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Unit 1. Introduction to data

communications and networking

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NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS

Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data & Information
1.3 Data Communication
1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication
1.3.2 Components of Data Communication
1.4 Data Representation
1.5 Data Flow
1.5.1. Simplex
1.52. Half Duplex
1.5.3. Full Duplex
1.6 Computer Network
1.6.1 Categories of a network
1.7 Protocol
1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol
1.8 Standards In Networking
1.8.1 Concept of Standard
1.8.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking
1.9 Review Questions
1.10 References

1.0 OBJECTIVES:

 Introduce the readers to data communication and its

fundamentals
 Define networks
 Define protocols
 Standards in networking
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1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an introduction to Computer networks and

covers fundamental topics like data, information to the definition
of communication and computer networks.
The main objective of data communication and networking is to
enable seamless exchange of data between any two points in
the world.
This exchange of data takes place over a computer network.

1.2 DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information
refers to processed data that enables us to take decisions.
Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data
of all students, when you find the marks you have scored you
have the information that lets you know whether you have
passed or failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a
form that is agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.

1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or

information
In case of computer networks this exchange is done between
two devices over a transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made
up of hardware and software. The hardware part involves the
sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices
through which the data passes. The software part involves
certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it
is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
The following sections describes the fundamental
characteristics that are important for the effective working of
data communication process and is followed by the components
that make up a data communications system.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends

upon the following four fundamental characteristics:
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1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct

destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data
accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get
corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a
timely manner without any delay; such a data delivery is called
real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter
may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted.

1.3.2 Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as

shown in the diagram below:

Fig. Components of a Data Communication System

1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to
the receiver.

2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data
(message).

3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the
data (message).

4. Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
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5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and
receiver to communicate data.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without
which the communicating entities are like two persons trying
to talk to each other in a different language without know the
other language.

1.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce

information.

There may be different forms in which data may be represented.

Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:

1. Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well
as upper case.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode

2. Numbers
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying.
In computers images are digitally stored.
A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple
terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon
the type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would
require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.
The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also
called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value
of each pixel.
Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each
pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an image
made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in
memory to be stored.
On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2
bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10
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– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would

now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.

Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

4. Audio
Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded
and broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a
source of data or information.
Audio data is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video
Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

1.5 DATA FLOW

wo devices communicate with each other by sending and

receiving data. The data can flow between the two devices in the
following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex

1.5.1 Simplex

Figure: Simplex mode of communication

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional

Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one
only receives the data.
Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a
monitor only receives data.

1.5.2 Half Duplex

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Figure: Half Duplex Mode of Communication

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive

but not at the same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-
versa (as shown in figure above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.

1.5.3 Full Duplex

Figure: Full Duplex Mode of Communication

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive

at the same time.
Example: mobile phones

1.6 COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Definition:
A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes.
A node can be any device capable of transmitting or
receiving data.
The communicating nodes have to be connected by
communication links.

A Compute network should ensure

reliability of the data communication process, should c
security of the data
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performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller

delay times

1.6.1 Categories of Network

Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The
three basic categories of computer networks are:

A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few

kilometers of area. It may be privately owned and could be
a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building
or a LAN could be a network consisting of the computers in
a entire building.

B. Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in a

(geographically) large area. The network in the entire state
of Maharashtra could be a WAN

C. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between

LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It
may comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai.

1.7 PROTOCOL

A Protocol is one of the components of a data

communications system. Without protocol communication
cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data
and expect the receiving device to receive and further
interpret it correctly.

When the sender sends a message it may consist of text,

number, images, etc. which are converted into bits and
grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain
additional information called control information is also
added to help the receiver interpret the data.

For successful communication to occur, the sender and

receiver must agree upon certain rules called protocol.

A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data

communications.

A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to

be communicated and when it is to be communicated.

1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol

There are three key elements of a protocol:
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A. Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data.
It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.

B. Semantics
It tells the meaning of each section of bits and
indicates the interpretation of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based
on the interpretation.

C. Timing
It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to
receive the data
It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent
to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

1.7 STANDARDS IN NETWORKING

Standards are necessary in networking to ensure

interconnectivity and interoperability between various
networking hardware and software components.

Without standards we would have proprietary products

creating isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect.

1.7.1 Concept of Standard

Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and
vendors to ensure national and international
interconnectivity.

Data communications standards are classified into two

categories:

1. De facto Standard
o These are the standards that have been traditionally
used and mean by fact or by convention
o These standards are not approved by any organized
body but are adopted by widespread use.

2. De jure standard
o It means by law or by regulation.
o These standards are legislated and approved by
an body that is officially recognized.

