Word formation

Affixation
Affixation is the process of adding prefixes, suffixes, infixes and circumfixes to a base word
to create a new word or change its meaning. It plays a crucial role in language evolution and
allows for the formation of diverse words. Affixation contributes to the richness and flexibility
of language.

(Morphemes: Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. They can be
words or parts of words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots.)

Prefixes
Prefixes are morphemes added to the beginning of a word to alter or qualify its meaning.
There are several types of prefixes:

1. Negative Prefixes:
- Examples include "un-" (undo), "dis-" (dislike), and "non-" (nonexistent).

2. Reversative Prefixes:
- Prefixes indicating a reversal, such as "de-" (deactivate) and "anti-" (antibacterial).

3. Temporal Prefixes:
- Indicating time relationships, like "pre-" (prewar) and "post-" (postpone).

4. Quantity or Size Prefixes:

- Modifying the quantity or size, for instance, "micro-" (microscope) and "mega-"
(megabyte).

5. Positional Prefixes:
- Describing a specific position, e.g., "sub-" (submarine) and "super-" (supernatural).

6. Prefixes denoting repetition:

- Such as "re-" (redo), indicating doing something again.

Understanding these prefix types enhances vocabulary comprehension and aids in

deciphering the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Suffixes
Suffixes are morphemes added to the end of a word to modify its meaning or indicate its
grammatical category.

Types of Suffixes:

1. Inflectional Suffixes:
- Change the grammatical category of a word without fundamentally altering its meaning.
Examples include "-s" (plural), "-ed" (past tense), and "-ing" (present participle).

2. Derivational Suffixes:
- Alter the meaning and sometimes the grammatical category of a word, often creating a
new word. Examples include "-er" (teacher), "-ful" (beautiful), and "-ment" (movement).

3. Adjective and adverb Suffixes

- er (bigger), -ly (quickly)

Infixes
Rare in English, inserted within a word to create a new form.
Example: The informal use of expletives like "fan-freakin'-tastic.”

Circumfixes
Circumfixes are linguistic elements that function as prefixes and suffixes simultaneously.
They attach to both the beginning and end of a base morpheme, altering its meaning. Unlike
prefixes and suffixes, circumfixes always appear together and are inseparable.

Eg. Un- (prefixe) + happy (root/base word) + -ness (suffixe) = unhappiness

Unbothered, disrespectful

Abbreviations
Types of Abbreviations:

1. Compounding:
-Combining two or more complete words to create a new one (e.g., toothpaste,
basketball).

2. Blending (portmanteau)
-Combining parts of two words to create a new one (e.g., brunch from breakfast and
lunch).
 3. Acronyms:
- Formed by taking the initial letters of a phrase or a group of words and creating a word
from them.
- Example: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

4. Initialisms:
- Similar to acronyms, but the letters are pronounced separately rather than forming a
single word.
- Example: FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

5. Abbreviated Titles:
- Shortened forms of titles, often used for brevity or convenience.
- Example: Dr. (Doctor), Prof. (Professor), Capt. (Captain)

6. Symbols and Signs:

- Representations using symbols or signs to convey information concisely.
- Example: % (percent), $ (dollar), mph (miles per hour)

7. Abbreviations for Measurements:

- Shortened forms used for units of measurement.
- Example: cm (centimeter), kg (kilogram), ft (feet)

8. Internet and Texting Abbreviations:

- Abbreviations commonly used in online communication.
- Example: LOL (laugh out loud), BRB (be right back), IMO (in my opinion)

9. Truncations
- Using first part of the word to represent the full word
E.g. mon (Monday), app (application)

10. Clipping or clipped words

- Using the middle or end part of the word instead of the full word.
E g. Flu (influenza), phone (telephone)

11. Contractions
- Contractions are shortened forms of words or combinations of words where one or
more letters are omitted, and an apostrophe often replaces the missing letters.
Contractions are commonly used in informal speech and writing to convey a more
casual or conversational tone.
Examples: he is - he’s, there are - there’re

Understanding different types of abbreviations is essential for effective communication,

especially in contexts where brevity and efficiency are important.
 Minimal pairs/ word pairs
Minimal pairs are pairs of words in a language that differ by only one phoneme (sound), yet
they have distinct meanings. They can be used in study of language and in speech therapy.

Single Phonemic Difference:

Minimal pairs consist of words that vary by a single sound, demonstrating the significance of
specific phonemes in distinguishing meaning.

Distinct Meanings:
Despite the single sound difference, minimal pairs have different meanings, showcasing the
importance of phonemic contrasts in language.

Examples: Pat - Bat: The initial phoneme (/p/ vs. /b/) creates a meaningful distinction
between the words.
Cat - cab : the sounds at the end changes the meaning of the words.
Pen - Pan:The only difference lies in the vowel sound (/ɛ/ vs. /æ/), resulting in different
meanings.

Tenses
Tenses in English grammar indicate the time of an action or state of being. There are three
main tenses: Past, Present, and Future. Each tense can be further divided into four aspects:
Simple, Continuous (Progressive), Perfect, and Perfect Continuous.

1. Simple Present Tense: Used for general truths, habits, or regular actions.
- Formation Rule: Use the base form of the verb for most subjects.
- Example: She writes a letter every day.

2. Present Continuous Tense: Expresses an ongoing action at the present moment.

- Formation Rule: Use "am," "is," or "are" + present participle (-ing form).
- Example:They are playing in the park.

3. Present Perfect Tense: Indicates a completed action with a relevance to the present.
- Formation Rule: Use "has" or "have" + past participle.
- Example:I have visited that museum before.

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense: Shows an action that began in the past, continues into
the present, and may continue into the future.
- Formation Rule: Use "has been" or "have been" + present participle (-ing form).
- Example: She has been studying all night.

5. Simple Past Tense: Used for completed actions or events in the past.
- Formation Rule: Use the past form of the verb.
 - Example: He finished his homework yesterday.

6. Past Continuous Tense: Describes an ongoing action in the past.

- Formation Rule: Use "was" or "were" + present participle (-ing form).
- Example: We were watching a movie when the power went out.

7. Past Perfect Tense: Indicates an action completed before another action in the past.
- Formation Rule: Use "had" + past participle.
-Example: She had already eaten when I arrived.

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense: Expresses a duration of an action that occurred before
another action in the past.
- Formation Rule: Use "had been" + present participle (-ing form).
- Example: They had been waiting for hours when the concert finally started.

9. Simple Future Tense: Used to predict or state a future action.

- Formation Rule: Use "will" + base form of the verb.
- Example: She will come to the party.

10. Future Continuous Tense: Describes an ongoing action that will happen in the future.
- Formation Rule: Use "will be" + present participle (-ing form).
- Example: At 3 PM tomorrow, I will be working.

11. Future Perfect Tense: Indicates an action that will be completed before another action in
the future.
- Formation Rule: Use "will have" + past participle.
- Example: By next year, he will have graduated.

12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense: Expresses a duration of an action that will be ongoing
before another action in the future.
- Formation Rule: Use "will have been" + present participle (-ing form).
- Example: By the time you arrive, I will have been waiting for an hour.