the excess is wasted. Power output is
mostly proportional to the turbine flow, decreasing in summer with lower
flows. The head has less impact on power output but still causes a slight
Angular velocity and turbine size: The size of a turbine's wheel is determined
decrease in April despite high flows.
by nozzle size, geometric constraints, and required rotational speed. For
Economic analysis: Hydropower is a mature and reliable technology, providing
electrical generation, the turbine should operate at high speeds (around 1500
about 20% of global electricity. It is long-lasting, with plants often operating for
rpm) for efficiency. Larger turbines have lower angular velocities for the same
over 50 years. Economic analysis of hydropower depends on local conditions
power output. The radius of the turbine is
and plant types, ranging from small plants (32 kW) to large ones (28,800 kW).
related to the jet's radius and the water
These plants use varying heads and turbines to convert hydraulic energy into
head height. A relationship between the
electricity, typically fed into low, medium, or high-voltage grids
jet radius (r) and wheel radius (R) is given by .
Investment: The economic analysis of hydropower plants includes costs for
Hydropower systems: Modern hydroelectric systems typically generate
structural, mechanical, electrical components, and other incidental expenses
electricity using a water source, a penstock (pipe), a turbine, and a generator.
like land acquisition and planning. Structural costs typically make up 40-50% of
A dam ensures steady water flow and can store energy. Small systems may
total costs, while mechanical components account for 20-30%, and electrical
only need a low retaining wall. The penstock, an important construction cost,
components about 5-10%. Ecological compensation can add 10-20%. Plant size
must balance diameter to reduce energy loss. It should be smooth and strong,
affects investment costs, with smaller plants costing more per kW. For
often made from PVC with a steel section for larger pressures. A screen filters
example, plants under 100 kW cost 7,700-12,800 €/kW, while plants with 1-10
debris, and a settling chamber removes suspended particles. The turbine
MW cost 4,100-4,600 €/kW. Reconditioning older plants is cheaper, with costs
speed.
around 1,500 €/kW for reconditioning and 1,000 €/kW for modernization.
 Introduction; The sun is the primary source of renewable energy, harnessed
Operation costs: for hydropower plants are low in optimally designed, low- through solar thermal and photovoltaic systems. Wind power and
maintenance systems. These costs include staff, maintenance, administration, hydroelectricity are considered indirect forms of solar energy. Understanding
renewals, screening disposal, and insurance, and vary based on local solar irradiation is crucial for optimizing renewable energy systems, as it
conditions. Annual operation costs typically range from 1-4% of the total directly affects their efficiency. The text emphasizes the importance of
investment. Smaller plants generally have higher operation costs compared to radiation physics-based quantities, which include not only visible light but also
larger ones. ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in solar energy applications.
Electricity generation costs: for hydropower depend on plant size and location. The Sun as Fusion Reactor: The Sun, composed mainly of hydrogen and
Smaller plants (<1 MW) have higher costs, around 0.065-0.073 €/kWh. Larger helium, produces energy through nuclear fusion, where four hydrogen nuclei
plants, like a 2.2 MW plant, generate at lower costs (0.049 €/kWh). (protons) fuse to form one helium nucleus, releasing energy. The mass lost in
Reconditioning or modernizing old plants can lower costs to 0.03-0.08 €/kWh, the fusion process is converted into energy using Einstein's equation , resulting
depending on size and condition. in about 26.731 MeV per reaction. The Sun loses 4.3 million metric tonnes of
Social Impacts: Large hydropower projects can have significant negative social mass per second, emitting radiant power of 63.11 MW per square meter of its
impacts. Dams often require substantial investments, creating a heavy debt surface. The irradiance at Earth varies between 1325 W/m² and 1420 W/m²,
burden for countries. They can also face cost over-runs and lead to the with an average value of 1361 W/m², known as the solar constant. The Stefan-
displacement of large populations, resulting in impoverishment for affected Boltzmann law can be used to
communities. In addition, vital ecosystems and fishing resources may be estimate the Sun's surface
destroyed, and the costs and benefits are often unequally distributed. For temperature.
