2020

MPROVEMENT

Answer key and Hint of

Objective & Conventional Questions

Electrical Engineering
Power Electronics
 1 Power Semiconductor Devices

© Copyright: Subject matter to MADE EASY Publications, New Delhi. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form without the written permission.
1. (a) 14. (d)

2. (b) 15. (1.51)

3. (b) 16. (c)

4. (a) 17. (d)

5. (d) 18. (b)

6. (d) 19. (0.67)

7. (c) 20. (2.93)

8. (b) 21. (c)

9. (b) 22. (34.17 )

10. (b) 23. (7)

11. (b)
„„„„

12. (a)

13. (c)

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 3

Solution : 1
Before the initiation of turn-off process, a GTO carries a steady current Ia. This figure shows a typical turn-
off dynamic characteristic for a GTO. The total turn off time tq is subdivided into three different periods;
namely the storage period (ts), the fall period (tf) and the tail period (tt). In other words,
tq = ts + tf + tt
Initiation of turn-off process starts as soon as negative gate current begins to flow after t = 0. The rate of rise
of this gate current depends upon the gate circuit inductance and the gate voltage applied. During the
storage period, anode current Ia and anode voltage (equal to on-state voltage drop) remain constant. Termination
of the storage period is indicated by a fall in Ia and rise in Va.
Ia, Va
Ia Va = Vs

Va
Ia
Spike voltage

Tail current

t
ts tf tt
Ig
tq
t
t=0 Gate current

Igp

During ts, excess charges, i.e. holes in p-base are removed by negative gate current and the centre
junction comes out of saturation. In other words, during storage time ts, the negative gate current rises to
a particular value and prepares the GTO for turning-off (or commutation) by flushing out of the stored
carriers. After ts, anode current begins to fall rapidly and anode voltage starts rising. As shown in figure,
the anode current falls to a certain value and then abruptly changes its rate of fall. Interval during which
anode current falls rapidly is the fall time tf, figure and is of the order of 1 µsec [4]. The fall period tf is
measured from the instant gate current is maximum negative to the instant anode current falls to its tail
current.
At the time t = ts + tf, there is a spike in voltage due to abrupt current change. After tf, anode current Ia and
anode voltage Va keep moving towards their turn-off values for a time tt called tail time. After tt, anode
current reaches zero value.
A GTO has the following disadvantage as compared to a conventional thyristor:
(i) Magnitude of latching and holding currents is more in a GTO.
(ii) On state voltage drop and the associated loss is more in a GTO.
(iii) Due to the multicathode structure of GTO, triggering gate current is higher than that required for a
conventional SCR.
(iv) Gate drive circuit losses are more
(v) Its reverse-voltage blocking capability is less than its forward-voltage blocking capability. But this is
no disadvantage so far as inverter circuits are concerned.

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 Electrical Engineering •
4 Power Electronics

Inspite of all these demerits, GTO has the following advantages over an SCR:
(i) GTO has faster switching speed.
(ii) Its surge current capability is comparable with an-SCR.
(iii) It has more di/dt rating at turn-on.
(iv) GTO circuit configuration has lower size and weight as compared to SCR circuit unit.
(v) GTO unit has higher efficiency because an increase gate-drive power loss and on-state loss is more
than compensated by the elimination of forced commutation losses.
(vi) GTO unit has reduced acoustical electromagnetic noise due to elimination of commutation chokes.

Solution : 2
An UJT is made up of an n-type silicon (Si) base to which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three
terminals the emitter (E ), base one B1 and base two B2 between bases B1 and B2, the Unijunction behave
like ordinary resistance.
B2 B2
Eta-point +
Eta-point
RB2
p-type RB2 B2 E
A
+ VBB
E A
E
RB1 Ve
n-type Ie RB1 VBB

– –
B1 B1
B1
Basic structure of UJT Symbolic representation Equivalent circuit

In figure (a), when source voltage VBB is applied, capacitor C begins to charge through R exponentially
towards VBB. During this charging, emitter circuit of UJT is an open circuit.
The capacitor voltage vc, equal to emitter voltage ve, is given by
vC = ve = VBB (1 – e–t/RC)
The time constant of the charge circuit is τ1 = RC.
Ve
ηVBB + V Capacitor
Capacitor
charging discharging
VBB
Vp
T2 = R1C
R R2
B2 Vp VV
E T1 = RC
VV

T t
B1
Ve V0
C R1 V0
α1
ω

(a) (b) t

Fig. (2) UJT oscillator (a) Connection diagram and (b) Voltage waveforms

When this emitter voltage ve (or vc) reaches the peak-point voltage Vp (= η VBB + VD), the Unijunction
between E – B1 breaks down. As a result, UJT turns on and capacitor C rapidly discharge through low resistance
R1 with a time constant τ2 = R1 C. Here τ2 is much smaller than τ1. When the emitter voltage decays to the valley-
point voltage Vv, UJT turns off. The time T required for capacitor C to charge from initial voltage Vv to peak-point
voltage Vp, through large resistance R, can be obtained as under:

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 5

Vp = η VBB + VD = Vv + VBB(1 – e–T/RC)

Assuming, VD = Vv, η = (1 – e–T/RC)
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
T= = RC ln ⎜
f ⎝ 1 − η⎟⎠
In case T is taken as the time period of output pulse duration (neglecting small discharge time), then the
value of firing angle α1 is given by
1
α1 = ωT = ω RC ln
1− η
where ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of UJT oscillator.

Solution : 3
The power-generated in the junction region of a thyristor in a normal operation consists of the following
components of dissipation:
1. Forward-conduction 2. Turn-off or commutation
3. Turn-on switching 4. Forward and Reverse blocking
5. Gate pulse triggering
1. Forward Conduction Loss: The average anode current multiplied by the forward voltage drop across
the SCR is the average power dissipated in the thyristor. ON state conduction losses are the major
source of junction heating for normal duty cycle and power-frequencies. figure shown below illustrates
the variation of the ON state average conduction loss in watts with the average current in amperes for
various conduction angles for operation on from 50 Hz to 400 Hz. This type of information is generally
supplied by the manufacturer. The curve marked d.c. is applicable for continuous direct-current These
curves are based on the current waveform which is the remainder of the half-sine wave which results
when delayed angle triggering is used in a single phase resistive load circuit. These power curves are
integrated product of the instantaneous anode current and ON state voltage drop. This integration can
be performed graphically or analytically for conduction angles other than those listed, using the ON
state voltage-current characteristic curves for the specific device. In the line commutated converters
and a.c. regulator circuits, the forward conduction loss is the major source of junction heating.
70
D.C.
60
Average power (watts)

50
180°
90° 120°
40
Conduction
angle 60°
30
30°
20
0° Conduction 180°
angle
10

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Average forward current (amperes)
Average forward power dissipation for sinusoidal current waveform

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 Electrical Engineering •
6 Power Electronics