1.7.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking

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o Standards are created by standards creation committees,

forums, and government regulatory agencies.

o Examples of Standard Creation Committees :

1. International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

o Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum

o Examples of Regulatory Agencies:

1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

1.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between data & information. What are the different

forms in which data can be represented?
2. What are the characteristics of data communication?
3. What are the components of a data communication system?
4. Define computer network and categorize.
5. Explain protocols in details

1.9 REFERENCES

1. Data Communication & Networking – Behrouz Forouzan

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Network Topologies: The art or arrangement of connecting different computers in a network
is known as network topology. In other words we can say that the way in which the nodes
(computer or other devices that needs to communicate) of a network are linked together is
known as network topology.
There are some factors to be considered while choosing a topology. They are:-
1. The cost of establishing the network topology.
2. The length of the cable needed.
3. Type of cable to be used in the topology (Cable types: Co-axial, Twisted Pair or
Optical Fiber Cable).

Types of Network Topologies: Network topologies can be classified into the following
categories:

1. Star topology: In a star topology, all the nodes are connected to a central system
called switch or a hub. This network device forwards the data from its source
computer to its final destination. The switch or hub controls the communication on the
network.
Advantages of star topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) If any one of the local computers fails, the remaining portion of the network
remains unaffected.
2) Fault detection is easier.
3) Access protocols used in the star topology are very simple.
4) Devices can be added or removed without disturbing the network.
5) They work well under heavy loading.
Disadvantages of star topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) The system crucially depends on the central switch or hub. If it fails, the entire
network goes down.
2) The cost of installation is high as each node is connected to the central switch
or hub.
3) Performance is totally based on the central switch or hub.

2. Ring Topology: In ring topology, the nodes are connected to a close loop so that each
device is connected to two other devices, one on either side. The computers in a ring
topology are connected in the shape of a closed ring. Data travels in only one
direction in a ring. Each computer passes the data o the next one on the line
automatically.
Advantages of ring topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) The ring topology works well where there is no central site computer system.
2) It is more reliable than star topology.
3) The possibility of collision is minimal in ring topology.
4) The cost of installation and expansion is very less.
Disadvantages of ring topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) The ring topology requires more complicated control software.
2) Failure of one node result in the failure of the entire network.
 3) Troubleshooting or fault detection is difficult in ring topology.
4) Addition of nodes in between or removal of nodes can disturb the whole
network.
5) Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes in the
network.

3. Bus Topology: In a bus topology or linear topology, the nodes are connected to a
central cable called bus. In bus topology, a bus is a single continuous cable.
Transmission from any node travels the length of the bus in both directions and can be
received by all the other nodes in the network. The bus has terminators at either ends
which absorbs the signal, removing it from the bus.
Advantages of bus topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) It is quite simple and reliable.
2) It is quite easy to set up and expand up to a certain limit.
3) Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network.
4) The cost of installation and expansion is very less.
Disadvantages of bus topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) It offers limited flexibility for change.
2) The signal on the bus must be strong enough to reach the receiver if not then
repeaters might have to be used to amplify the signal.
3) Fault detection is difficult as it is to be performed at many points on the
network.
4) As each node is directly connected to the central bus, there has to be some way
of deciding which node can use the network at a given time.

4. Mesh Topology: In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via
dedicated channel, dynamically and non-hierarchically. Routers are used to provide
the best and most efficient data path for effective communication. In the event of a
hardware failure, many routes are available to continue the network communication
process.
Advantages of mesh topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) It is robust and secure.
2) Fault detection is easier.
3) It provides privacy due to dedicated channels connected dynamically.
4) Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.
Disadvantages of mesh topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) Installation and configuration is difficult.
2) Cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required.
3) Suitable of less number of devices.
Note: For (N) number of devices number of ports required will be (N-1). Total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is N (N-1)/2
5. Tree Topology: Tree Topology is a combination of bus and star topology in which
many nodes are connected with each other like the branches of a tree. It is the
 simplest form in which the hub or switch devices are directly connected to the tree
bus. Data transmission takes place in the same way as in the bus topology that is when
the signal reaches the end of the transmission medium, it is absorbed by the
terminators. Tree topology is best suited for applications which have a hierarchical
flow of data and control.
Advantages of tree topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) It is highly flexible and its future expandability of the network is much better
than bus topology.
2) Centralized monitoring makes users to control and manage a larger network
easily.
3) It is easy to reconfigure the tree topology.
4) It reduces network traffic.
5) As tree topology is a large network all, computers have better access to the
network.
6) In tree topology each computer is connected to the hub and also each part of a
network is connected to the main cable providing point to point connection.
7) Tree topology is supported by many hardware and software venders.
8) The signals that are transmitted by the root nodes are received by all the
computers at the same time
Disadvantages of tree topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) In tree topology if the backbone of the entire network breaks both part of the
network might not communicate to each other but a part of the network
continues to communicate alone.
2) Tree topology is difficult to configure because of its size. Wiring big size
network is difficult.
3) The cost of installation and expansion is high.

6. Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or
more other network topologies, including bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology,
star topology, and tree topology. This is a scalable topology which can be expanded
easily. It is reliable one but at the same it is a costly topology.
Advantages of hybrid topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) It is effective and reliable.
2) Fault detection is easy.
3) Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network.
4) It is flexible and its future expandability of the network is possible.
5) It is scalable as it offers integration of new hardware components.
Disadvantages of hybrid topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) Network Processing on hybrid topology is quite complicated.
2) Installation and configuration is difficult.
3) The cost of installation and expansion is high.

