Pointers to Review Statistics

1. Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics:

Descriptive statistics involves summarizing and organizing data in a meaningful way. These
statistics describe what is observed and help present data without making any conclusions or
predictions.

 Measures of Central Tendency:

o Mean: The average of the data set.
o Median: The middle value when the data is arranged in order.
o Mode: The most frequent value in the data set.
 Measures of Dispersion:
o Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.
o Variance: The average squared deviation from the mean.
o Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance, indicating how spread out
the data is around the mean.
 Data Distribution:
o Normal Distribution: A bell-shaped curve that is symmetrical.
o Skewness: The degree to which data is asymmetrical.
o Kurtosis: The sharpness of the peak of the distribution.

Inferential Statistics:

Inferential statistics allows us to make predictions or inferences about a population based on a

sample of data. These techniques determine whether a result is statistically significant or just due
to random chance.

 Hypothesis Testing: Testing an assumption regarding a population parameter.

o Null Hypothesis (H0): Assumes no effect or difference.
o Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Assumes there is an effect or difference.
 Confidence Intervals: A range of values used to estimate a population parameter.
 P-value: The probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the observed
results under the assumption that the null hypothesis is correct. If the p-value is below a
threshold (usually 0.05), the null hypothesis is rejected.
 Common Inferential Tests:
o t-test: Compares the means of two groups.
o Chi-square test: Tests relationships between categorical variables.
o ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Compares means among three or more groups.

2. Variables and Types of Data

Variables:
A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted. Variables
can change or vary across individuals or over time.

 Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated to observe its effect on the
dependent variable.
 Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome variable that is being studied and measured.

Types of Data:

1. Quantitative Data (Numerical):

o Discrete Data: Countable data (e.g., number of students in a class).
o Continuous Data: Measurable data that can take any value within a range (e.g.,
height, weight).
2. Qualitative Data (Categorical):
o Nominal Data: Data that represents categories without a natural order (e.g.,
gender, eye color).
o Ordinal Data: Data that represents categories with a meaningful order but no
fixed interval between categories (e.g., rankings, educational levels).

3. Data Collection and Sampling Techniques

Data Collection Methods:

 Surveys/Questionnaires: A set of questions administered to collect data from

respondents.
 Observational Studies: Collecting data by observing subjects in a natural or controlled
setting.
 Experiments: Conducting controlled trials where one or more variables are manipulated
to determine their effect.

Sampling Techniques:

1. Probability Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
o Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being
chosen.
o Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into strata (groups), and samples
are drawn from each group proportionally.
o Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and a random sample
of clusters is chosen.
o Systematic Sampling: Every nth individual is selected from a list of the
population.
2. Non-Probability Sampling: Not every member has a known or equal chance of being
selected.
 o Convenience Sampling: Sampling those who are easily accessible.
o Judgmental/Purposive Sampling: Selecting a sample based on the researcher’s
judgment.
o Snowball Sampling: Current participants recruit future participants.

1. Organizing Data

Organizing data involves arranging raw data in a structured format to facilitate analysis and
interpretation. There are several methods to organize data:

Frequency Distribution Table:

 A table that displays the frequency (number of occurrences) of each value or range of
values in a data set.
 Class Intervals: In the case of continuous data, values are grouped into ranges or
intervals (e.g., 10-19, 20-29).
 Frequency: The number of observations that fall within each interval.

Steps to Create a Frequency Distribution Table:

1. Decide on the number of classes (usually between 5 and 10).

2. Determine the class width by dividing the range (maximum value – minimum value) by
the number of classes.
3. List the class intervals and count the number of data points in each interval.

Cumulative Frequency:

 A running total of frequencies as you progress through the class intervals.

2. Histograms and Frequency Polygons

Histograms:

 A graphical representation of the frequency distribution of a data set, typically used for
continuous data.
 Characteristics:
o Bars are used to represent frequency.
o The x-axis represents class intervals (ranges of data).
o The y-axis represents the frequency (number of occurrences).
o There are no gaps between bars, as the data is continuous.

Steps to Create a Histogram:

1. Organize the data into class intervals.

 2. Draw the x-axis (class intervals) and y-axis (frequency).
3. Draw bars for each class interval with heights corresponding to the frequency.

Frequency Polygons:

 A frequency polygon is similar to a histogram but uses points connected by straight lines
to represent frequency.
 The midpoints of the class intervals are plotted on the x-axis, and the frequencies are
plotted on the y-axis.

1. Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency describe the center or average of a data set. The three most
common measures are mean, median, and mode.

Mean:

 The arithmetic average of a data set.

 Formula: Mean=∑xin\text{Mean} = \frac{\sum x_i}{n}Mean=n∑xi Where xix_ixi are
the data values, and nnn is the number of observations.
 Example: For data set [2,4,6,8,10][2, 4, 6, 8, 10][2,4,6,8,10], Mean=2+4+6+8+105=6\
text{Mean} = \frac{2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10}{5} = 6Mean=52+4+6+8+10=6

Median:

 The middle value when data is arranged in ascending or descending order.