2. Tur n-on Losses: Since the switching process takes a finite time, there is a relatively high voltage
urn-on
across the thyristor while a current flows. Therefore, this loss is rather higher than the turn-off loss. For
example, by the time the current has reached 90 per cent of its final value, there may still be 10 percent
of the supply voltage across the device. Accordingly, appreciable power may be dissipated during
this turn-on interval. Above 400 Hz switching, additional circuitry is used to reduce the switching
losses or else some derating of the normal forward current is made to allow for the extra dissipation.
3. Tur n-of
n-offf Losses: The turn-off power losses arises during the time of decay of reverse current, according
urn-of
to the product of the instantaneous values of reverse current and reverse voltage, may reach high peak
values up to several kilowatts. It is possible during rapid turn-off for the reverse current to rise to a
value comparable to the forward current. When the thyristor impedance starts to increase, dissipation
occurs as the current falls and the reverse voltage builds up. To limit the rate of change of current at
turn-off and hence the energy to be dissipated, circuit inductance is used. This also limits the rate of
rise of forward current which is an advantage but the inductance can give rise to high reverse voltage
transients during turn-off. In high frequency inverters, where the thyristors arc switched ON and OFF
several times in each supply cycle, the turn-on and turn-off losses may also have to be taken into
consideration while selecting the device ratings since the switching loss may constitute a significant
portion of the total loss.
4. Forward and Reverse Blocking Losses: As mentioned in the previous section, a thyristor has different
regions of operation. In the forward blocking region, anode is made positive with respect to cathode
and the anode current is the small forward leakage current Therefore, the forward blocking power loss
is the integration of product of the forward blocking voltage and forward leakage current. Similarly,
reverse power loss occurs in reverse blocking region. The forward power loss is generally small compared
to the conduction-loss.
5. Gate Power Loss: The gate power loss is the mean power loss due to gate current between the gate
and main terminals. Gate losses arc negligible for pulse types of triggering signals. Losses may
become more significant for gate signals with a high duty cycle.

Solution : 4
Average energy loss in the transistor = Average energy loss during turn-off + Average energy loss during
turn on
t on
Average energy loss during turn on = ∫ ic v CE dt
0

100
iC = (t ) = m1 t
50 × 10−6
200
vCE = m2t + C = − t + 200
40 × 10 −6
t on
⎡ 100 ⎤⎡ 200t ⎤
= ∫ ⎢⎣ 50 × 10 −6 t ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣200 − 40 × 10 −6 ⎥⎦ dt
0

t on

∫ [2 × 10
6
= t ] [200 − 5 × 106 t ] dt
0

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 7

t on = 40 μs t
⎡ 400 × 106 t 2 ⎤ ⎡ 10 × 1012 t 3 ⎤ on
= ⎢ ⎥ −⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦
0 0

400 × 106 × (40)2 × 10 −12 ⎡ 10 × 1012 × (40)3 × (10 −6 )3 ⎤

= −⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ 3 ⎦

⎡10 × 64 × 103 × 10 −6 ⎤
= 40 × 8000 × 10 −6 − ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦

−6 64
= 320000 × 10 − × 10 −2
3

= ⎡⎢32 −
64 ⎤ −2 32 −2
⎥ × 10 = 3 × 10 = 0.1067 Watt-sec
⎣ 3 ⎦
t off
Average power loss during turn-off = ∫ iC VCE dt
0

iC
VCE

C2
C2 = m2 × 15 × 10 −6
200 × 15 × 10 −6
= = 40
60 75 × 10 −6
15
75

⎡ 100 ⎤
iC = m1 t + C = ⎢ − −6
t + 100 ⎥
⎣ 60 × 10 ⎦

vCE = m2 t + C2 = ⎡⎢ ⎤
200
× 106 t + 40 ⎥
⎣ 75 ⎦
t off = 60 μs
⎡ 100 t × 106 ⎤ ⎡ 200 × 106 t ⎤
= ∫ ⎢100 −
60
⎥ ⎢40 +
75
⎥ dt
0 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
t t t
⎡ 200 × 106 t 2 ⎤ off ⎡ 40 × 100 × 106 t 2 ⎤ off ⎡ 100 × 106 × 200 × 106 t 3 ⎤ off
= [4000t ]t0off + ⎢ × 100⎥ − ⎢ ⎥ −⎢ ⎥
⎣ 75 × 2 ⎦0 ⎣ 60 × 2 ⎦0 ⎣ 60 × 75 3 ⎦0
= 0.24 + 0.48 – 0.12 – 0.32
= 0.28 Watt-sec
Total energy loss in one cycle = 0.1067 + 0.2800
= 0.3867 Watt-sec
Average power loss in transistor = Switching frequency × Average energy loss in one cycle
300
f= = 775.79 Hz
0.3867

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 Electrical Engineering •
8 Power Electronics

Solution : 5
di di
(a) E= L ⇒ 200 = 0.2
dt dt
Ilatch
⇒ 200 = 0.2
t gate width

0.2 × 100 × 10−3 200 V Load

⇒ tgate width = = 100 μ sec
200
di
(b) E = Ri + L
dt
−R
E t
i = (1 − e L )
R
200
⇒ 0.100 = (1 − e −100t ) ⇒ 0.01 = 1 – e–100t
20
⇒ e–100t = 0.99 ⇒ –100t = –0.010050
t = 100.503 μs

E⎡ − t⎤
R
(c) i= ⎢1− e L ⎥
R ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

200
0.100 = (1 − e −10t )
20
t = 1005.03 μ-sec

Solution : 6
RC C RC C RC C

I = string
current
T1 T2 T3 T4

I1 I2 I3 I4
R R R R
V1 V2 V3 V4

String voltage, Vs

I= string current in off state

R= state equalizing resistance
RC = Dynamic equalizing resistance
C= Dynamic equalizing capacitance
I1, I2, I3, I4 = Currents through R
(a) During static conditions:
• Capacitances will be out of circuit and hence no current will flow through RC and C.
• Leakage currents will flow through SCRs.

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 9

Voltage across T1 = (I – 0.022) × 25000 = V1

Voltage across T2 = (I – 0.026) × 25000 = V2
Voltage across T3 = (I – 0.020) × 25000 = V3
Voltage across T4 = (I – 0.018) × 25000 = V4
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = V5
25000(4I – 0.085) = 10000
4I – 0.085 = 0.4
I = 0.121 A
V1 = 25000 × (0.121 – 0.022) = 2475 V
V2 = 25000 × (0.121 – 0.026) = 2375 V
V3 = 25000 × (0.121 – 0.020) = 2525 V
V4 = 25000 × (0.121 – 0.018) = 2575 V
(b) During dynamic conditions:
At time of turn-on capacitors will short-circuit.
V1 2475
IC1 = Discharge current through capacitor 1 = = = 49.5 A
R1 50

V2 2375
IC2 = Discharge current through capacitor 2 = = = 47.5 A
R2 50

V3 2525
IC3 = Discharge current through capacitor 3 = = = 50.5 A
R3 50

V4 2575
IC4 = Discharge current through capacitor 4 = = = 51.5 A
R4 50
(c) Derating factor = 1 – string efficiency
(Actual voltage of whole string)
= 1−
(Number of SCR × Individual rating)
10000 10000
= 1− = 1−
4 × 3000 12000
= 1 – 0.833 = 0.16667 or 16.67%

„„„„

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 2 Controlled & Uncontrolled Rectifiers