7. Point to Point Topology: In a point to point topology there are only two nodes which
are connected with each other via a dedicated link. It’s the simplest layout for any
network, and it is pretty easy to visualize. Data transfer can take place using half
duplex (Transmission of signals in both directions but not simultaneously) and full
duplex (Transmission of signals in both directions simultaneously).
Advantages of point to point topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) Very easy to set up.
2) Best suitable for very small network.
3) Fault detection is easy.
4) Easy to maintain the layout with two nodes.
Disadvantages of point to point topology: Some of its advantages are as follow:
1) It offers no flexibility or expansion.
2) Not suitable for more than two nodes.
3) Failure of one node result in the failure of the entire network.
 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand and describe how different networking protocols interact in computer networks. It
divides the networking process into seven distinct layers, each responsible for specific
functions. Here's a breakdown of the OSI model's layers from top to bottom:

OSI Reference Model: Layered Architecture

1. Application Layer (Layer 7):

o This is the topmost layer, where end-user applications and network services
interact.
o It provides services such as email, file transfer, and web browsing.
o Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, POP3.
2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
o This layer is responsible for translating, encrypting, and compressing data
between the application and the transport layers.
o It ensures that data is in a readable format for the application.
o Protocols: SSL/TLS, JPEG, GIF, ASCII, EBCDIC.
3. Session Layer (Layer 5):
o The session layer manages sessions between applications. It establishes,
manages, and terminates connections.
o It is responsible for ensuring that data is properly synchronized and organized
between communicating systems.
o Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):
o This layer is responsible for ensuring reliable data transfer between devices. It
handles error correction and flow control.
o It breaks down large data into smaller packets and ensures they reach the
destination.
o Protocols: TCP, UDP.
5. Network Layer (Layer 3):
o The network layer is responsible for routing data across the network. It
determines the best path for data to travel from source to destination.
o It also handles addressing and packet forwarding.
o Protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP, RIP.
6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
o This layer is responsible for reliable data transfer over a physical link. It
handles error detection and correction and controls access to the physical
medium.
o It frames data for transmission and provides MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses for devices.
o Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP, MAC.
7. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
o The physical layer is responsible for the actual transmission of raw data over a
physical medium like cables, radio waves, or fiber optics.
o It deals with the hardware components such as network interface cards, cables,
switches, and signals.
o Protocols: IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet), DSL, Wi-Fi.
Each layer of the OSI model serves a specific role and interacts with the adjacent layers to
facilitate end-to-end communication in a network. By dividing the networking process into
layers, the OSI model helps standardize network functions and enables interoperability
between different networking technologies.

Functions of the OSI model layers:

1. Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology , star topology , or mesh topology .
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full-duplex .

2. Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.
3. Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

4. Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a
header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address.
Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

5. Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

6. Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7. Application layer
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files
from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.

We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example
mentioned below.

Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.

Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his
email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).

Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission like
encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.

Step 3: At Session Layer, There is a connection established between the sender and
receiver on the internet.

Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence
number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information.

Step 5: At Network Layer, Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route
for transfer.

Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address
is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error detection.

Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals
over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and decrypt the
e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email client.
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers.
Its advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and
troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and
protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for
beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make
the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for
understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.

TCP/IP Model:
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication
between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport
Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage
different aspects of network communication, making it essential for understanding and
working with modern networks.

TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defence (DoD) in the
1960s and is based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI
model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.

What Does TCP/IP Do?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to
another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the
receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each
message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into
packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the
data while transferring from one end to another end.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this
layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at the
receiver’s end.

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer

1. Network Access Layer

It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the
sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. Here we will be
demonstrating on behalf of the receiver.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access
layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link
layer protocols.
2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which
are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main
protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently.
But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy
ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of
protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of
data from one device to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a
unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets
should take to reach it.

Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you
click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to
the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and
uses routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination.
The packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination.
When all of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them
into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your
computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the
best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct
destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the
Internet.

3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-
end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).

 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-
by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes
the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.

4. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:

 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.

 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.

 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server
records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is
responsible for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a
network. It is also known as the transport layer.

Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:

 Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably
between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For example,
if a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the
packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.

 Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up

large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network, and
then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more
efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for

multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then
demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the
same network connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.

 End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented

service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need
for intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.

Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a file to host
B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller segments, add error
correction and flow control information, and then transmit the segments over the network to
host B. The host-to-host layer in host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and
reassemble the file. Once the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in
host B will acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable
connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments, and
reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also responsible for multiplexing and
demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-end communication between the two hosts.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application
presentation layers.
layer itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a

OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.

In the OSI model, the transport layer

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not
provides assurance delivery of
provide assurance delivery of packets.
packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
are better covered and are easy to
TCP/IP model.
replace with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only

Connectionless and connection-
provides connectionless (IP) services.
oriented services are provided by the
The transport layer (TCP) provides
network layer in the OSI model.
connections.