instance, over a million people were displaced by the Three Gorges Dam in Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum: The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum includes
China, but many of them may not feel the benefits of the increased power all forms of radiation, from very short (high frequency) to very long
capacity. wavelengths (low frequency). This radiation can be both particles (photons)
Construction Environmental Effects: The construction of hydropower plants and waves, with properties like electric charge, magnetic moments, and mass.
can cause various environmental damages, such as water pollution from EM radiation includes visible light, infrared, UV, X-rays, etc. Light interacts with
construction materials and soil erosion, air pollution from excavation, and oil matter to give color and other properties. The wavelength () and frequency ()
leaks from machinery. These impacts can be minimized by adhering to proper of radiation are
operational procedures and safety regulations. related by the
Barrier Effect of Dams: Dams and diversion stations can alter river ecosystems speed of light :
by reducing water flow, changing natural flow patterns, and affecting water Solar radiation has a spectrum with wavelengths from infrared (invisible) to
temperature. These changes can negatively impact surrounding habitats, ultraviolet (also invisible), peaking at around 0.5 µm (visible light). The solar
decrease species diversity, reduce spawning sites, and increase algae growth. spectrum, when it reaches Earth's surface, is modified by atmospheric
The altered flow can also lead to higher sedimentation and lower water conditions. Wien’s law relates the wavelength of maximum radiation () to
quality. temperature :
Isolated and grid operations: Hydroelectric power stations are typically \lambda_{\text{max}} = \frac{b}{T}
connected to the public electricity grid, though some exceptions exist where where is Wien’s constant. EM radiation is quantized as photons, with energy
plants directly power machines or smaller industries like sawmills. In isolated related to frequency by:
operation, the power supply must match the demand exactly. This can be E = h \cdot f
achieved only if the plant’s design flow ensures enough water is always Earth Motion: Earth's motion around the sun impacts its climate and solar
available to meet the required power output, meaning turbines bypass excess radiation. Changes in the sun's output, Earth's axial tilt, wobble, and orbital
water when the maximum power is not needed. Isolated operation is usually path can cause variations in the solar radiation reaching Earth. These
uneconomical and rare in industrialized countries today. Small and very small movements lead to slow climate cycles, affecting which parts of the Earth
hydroelectric stations can also operate either in isolated or grid-connected receive more or less sunlight. Earth's rotation and revolution involve three
modes, with suitable generators and voltage regulators for grid supply. Very combined movements, influencing the planet's climate and seasons.
small plants often provide power to remote areas, using synchronous Tilt: Earth’s axis tilt causes the sun’s path across the sky to change throughout
generators that regulate frequency based on turbine speed. the year. The tilt ranges from 21°45' to 24°15' with a 42,000-year cycle. A
larger tilt warms the poles, causing smaller
temperature differences in the summer
hemisphere. The tilt, known as obliquity, affects
the seasons, with summer in the hemisphere
tilted towards the sun and winter in the
hemisphere tilted away. This tilt causes extreme
conditions at the poles, with long summers and
winters, while the tropics have no seasons.
Wobble: As Earth rotates, it wobbles on its
axis like a spinning top, with a cycle of 23,000
years. This wobble affects the amount of solar
energy Earth receives and where it's
distributed, influencing the climate. This
motion, called precession, creates cycles that
last up to 100,000 years, affecting the Earth’s climate over long periods.
Orbit: Earth moves in an elliptical orbit around the sun, with its closest point to
the sun on January 1 and its furthest on July 1. This orbit, combined with the
tilt of Earth's axis, causes seasonal changes. The orbit's shape changes over a
100,000-year cycle (eccentricity), which affects the distance from the sun and
the amount of solar energy Earth receives. Currently, winters are milder and
summers cooler in the northern hemisphere, and the opposite occurs in the Solar Constant: The solar constant refers to the intensity of solar radiation at
southern hemisphere. the Earth's surface per unit area, which is about 1360 W/m². It represents the
Earth Motion: Earth's surface receives solar energy based on its angle to the energy that the Earth receives from the sun outside the atmosphere.