© Copyright: Subject matter to MADE EASY Publications, New Delhi. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form without the written permission.
1. (c) 18. (b)

2. (c) 19. (19.96)

3. (b) 20. (9.28)

4. (0.70) 21. (0.955)

5. (a) 22. (b)

6. (147.51) 23. (b)

7. (1.66) 24. (d)

8. (0.0170) 25. (d)

9. (a) 26. (b)

10. (b) 27. (10)

11. (b) 28. (c)

12. (a) 29. (5.03)

13. (11.99) 30. (17.25)

14. (170)
„„„„

15. (b)

16. (c)

17. (c)

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 11

Solution : 1
vs +vs –vs

VB
0 ωt

iL

θ1
ωt
D1 D2 D3 D4
β
Area A = Area B

A
VL

ωt
(π + β )
B

+vs –vs
V0
VB
ωt

θ1 θ2 π β π + θ1 π + θ2 2π π + β

θ1 ≤ ωt ≤ β
KVL : D1 D2 → ON
–VS + VL+ VB = 0
VL = VS – VB
VL = Vm . sin ωt – VB
d iL
L = Vm sinωt – VB
dt
1
∫ diL = [V sin ωt − VB ].dt
L∫ m
−Vm V ⋅t
iL = cos ωt − B + K
ωL L
Use initiall conditions to find K.
At ωt = θ1, iL = 0
−Vm V ⋅θ
0= cos θ1 − B 1 + K
ωL ωL
1
K=
ωL
[Vm cosθ1 + VB θ1]
β
1
π θ∫
IL avg = iL .d (ωt )
1

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 Electrical Engineering •
12 Power Electronics

Solution : 2
Single-phase diode bridge rectifier:

is i D1 i0
+
D1 D3
a
Vs R V0
b

D4 D2
iD2 –

Vs
Vab Vba

Vm
ωt

V0

ωt
π 2π 3π

VD1, VD2

π 2π
ωt
3π
–Vm
i D1, i D2

Vm / R Vm / R

ωt
π 2π 3π

is

Vm / R Vm / R

ωt
π 2π 3π
–Vm / R

When ‘a’ is positive with respect to ‘b’ diode D1, D2 conduct together so that output voltage is Vab. Each of
the diodes D3 and D4 is subjected to a reverse voltage of Vs.
When ‘b’ is positive with respect to ‘a’, diodes D3, D4 conduct together and output voltage is Vba. Each of
the two diodes D1 and D2 experience a reverse voltage of Vs.
Average value of output voltage,
π
1 2Vm
π∫
V0 = Vm sinωt d(ωt ) =
0
π

V0
Average output current, I0 =
R

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 13

Rms value of output voltage,

1/ 2
⎡1π ⎤ V
Vor = ⎢ ∫ Vm2 sin2 ωt d(ωt )⎥ = m = Vs
⎣⎢ π 0 ⎦⎥ 2
Vs
Rms value of load current, Ior =
R
Vor Vm / 2 π
Form factor, FF = = = = 1.11
V0 2Vm / π 2 2
1/ 2
⎡ ⎛ V ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2V ⎞ 2 ⎤
Ripple voltage, Vr = Vor2 − V02 = ⎢⎜ m ⎟ − ⎜ m ⎟ ⎥ = 0.30776 Vm
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ π ⎠ ⎥
⎦
Vr 0.30776 Vm
Voltage ripple factor, VRF = = = 0.4834
V0 2Vm / π
Pdc
Transformer utilization factor, TUF =
VA rating of transformer
Vm
Rms value of source voltage, Vs =
2
Im
Rms value of source current, Is =
2
Vm Im Vm Im
VA rating of transformer = Vs Is = ⋅ =
2 2 2
2
2Vm 2Im ⎛ 2⎞
Pdc = V0 I0 = ⋅ = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅Vm Im
π π ⎝ π⎠
4
V I
2 m m
Pdc
= π
8
So, TUF = = = 0.81057
VA rating of transformer Vm Im / 2 π2

Solution : 3
1-φ semiconverter circuit is shown in figure (a).
I0
+ +

IFD
T1 T2
is L
a
O
Vs A V0
Vm sinω t
FD D
b

D2 D1

(a)
• The load current is assumed to be continous and ripple free.
• The various waveforms Vs, V0, Ia and Is are shown in figure (b).

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 Electrical Engineering •
14 Power Electronics

Vs

Vm
0 ωt
α π 2π

Vo

ωt
α

Ia

Ia
ωt

Is
Ia
ωt
–Ia

IFD
Ia
ωt
(b)

• The instantaneous input current is(t) can be expressed in Fourier series as:
∞
is(t) = a0 + ∑ (an cos nωt + bn sin nωt )
n = 1,2,3

2π
1
where, a0 =
2π ∫ is (t )d(ωt )
0
2π
1
an =
π ∫ is (t ) ⋅ cosnωt ⋅ d(ωt )
0

2π
1
and bn =
π ∫ is (t ) ⋅ sinnωt ⋅ d(ωt )
0

1 ⎡ ⎤
π 2π
a0 = ⎢ ∫ ia ⋅ d (ωt ) − ∫ I a ⋅ d ( ωt ) ⎥ = 0
2π ⎢ α ⎥⎦
⎣ π+α

1⎡ ⎤
π 2π
an = ⎢ ∫ ia cos nωt ⋅ d (ωt ) − ∫ I a cos n ω t ⋅ d (ω t ) ⎥
π ⎢α ⎥⎦
⎣ π+α

Ia ⎡ π⎤ 2π ⎤
= sin nωt − ⎡ sin nωt
nπ ⎣ α⎦ ⎣ n+α ⎦

2 Ia
= − sin nα ........... for n = 1, 3, 5 .......
nπ
= 0 ........... for n = 2, 4, 6 ........

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 15

1⎡ ⎤
π 2π
bn = ⎢ ∫ Ia sin nωt ⋅ d (ωt ) − ∫ Ia sin nωt ⋅ d (ωt )⎥
π ⎢α ⎥⎦
⎣ n+α

2 Ia
= (1 + cos nα) ............ for n = 1, 3, 5 ..........
nπ
= 0 ............ for n = 2, 4, 6
1/2
⎡⎛ 2 I ⎞
2
⎛2I ⎞ ⎤
2
2 2 Ia
Cn = ⎢⎜ − a sin nα)⎟ + ⎜ a (1 + cos nα)⎟ ⎥ = (1+ cosnα)1/2
⎢⎣⎝ n π ⎠ ⎝ nπ ⎠ ⎥
⎦
nπ