 If the number of observations is odd, the median is the middle value. If even, it is the
average of the two middle values.
 Example: For [1,3,7,9,11][1, 3, 7, 9, 11][1,3,7,9,11], the median is 7.
For [2,4,6,8][2, 4, 6, 8][2,4,6,8], the median is 4+62=5\frac{4 + 6}{2} = 524+6=5.

Mode:

 The value that appears most frequently in the data set.

 A data set may have no mode, one mode (unimodal), or more than one mode (bimodal or
multimodal).
 Example: For [3,7,3,9,3][3, 7, 3, 9, 3][3,7,3,9,3], the mode is 3.

2. Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion describe how spread out or dispersed the data values are from the central
point.

Range:
  The difference between the highest and lowest values in the data set.
 Formula: Range=Maximum value−Minimum value\text{Range} = \text{Maximum
value} - \text{Minimum value}Range=Maximum value−Minimum value
 Example: For [2,4,6,8,10][2, 4, 6, 8, 10][2,4,6,8,10], Range=10−2=8\text{Range} = 10 -
2 = 8Range=10−2=8

Variance:

 Measures the average squared deviation of each data point from the mean.
 Formula for population variance (σ2\sigma^2σ2):

σ2=∑(xi−μ)2N\sigma^2 = \frac{\sum (x_i - \mu)^2}{N}σ2=N∑(xi−μ)2

Where xix_ixi is each data point, μ\muμ is the population mean, and NNN is the total
number of data points.

 Formula for sample variance (s2s^2s2):

s2=∑(xi−xˉ)2n−1s^2 = \frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2}{n-1}s2=n−1∑(xi−xˉ)2

Where xˉ\bar{x}xˉ is the sample mean, and nnn is the sample size.

Standard Deviation:

 The square root of the variance, indicating how much the values deviate from the mean
on average.
 Formula: Standard Deviation=Variance\text{Standard Deviation} = \sqrt{\
text{Variance}}Standard Deviation=Variance
 Example: For the data set [2,4,4,4,5,5,7,9][2, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7, 9][2,4,4,4,5,5,7,9], the mean
is 5, and the sample standard deviation is calculated as: s=(2−5)2+(4−5)2+⋯
+(9−5)28−1=4.57≈2.14s = \sqrt{\frac{(2-5)^2 + (4-5)^2 + \cdots + (9-5)^2}{8-1}} = \
sqrt{4.57} \approx 2.14s=8−1(2−5)2+(4−5)2+⋯+(9−5)2=4.57≈2.14

Interquartile Range (IQR):

 The range of the middle 50% of the data.

 Formula: IQR=Q3−Q1\text{IQR} = Q_3 - Q_1IQR=Q3−Q1 Where Q1Q_1Q1 is the
first quartile (25th percentile) and Q3Q_3Q3 is the third quartile (75th percentile).
 Example: For [1,3,5,7,9,11,13][1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13][1,3,5,7,9,11,13],
Q1=3Q_1 = 3Q1=3, Q3=11Q_3 = 11Q3=11, so IQR=11−3=8IQR = 11 - 3 =
8IQR=11−3=8.

3. Measures of Position
Measures of position indicate where a particular value lies in relation to other values in a data
set. Common measures of position include percentiles, quartiles, and z-scores.

Percentiles:

 Percentiles divide the data set into 100 equal parts. The p-th percentile represents the
value below which ppp% of the data falls.
 Example: If a student scores in the 90th percentile on an exam, they scored higher than
90% of the other students.

Quartiles:

 Quartiles divide the data into four equal parts.

o First Quartile (Q1): The 25th percentile.
o Second Quartile (Q2): The 50th percentile (same as the median).
o Third Quartile (Q3): The 75th percentile.
 Example: For [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9][1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9][1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9],
Q1=2.5Q_1 = 2.5Q1=2.5, Q2=5Q_2 = 5Q2=5, and Q3=7.5Q_3 = 7.5Q3=7.5.

Z-scores:

 A z-score (or standard score) indicates how many standard deviations a data point is from
the mean.
 Formula: z=x−μσz = \frac{x - \mu}{\sigma}z=σx−μ Where xxx is the data point, μ\muμ
is the mean, and σ\sigmaσ is the standard deviation.
 Example: If the mean test score is 80 with a standard deviation of 10, a student who
scored 90 has a z-score of: z=90−8010=1z = \frac{90 - 80}{10} = 1z=1090−80=1 This
means the student's score is 1 standard deviation above the mean.

Summary:

 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, median, and mode describe the center of a data
set.
 Measures of Dispersion: Range, variance, and standard deviation show how spread out
the data is.
 Measures of Position: Percentiles, quartiles, and z-scores help identify where a
particular data value stands relative to the rest of the data.