sun. On December 21, the Arctic Circle (66°30'N) receives no sunlight, while The solar constant is relatively stable but can vary slightly due to the Earth's
the South Pole experiences 24-hour sunlight. In the northern hemisphere, it's distance from the sun throughout the year.
winter, as sunlight is spread over a larger area. Solar radiation from the sun is Solar Radiation Calculation: Solar irradiance is the power received per unit
powerful, with the Earth intercepting 173×10⁹ W, or 1360 W/m² at the top of area and is calculated by integrating solar radiation over time (usually hourly or
the atmosphere. At the Earth’s surface, solar radiation typically ranges from daily).
1000-1200 W/m² on a clear day, depending on elevation and atmospheric Insolation is the specific term for solar radiation that reaches any surface, not
conditions. This solar energy, known as insolation, is a renewable resource. necessarily perpendicular to the sunlight.
1. Earth Motion and Solar Energy: The amount of solar energy received on The calculation of solar radiation includes atmospheric effects like absorption,
Earth depends on the angle of sunlight. During December 21st, regions above scattering, and reflection. It also accounts for geometric effects such as the
the Arctic Circle (66°30’ N) do not receive sunlight, while areas at the South Earth's rotation and orbit.
Pole experience 24-hour daylight. Estimation of Clear-Sky Radiation: Clear-sky radiation estimation involves
The Earth's rotation and axial tilt cause variations in solar radiation across understanding how solar radiation is absorbed and scattered by atmospheric
seasons, contributing to summer in the Southern Hemisphere and winter in the molecules and aerosols.
Northern Hemisphere. Absorption by atmospheric gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide plays a
The Earth's atmosphere absorbs, reflects, and scatters solar radiation, while significant role in modifying the solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
about 50% of solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface. The amount of The process of scattering is also important, with Rayleigh scattering affecting
sunlight at the surface varies throughout the day & depending on cloud cover. shorter wavelengths (blue light) and aerosol scattering dependent on particle
2. Solar Radiation: Solar radiation consists of electromagnetic (EM) energy size.
from the sun. As this radiation travels through space, it interacts with the
Earth's atmosphere and surface. Some of it is absorbed, some is reflected, and
some is scattered.
At the Earth's surface, solar radiation can be categorized as:
Direct radiation: Sunlight that travels in a straight line to the Earth's surface.
Diffuse radiation: Radiation scattered by gases, aerosols, and clouds.
Reflected radiation: Radiation that is bounced back from surfaces like water,
snow, or land.

The Earth's surface and atmosphere interact dynamically with solar radiation,
affecting climate and radiation distribution.
a- Direct Solar Radiation: Direct solar radiation is the energy that comes
straight from the sun without interference from the atmosphere. On clear
days, it creates sharp shadows and is absorbed by various surfaces.
This radiation can be reflected or scattered, but the term "direct" refers
specifically to sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface without scattering.
b- Diffuse Solar Radiation; Diffuse radiation is scattered sunlight caused by
particles, water vapor, and gases in the atmosphere. These particles scatter
radiation in multiple directions, resulting in softer lighting without sharp
shadows.
There are different types of scattering:
Rayleigh scattering: Occurs when the particles are much smaller than the
wavelength of sunlight.
Mie scattering: Occurs when the particles are roughly the same size as the
wavelength of light.
Diffuse radiation can account for a significant portion of solar radiation,
especially under cloudy conditions.
c- Reflected Solar Radiation; Reflected radiation is the solar energy that
bounces off surfaces such as land, water, or snow. In regions with mountainous
terrains, reflected radiation can have a substantial impact on energy
distribution.
Solar Radiation Paths: Solar radiation is affected by the Earth's atmosphere,
which causes absorption and scattering as radiation passes through. The "air
mass" refers to the amount of atmosphere that sunlight must pass through to
reach the Earth's surface.
Air mass is calculated using the zenith angle (the angle between the sun and
the point directly overhead), and it varies depending on time of day and
location.