nθ
as we know, 1 + cosθ = 2 cos2
2
1/2
2 2 Ia ⎡ 2 nα ⎤ 4 Ia nα
Cn = ⎢2cos 2 ⎥ = cos
nπ ⎣ ⎦ nπ 2
⎡ nα nα ⎤
⎛ ⎞ α ⎢ 2sin ⋅ cos ⎥
a ⎡
θn = tan−1 ⎜ n ⎟ = tan−1 ⎢ −
sin n ⎤
= tan−1 ⎢ − 2 2 = − nα
⎝ bn ⎠ ⎥
⎣ 1 + cos nα ⎦ ⎢ nα ⎥⎥ 2
2cos2
⎣ 2 ⎦
∞
4 Ia nα ⎛ nα ⎞
Hence, is(t) = ∑ cos ⋅ sin ⎜ nωt −
⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠
n = 1,3,5 n π 2
Rms value of nth harmonic input current,
4 Ia nα 2 2 nα
Isn = cos = Ia ⋅ cos
2 nπ 2 nπ 2
Hence, Rms value of the fundamental current,
2 2 α
IsI = I ⋅ cos for n=1
nπ a 2
Rms value of total input current,
1/2 1/2
⎡ I 2 (π − α) ⎤ ⎡π − α⎤
Is = ⎢ a ⎥ = Ia ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ π ⎥⎦ ⎣ π ⎦
α
2 2 cos
Is I ⎛ 2 2 α⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ 2
CDF = =⎜ Ia cos ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ =
Is ⎝ π 2 ⎠ ⎝ Ia π − α ⎠ π(π − α)
1/2
⎡ ⎤
1/2 1/2
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎢ π(π − α) ⎥ ⎡ π(π − α ) ⎤
Harmonic factor = ⎢ − 1⎥ =⎢ − 1⎥ = ⎢ − 1⎥
⎢ 8cos2 α ⎥ ⎣ 4(1 + cos α ) ⎦
2
⎣ CDF ⎦
⎣ 2 ⎦
Hence, harmonic factor of input current for α = n/2
1/2
⎡ π(π − π / 2) ⎤
= ⎢ − 1⎥ = 0.4834
⎣ 4(1 + cos π / 2) ⎦

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 Electrical Engineering •
16 Power Electronics

Solution : 4
The given circuit is a three-phase three-pulse converter.
π
Case-I: α ≤ , free wheeling diode will not conduct
6
iR = I0 when T1 is ON
iR = 0 when T1 OFF
iR = a1 cosωt + b1 sinωt
2π
1
a1 =
π ∫ f (ωt ) ⋅ cos ωt ⋅ d(ωt )
0
5π
+α
1 6 ⎡ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛ 5π ⎞⎤
= ∫ I 0 cos ωt ⋅ d(ωt ) ⎢∵ TON from ⎜⎝ 6 + α ⎟⎠ to ⎜⎝ 6 + α ⎟⎠ ⎥
π π
⎣ ⎦
+α
6

3 I0
a1 = sin α
π
5π
+α
6
1 3 I0
b1 =
π ∫ I 0 sinωt ⋅ d(ωt ) =
π
cos α
π
+α
6

3 I0
c1 = a12 + b12 =
π
⎛a ⎞
φ1 = tan−1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = α
⎝ b1 ⎠

iR1 = c1 sin(ωt + φ1) =

3 I0
sin(ωt + α)
π
Fundamental displacement factor = FDF = cosφ1 = cosα
3 I0
IR1 rms 2π 3
Distortion factor = g = = =
IR rms I0 / 3 2π
3
Power factor = g × FDF = cos α
2π
π
Case-II: α > freewheeling diode will conduct
6
⎛π ⎞
T1 will conduct from ⎜ + α⎟ to π
⎝6 ⎠
iR1 = a1 cosωt + b1 sinωt
π
1 I0 ⎛π ⎞
a1 =
π ∫ I 0 cos ωt ⋅ d(ωt ) = −
π
sin⎜ + α⎟
⎝6 ⎠
π
+α
6

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 17

π
1 I0 ⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
b1 =
ππ ∫ I0 sin ωt ⋅ d(ωt ) =
π ⎣⎢1+ cos ⎜ + α⎟ ⎥
⎝6 ⎠⎦
+α
6

c1 = a12 + b12
2
I0 ⎛π ⎞ ⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤ 2 I0 ⎛ π α⎞
= sin2 ⎜ + α ⎟ + ⎢1 + cos ⎜ + α ⎟ ⎥ = cos ⎜ +
π ⎝6 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝6 ⎠⎦ π ⎝ 12 2 ⎟⎠

IR1(rms) = 2 I0 ⎛ π α⎞
cos ⎜ +
π ⎝ 12 2 ⎟⎠
⎛π ⎞⎞ ⎛ ⎛π ⎞
+α ⎟ +α
−1 ⎛ a1 ⎞ ⎜6 ⎟−1 ⎜ ⎜6 ⎟
φ1 = tan ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ − tan ⎜ ⎟⎟ = −⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ b1 ⎠ ⎜ ⎜
2
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ π α⎞
FDF = cosφ1 = cos ⎜ +
⎝ 12 2 ⎟⎠

2 I0 ⎛ π α⎞
cos ⎜ +
Is1 π ⎝ 12 2 ⎟⎠
Distortion factor = =
Is 5π
−α
IOX 6
2π

⎛α π ⎞
2 cos ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 12 ⎠
Digital factor =
⎛ 5π ⎞
π⎜ − α⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠

⎛α π ⎞
2 cos2 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 12 ⎠
Power factor =
⎛ 5π ⎞
π⎜ − α⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠

Solution: 5
I0

R
V0 R = 15 Ω
Y
B

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 Electrical Engineering •
18 Power Electronics

⎛π ⎞
+ α⎟
⎝⎜
6 ⎠
1 3Vml
V0 =
π ∫ Vml cos ωt d (ωt ) =
π
cos α
⎛π ⎞
− ⎜ − α⎟
3 ⎝6 ⎠

3 3 Vm
α = 75°, = cos75° = 0.428 Vm
π
2
Power consumed by load = 6 kW = V0
R
(0.428Vm )2
6 × 103 =
15
6 × 103 × 15
Vm = = 700.9345 V
0.428

Solution : 6
The generation of gating signals for thyristors of ac to dc converters involves the following steps:
1. Zero crossing detection of input voltage.
2. Phase shifting of the signals to the required value.
3. Pulse shaping to generate pulses of short duration.
4. Pulse isolation through pulse transformers.
Block diagrams:

T1 T3

L
Vs
o
a
d
T4 T2

+
VCC
–

+VCC

Vg1
Zero-crossing
detector
Pulse
shaping Vg2
and
pulse
amplifier –Vg3
Control Firing angle circuit
signal delay circuits
Vg4

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 19

Solution : 7

rs I0 jXs

rs
V0

Power circuit diagram above shows that source resistance rs will lead to a voltage drop of 2I0rs. Two
thyristors, one from positive and other from negative group will conduct together. Thus there would be a

3 ω Ls
constant voltage drop of 2 VT . The source reactance leads to overlap and it will lead to a drop of = I0 .
π

3Vml 3ω Ls I 0
Hence, V0 = cos α − 2 I 0rs − 2VT −
π π
As converter is working in converter mode polarities of output voltage would be reversed,
3Vml cos α 3ω Ls I 0
– V0 = − 2 I 0rs − 2VT −
π π
3Vml cos α 3ω Ls I 0
V0 = + 2 I 0rs + 2VT +
π π
3(440 2) cos35° 3 × 0.3 × 60
= + (2 × 60 × 0.05) + (2 × 2) +
π π
= 486.75 + 6 + 4 + 17.18 = 513.9 V

Solution : 8
For a fully controlled three-phase bridge with source inductance,.
Vd0
Change in output voltage, ΔV = 6f Ls I0 = (cos α − cos(α + μ)) ...(1)
2
where, f= 50 Hz
Ls = 0.32 mH
I0 = Maximum current
μ= Overlap angle or recovery angle = 5°
α= Firing angle
= 180° – 30° = 150° (∴ as it is firing advance angle)
3Vml 3 × 220 6
Vd 0 = = = 514.59 V
π π
By equation (i),
6 × 50 × 0.32 × 10–3 × I0 = 257.295 (cos150° – cos155°)

10.364 × 103
I0 = = 107.9 A
6 × 50 × 0.32

„„„„

© Copyright www.madeeasypublications.org
 3 Choppers

© Copyright: Subject matter to MADE EASY Publications, New Delhi. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form without the written permission.
1. (a) 15. (c)

2. (b) 16. (b)

3. (d) 17. (38.47)

4. (d) 18. (c)

5. (d) 19. (c)

6. (c) 20. (a)

7. (c) 21. (40.00)

8. (54) 22. (0.13)

9. (4.9) 23. (171.52)

10. (a)
„„„„

11. (a)

12. (a)

13. (d)

14. (a)

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 21

Solution : 1
Boost regulator:
In boost regulator the output voltage is greater than input voltage hence the name ‘boost’.

is L

+ V – i0 +
L Dm iC

+ + L
Vs M1 VC C o V0
VD a
– – d
G
–
(a)

The circuit operation is divided into two modes.

Mode-1:
Begin when MOSFET M1 is switched on at t = 0

is, iL L

+
Vs
–

(b)

The input current, which rises flows through inductor L and MOSFET M1. Mode 2 begins when MOSFET M1
is switched-off at t = t1.
is, iL L

+ V – i0 +
L Dm iC

+ + L
Vs VC C o V0
– – a
d

The current that was flowing through the MOSFET would now flow through L, C load and diode Dm. The
inductor current will flow until MOSFET M1 is turned-on again in the next cycle. Assuming that the inductor
current rises linearly from I1 to I2 in time t1.
L ( I 2 − I1) ΔI
Vs = =L ...(1)
t1 t1

ΔI L
t1 = TON = ...1 (a)
Vs
and the inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1 in time t2,
−L ΔI
Vs – V0 =
t2

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 Electrical Engineering •
22 Power Electronics

ΔI L
TOFF = t2 = ...(2)
V0 − Vs
where, ΔI = I2 – I1 is peak to peak ripple current of inductor L.
From equation (1) and (2),
Vs TON (V0 − Vs )TOFF
ΔI = = ...(3)
L L
Substituting, TON = αT
TOFF = (1 – α) T [in equation (3)]
Vs αT (V − Vs ) (1 − α)T
= 0
L k
αVs = V0 – αV0 – Vs + αVs
Vs = V0(1 – α)
Vs
V0 = = Average output voltage [Ans. (i)]
1− α
For voltage ripple:
When switch ‘s’ is on, capacitor supplies the load current for t = Ton. The average capacitor current
during time TON is IC = I0 and peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor is
ΔVC = VC (at t = TON) – VC (at t = 0)
TON
1 1
=
C ∫ IC dt =
C
I 0 TON ...(4)
0

1 I0 α
= I0 αT = [Ans. (iii)]
C fC
For minimum inductance for continous current:
If IL is the average inductor current, the inductor ripple current is
ΔI = 2IL ...(5)
From equation (3),

Vs α α
ΔI = as TON = ...(6)
fL f

V Vs
IL = I 0 = 0 = ...(7)
R (1− α)R
Putting equation (6) and (7) in (5),
Vs α 2Vs
=
fL (1− α)R
α(1 − α) R
L= [Ans. (ii)]
2f
For critical capacitance:
If VC = average capacitor voltage, the capacitor voltage ripple,
ΔVC = 2 V0 ...(8)
I0 α
ΔVC =
fC

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 23

Putting ΔVC and V0 in equation (8),

I0 α
= 2I0 R
fC
α
C= [Ans. (iv)]
2fR
Output waveforms:

V0

Vs

t
0 αT T
is, iL

IL
ΔI

t
0 αT T
iD
I2
I1
t
0 αT T
iC
I2 – I 0
t
αT T
I0
VC

V0 VC
t
αT T
I0

Solution : 2
(a) Limit of continuous conduction is reached when Imn goes to zero. The value of duty cycle ∝ at the limit
of continuous conduction is obtained by equating Imn to zero. Therefore,

Vs ⎡ eTON / Ta − 1⎤ E
Imn = ⎢ ⎥− =0
R ⎣⎢ eT /Ta − 1 ⎦⎥ R

eTON / Ta − 1 E
⇒ T / Ta
= = m ⇒ eTon / Ta = 1 + m(eT/Ta – 1)
e −1 Vs
TON Ta
⇒ α′ = = ln [1 + m(eT / Ta − 1)]
T T

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 Electrical Engineering •
24 Power Electronics

L
Ta = = 5 × 10 −3 sec
R
Ta 5 × 10−3
= = 2.5
T 2000 × 10 −6
T
= 0.4
Ta
E 24
m= = = 0.11
Vs 220
600
α= = 0.3
2000
TON 600
= = 0.12
Ta 5000

TON T
α′ = T /T
= a × ln [1 + m (e a − 1)]
T T
= 2.5 ln[1 + 0.11(e0.4 – 1)] = 0.13172
As actual value of duty cycle α = 0.3 is greater than α′, load current is continuous.
αVs − E 0.3 × 220 − 24
(b) I0 = = = 42 A
R 1

Vs ⎡1− e−TON /Ta ⎤ E

(c) Imx = ⎢ ⎥−
R ⎢⎣ 1− e −T /Ta ⎥⎦ R

220 ⎡1 − e −0.12 ⎤ 24
= ⎢ ⎥− = 51.46 A
1 ⎣ 1 − e −0.4 ⎦ 1

Vs ⎡ eTON / T − 1⎤ E 220 ⎡ e0.12 − 1⎤

Imn = ⎢ ⎥− = ⎢ ⎥ − 24 = 33.031A
R ⎣⎢ eT /Ta − 1 ⎦⎥ R 1 ⎣ e0.4 − 1 ⎦

2Vs
(d) Vn = sin n πd sin(nωt + θn )
nπ
Rms value of 1st harmonic,
2Vs 2 × 220
V1 = sin(π × 0.3) = sin54° = 80.121 V
2π 2π

Z1 = R2 + (ωL)2 = 12 + (2π 500 × 5 × 10−3)2 = 15.739 Ω

V1 80.121
I1 = = = 5.0903 A
Z1 15.739

2 × 200 1
I2 = sin108° ×
2× 2π 1 + (2π × 500 × 2 × 5 × 10 −3 )2
= 1.498 A

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 25

2 × 200 1
I3 = sin162° × = 0.21643 A
3 2π 1 + (2π × 500 × 3 × 5 × 10 −3 )2
α(Vs − E ) L
Iav = − ( Im x − Imn ) = 12.7275 A
R RT
(e) Input power = E × average supply current
= 220 × 12.7275 = 2800.05 Watts
Power absorbed by load emf = E × Average load current
= 24 × 42 = 1008 Watts
Power loss in resistor = 2800.05 – 1008 = 1792.05 Watts

(f) Ior = 2
Iav + I12 + I22 + I32

= 422 + (5.0903)2 + (1.4983)2 + (0.2164)2 = 42.31 A

Power loss in resistor = I2R = 1792.05 W
1792.05
Ior = = 42.33 A
1

Solution : 3
Voltage commutated chopper circuit,
T1

+
12 μF I0 = 20 A

TA
+ L
350 V o
FD V0 a
–
2.25 mH d

Circuit turn-off time:

CVs 12 × 10−6 × 350
tC = = = 140 × 10–6 = 1.4 × 10–4 s
I0 30
Minimum on-period for this chopper is
π
t1 = = π LC
ω0

= π 2.25 × 10 −3 × 12 × 10 −6

= π 27 × 10 −9 = π × 10 −4 2.7
= 5.162 × 10–4 s
The minimum average output voltage of the circuit is
V0, min = f Vs [t1 + 2tc]
= 250 × 350[5.162 × 10–4 + 2 × 1.4 × 10–4]
= 8.75 × 7.962 = 69.67 V

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 Electrical Engineering •
26 Power Electronics

Solution : 4
tC I0
C=
Vs

CVs 30 × 10−6 × 150

By the question, tC = =
I0 I0

C
(i) Peak current through main thyristor = I0 + Vs
L

C
2I0 = I0 + Vs
L

C 30
I0 = Vs = 150 = 138.87 A
L 35

CVs 30 × 10−6 × 150

(ii) tC = = = 32.40 μs
I0 138.87
(iii) Minimum value of duty cycle:
−6 −6
αmn = πf LC = π × 300 30 × 35 × 10 × 10 = 0.0305
Minimum value of output voltage
= Vs(αmn + 2 f tc)
= 150(0.0305 + 2 × 300 × 32.40 × 10–6)
= 150(0.0305 + 194.4 × 10–4)
= 150(0.0305 + 0.0194)
= 7.485 V
Maximum value of output voltage = 150 V

Solution : 5

Vstc 230 × 60 × 10 −6
(i) L= = = 16.473 μH
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
xI 0 ⎢ π − 2 sin−1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ 2 × 200 ⎢ π − 2 sin−1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ x⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦

x I0 tc 2 × 200 × 60 × 10 −6
C= = = 49.822 μF
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
Vs ⎢ π − 2 sin−1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ 230 ⎢ π − 2sin−1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ x⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦

L
(ii) Peak capacitor voltage, Vcp = Vs + I 0
C

16.473
= 230 + 200 = 345 Volts
49.822
(iii) Peak commutating current = xI0 = 2 × 200 = 400 A

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 27

Solution : 6
(a) Peak commutating current, is

ICP = Cs C = 230 50 = 363.66 A

L 20
ICP 363.66
x= = = 1.8183
I0 200
Turn-off time of main SCR, is
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
tc = ⎢ π − 2 sin−1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ LC
⎣ ⎝ x⎠ ⎦

⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= ⎢ π − 2 sin−1 ⎜ −6 2
⎟⎠ ⎥ 20 × 50 × (10 )
⎣ ⎝ 1.8183 ⎦
= 62.52 μs
⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
(b) θ1 = sin−1 ⎜ 0 ⎟ = sin−1 ⎜ = 33.656°
⎝ ICP ⎠ ⎝ 363.66 ⎟⎠
Total commutation interval is
⎛ 5π ⎞ (1 − cos θ1)
= ⎜ − θ1⎟ LC + CVs
⎝ 2 ⎠ I0

⎛ 5π 33.365 × π ⎞ −6 −6 ⎛ 1 − cos 33.6 ⎞

= ⎜ − ⎟ 1000 × 10 + 50 × 10 × 230 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎝ 2 180° ⎠ 200
= 229.95 × 10–6 + 9.477 × 10–6
= 239.427 μs
(c) Turn-off time of auxiliary thyristor
= (π − θ1) LC

33.365 × π ⎤
= ⎡⎢ π − 1000 × 10 −6 = 80.931 μs
⎣ 180° ⎥⎦

Solution : 7
Vs = 18 V, V0 = 45 V, Ia = 1.5 A, f = 20 kHz, L = 300 μH, C = 450 μF
Vs α
(a) Va =
(1− α)
18 α
⇒ 45 =
1− α
⇒ 45 – 45α = 18α

45
⇒ α= = 0.714
63

α I0 0.714 × 1.5
(c) Ripple voltage, ΔVC = = = 119 mV
fC 20 × 103 × 450 × 10 −6

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 Electrical Engineering •
28 Power Electronics

αVs 0.714 × 18
(b) Ripple current, ΔI = = = 2.142 A
fL 20 × 103 × 300 × 10 −6
(d) Peak current of transistor,
Ia α 1.5 × 0.714
Is = = = 3.74A
1− α (1− 0.714)
Is ΔI 3.74 2.142
IP = + = + = 6.309 A
α 2 0.714 2

Va 45
(e) R = I = 1.5 = 30 Ω
a

(1 − α) αR
LC =
2f

(1 − 0.714) (0.714) × 30
= = 0.153 × 10 −3 = 153 μH
2 × 20 × 103

α 0.714
CC = = = 0.595 μH
2fR 2 × 20 × 103 × 30

Solution : 8
(a) Va = kVs
Va 5
k= = = 0.4167
Vs 12

Va (Vs − Va )
(b) ΔI =
fLVs

5(12 − 5)
L= = 145.83 μH
0.8 × 25000 × 12
ΔI
(c) ΔVC =
8fC
0.8
C= = 200 μF
8 × 20 × 10 −3 × 25000
(1 − K ) R (1 − 0.4167) × 500
(d) LC = = = 5.83 mH
2f 2 × 25 × 103
1− K (1 − 0.4167)
CC = 2
= 2
= 1500 μF
16 Lf 16 × 5.83 × 10 −3 (25 × 103 )

Solution : 9
TOFF 1
=
TON 4

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 29

TOFF 5
+1 =
TON 4

T 5 T 4
= ⇒ ON = α =
TON 4 T 5
Average value of load voltage = V0
4
V0 = αVs = × 100 = 80 V
5
Chopping period, T = 2 m-sec
4
TON = × 2 = 1.6 ms
5
Hence,

Imx = 17.43 A

Imn = 14.3 A

1.6 2 3.6 4 t(ms)

During TON:
di
Vs = L + iR
dt
Taking Laplace transform:
Vs
= L(sI(s) – Imn) + I(s) R
s
Vs
+ L Imn = I(s) + (sL + R)
s
Vs LImn
I(s) = +
s(sL + R) sL + R

⎡ ⎤
Vs Imn Vs ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ Imn
I(s) = + = ⎢ − R ⎥⎥
+
⎛ R⎞
s+
R R ⎢ s R
Ls ⎜ s + ⎟ s+ s+
⎝ L⎠ L ⎢⎣ L⎦ ⎥ L
Rt
Vs −
i(t) = (1 − e L ) + Imn e −Rt / L
R
= 20[1 – e500t] + Imn e–500t
During TOFF:
di
0= L + iR
dt

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 Electrical Engineering •
30 Power Electronics

di R
= − (i)
dt L
i t
di R
∫ i
= −∫ dt
L
imn 0

i Rt
ln = −
im x L
i = imx e–Rt /L
i = imx e–500t
at t = TON:
Imx = 20(1 – e–0.8) + Imn e–0.8
Imx –0.45Imn = 11.01 ...(1)
at t = TOFF:
Imn = Imx e–0.2
Imn = 0.82 Imx ...(2)
Solving, Imx = 17.43 A
Imn = 14.3 A

„„„„

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 4 Inverters

© Copyright: Subject matter to MADE EASY Publications, New Delhi. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form without the written permission.
1. (b) 13. (b)

2. (d) 14. (60)

3. (18.08) 15. (d)

4. (b) 16. (2.78)

5. (b) 17. (2.25)

6. (c) 18. (b)

7. (b) 19. (0.122)

8. (a) 20. (72.92)

9. (c) 21. (b)

10. (a) 22. (c)

11. (b) 23. (a)

12. (a) 24. (b)

25. (121.54)

26. (710.46)

27. (c)

„„„„

© Copyright www.madeeasypublications.org
 Electrical Engineering •
32 Power Electronics

Solution : 1
PWM (pulse width modulation) is a internal voltage control of inverter. In this method, a fixed dc input
voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled output voltage is obtained by, adjusting the on and off
periods of the inverter components. In Sine modulation [Sin M ] the pulse width is a sinusoidal function of
the angular position of the pulse in a cycle as shown in figure.
For realizing sin M, a high-frequency triangular carrier wave Vc is compared with a sinusoidal reference
wave Vr of the desired frequency. The intersection of Vc and Vr waves determines the switching instants
and commutation of the modulated pulse. In figure VC is the peak value of triangular carrier wave and Vr
that of the reference, or modulating signal.
The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has magnitude higher
than the triangular wave, the comparator output is high, otherwise it is low. The comparator output is
processed in a trigger pulse generator in such a manner that the output voltage wave of the inverter has a
pulse width in agreement with the comparator output pulse width.

VC Reference wave, freq. f

Carrier wave, freq. fc

Vr
π
ωt
1/fc 2π
1/2 f
V0

Vs

ωt
π 2π

–Vs
(a)

VC Carrier wave, freq. fc

Reference wave, freq. f

Vr

ωt
2π
1/fc
1/2f

V0
Vs

ωt
π 2π

–Vs
(b)
Output voltage waveforms with sinusoidal pulse modulation

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 33

When triangular carrier wave has its peak coincident with zero of the reference sinusoid, there are
fc
N = fc /2f = pulses per half cycle ; Fig. (a) has five pulses. In case zero of the triangular wave coincides
2f
with zero of the reference sinusoid, there are (N – 1) pulses per half cycle ; Fig. (b) has (fc /2f – 1), i.e. four,
pulses per cycle.
The ratio of Vr /Vc is called the modulation index (MI) and it controls the harmonic content of the output
voltage waveform. The magnitude of fundamental component of output voltage is proportional to MI, but
MI can never be more than unity. Thus the output voltage is controlled by varying MI.
Harmonic analysis of the output modulated voltage wave reveals that sin M has the following important
features:
(i) For MI less than one, largest harmonic amplitudes in the output voltage are associated with harmonics
of order fc /f ± 1 or 2N ± 1, where N is the number of pulses per half cycle. Thus, by increasing the
number of pulses per half cycle, the order of dominant harmonic frequency can be raised, which can
then be filtered out easily.
It is observed from above that as N is increased, the order of significant harmonic increases and the
filtering requirements are accordingly minimised. But higher value of N entails higher switching frequency
of thyristors. This amounts to more switching losses and therefore an impaired inverter efficiency. Thus
a compromise between the filtering requirements and inverter efficiency should be made.
(ii) For MI greater than one, lower order harmonics appear, since for MI > 1, pulse width is no longer a
sinusoidal function of the angular position of the pulse.

Solution : 2

S1 S3
D1 D3

+ R
230 V
– 8Ω 0.04 H

D4 D2
S4 S2

V0
I0, mx

Vs

ωt
0 π 2π

0.02s

For the first-half cycle:

T
0< t<
2
The voltage equation for RL load is
d i0
Vs = R i0 + L
dt

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 Electrical Engineering •
34 Power Electronics

−t ⎞
Vs ⎛ 220 ⎡ L ⎤
i(t ) = ⎜ 1 − e τ
⎟ = (1− e−200t ) ⎢ where, τ = R = 0.005⎥
R⎝ ⎠ 8 ⎣ ⎦

= 27.5 (1 – e–200t)
During second half cycle:
Vs
I0 = Iinitial =
R
V
I∞ = I field =− s
R
I(t ) = (I ∞ − (I ∞ − I0 )e−t / τ )

⎡ V ⎛ V V ⎞ ⎤ V 2V
= ⎢ − s − ⎜ − s − s ⎟ e−t / τ ⎥ = − s + s e−t / τ
⎣ R ⎝ R R⎠ ⎦ R R
220 2 × 220 −200t
= − + e = −27.5 + 55 e −200t
8 8

Solution : 3
Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation:
AReference
mA =
Acarrier
f carrier
mF =
f Reference
Instead of maintaining the width of all pulses the same as in the case of multiple-pulse modulation, the
width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center of the
same pulse. The DF and LOH are reduced significantly. The gating signals are generated by comparing a
sinusoidal reference signal with a triangular carrier wave of frequency fc. This sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation (SPWM) is commonly used in industrial applications. The frequency of reference signal fr
determines the inverter output frequency f0 ; and its peak amplitude Ar controls the modulation index M,
and then in turn the rms output voltage V0. The rms output voltage can be varied by varying the modulation
index MA. It can be observed that the area of each pulse corresponds approximately to the area under the
sine wave between the adjacent midpoints of off periods on the gating signals. The harmonic profile is
shown in figure for five pulses per half-cycle. The DF is significantly reduced compared with that of multiple-
pulse modulation.
The output voltage of an inverter contains harmonics. The PWM pushes the harmonics into a high-frequency
range around the switching frequency fc and its multiples, that is around harmonics mf , 2mf , 3mf , and so
on. The frequncies at which the voltage harmonics occur can be related by
fn = (jmf ± k) fc
where the n harmonic equals the kth sideband of jth times the frequency to modulation ratio mf.
th

n = jmf ± k
= 2 jp ± k
For j = 1, 2, 3, ... and k = 1, 3, 5, ...
The peak fundamental output voltage for PWM and SPWM control can be found approximately from
Vm1 = mAVs for 0 ≤ mA ≤ 1.0

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 35

For mA = 1, equation gives the maximum peak amplitude of the fundamental output voltage as Vm 1(max) = Vs.
According to equation, Vm 1(max) could be as high as 4Vs/π = 1.273 Vs for a square-wave output. To increase
the fundamental output voltage, mA must be increased beyond 1.0. The operation beyond mA = 1.0 is
called overmodulation. The value of mA at which Vm 1(max) equals 1.273 Vs is dependent on the number of
pulses per half-cycle p and is approximately 3 for p = 7, as shown in figure. Overmodulation basically
leads to a square-wave operation and adds more harmonics as compared with operation in the linear
range (with mA ≤ 1.0). Overmodulation is normally avoided in applications requiring low distortion
(e.g. uninterruptible power supplies [UPS]).

Vm1 v Carrier signal vr

Vs Ac vcr
Reference
4 Ar signal
π

1 ωt
Nonlinear 2π
π

1
Linear fc

0 1 2 3 mA
δm
Vs

0 ωt
αm π 2π

–Vs

Solution : 4
The voltage waveform of the given figure is symmetrical about π as well as π/2.
As this voltage waveform has quarter wave symmetry,
an = 0

4Vs ⎡ 1 ⎤
α α2 π /2
and bn = ⎢ ∫ sin ωt ⋅ d ω(t ) − ∫ sin n ωt ⋅ d ω(t ) + ∫ sin n ωt ⋅ d ω(t )⎥
π ⎢0 ⎥
⎣ α1 α2 ⎦
α1 α2 π /2⎤
4Vs ⎡⎛ cosn ωt ⎞ ⎛ cosn ωt ⎞ ⎛ cosn ωt ⎞
bn = ⎢⎜ − − ⎜− + ⎜− ⎥
π ⎢⎝
⎣
n ⎟⎠ 0
⎝ n ⎟⎠ α1
⎝ n ⎟⎠ α2 ⎥⎦

4Vs ⎡ 1 − cos n α1 cos α 2 − cos α1 cos n α 2 ⎤

= + +
π ⎢⎣ n n n ⎥
⎦
4Vs ⎡1 − 2cos n α1 + 2cos n α 2 ⎤
bn =
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥
⎦
Now, for the values of α1 = 23.62° and α2 = 33.30°
The amplitude of 7th harmonics
4Vs ⎡ 1 − 2 cos(7 × 23.62°) + 2 cos(7 × 33.30°) ⎤
b7 =
π ⎢⎣ ⎥ = 0.3154 Vs
7 ⎦

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 Electrical Engineering •
36 Power Electronics

The amplitude of 9th harmonics

4Vs ⎡1 − 2 cos(9 × 23.62°) + 2cos(9 × 33.30°) ⎤
b9 =
π ⎢⎣ ⎥ = 0.5201Vs
9 ⎦
and the amplitude of 11th harmonics,
4Vs ⎡ 1 − 2 cos(11 × 23.62°) + 2 cos(11 × 33.30°) ⎤
b11 =
π ⎢⎣ ⎥ = 0.3867 Vs
11 ⎦

Solution : 5
Rms value of fundamental component at the output of inverter,
4 × 12 1 48
V1 = × = = 10.8 V
π 2 2π
V1 V
(i) = 2
N1 N2

10
⇒ N2 = 230 × = 212.96 V
10.8
(ii) Rms value of secondary current,
230
I2 = = 2.3 A
100
I1 N1 = I2 N2
2.3 × 212.96
I1 = = 48.98 A
10
Rms value of primary current 48.98
(iii) Rms value of thyristor current = = = 34.634 A
2 2

„„„„

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 5 Resonant Converters and Power
Electronics Applications (Drives, SMPS)

© Copyright: Subject matter to MADE EASY Publications, New Delhi. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form without the written permission.
1. (d) 10. (a)

2. (a) 11. (b)

3. (d) 12. (d)

4 Sol. 13. (180)

5. (b) 14. (b)

6. (b) 15. (d)

7. (c) 16. (c)

8. (a) 17. (c)

9. (d) 18. (b)

19. (98.72)

20. (c)

„„„„

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 Electrical Engineering •
38 Power Electronics

Solution : 1
From the question:
SCR
i(0) = 10 A Ra La
To calculate i(10–3)
During ON condition: i
+ +
di Vs
V s = i Ra + L + Eb –
Eb
dt –

di
180 = 0.4 i + 8 × 10 −3 + 80
dt
di
100 = 0.4 i + 8 × 10 −3
dt
t i
−3 di
∫ dt = 8 × 10 ∫ 100 − 0.4i
0 0

8 × 10 −3 ⎛ 100 − 0.4i ⎞
t= ln ⎜ ⎟⎠
−0.4 ⎝ 96

⎛ 100 − 0.4i ⎞
–50t = ln ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 96
100 – 0.4i = 96 e–50t
1
i= [100 − 96 e −50t ] = 5[50 – 48 e–50t]
0.4
= 250 – 240 e–50t
50
−
At t = 10–3 sec., i = 250 − 240e 1000 = 21.705 A

Solution : 2
CH
D
+ –
iL Eb
+
Vs Va L C
Ra

ia Rf, If
–

αVs
Va = [α = Duty cycle = TON/T]
1− α
Now, Va = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rf)
= Eb + IaR

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 39

⇒ Va = k1N Ia + IaR [Eb ∝ N φ ∝ N Ia]

Va − Ia R
⇒ N=
k1 Ia
Va R
⇒ N= −
k1 Ia k1

For constant Ia [i.e. constant torque as torque a Ia2 ],

N ∝ Va

iL

Imx

Imn
TON T
t
ia

t
Va

TON T
t

Solution : 3
Ia

If
Ra
Vf
220 V, 50 Hz Lf, Rf 220 V, 50 Hz
Va
α = 40° α = 0°
Eb

(i) Eb = Kω If ...(1)
Vf
If =
Rf

2Vm 2 × 220 × 2
Vf = cos0 = = 198.069 V
π π
198.069
= = 1.32 A
150

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 Electrical Engineering •
40 Power Electronics

Further, Va = Ia Ra + Eb
Eb = Va – Ia Ra
2Vm
Va = cos 40° = 151.73 V
π
= 151.73 – (40 × 0.6) = 127.73 V
Eb 127.73
Putting in equation (1), ω= = = 161.275 rad/sec.
k If 0.6 × 1.32

60
N= ω× = 1540.06 rpm
2π
(ii) Power factor of armature current

Ia2 Ra + Eb Ia IaRa + Eb
= =
220Ia 220
151.73
= = 0.6869 lag
220
(iii) Power factor of driving scheme

Ia2 Ra + Eb Ia + If2Rf
=
220 Ia2 + If2

402 (0.6) + 127.73 × 40 + 1.322 + 150

= = 0.7189 lag
220 (40)2 + (1.32)2

Solution : 4
At rated operation:
E = Va – IaRa
6
= 200 − 150 × = 191 V
100
(i) E at 750 rpm:
E1 E2
=
N1 N2
E1 750
⇒ E2 = × N2 = 191 × = 163.7 V
N1 875
Va = E + IaRa
= 163.7 + (150 × 0.06) = 172.7 V
2Vm
cos α = Va
π
πVa π × 172.7
cosα = = = 0.872
2Vm 2 × 2 × 220
α = 29.3°

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 41

(ii) E at –500 rpm:

500
E= − × 191 = −109 V
875
Va = E + IaRa
= –109 + (150 × 0.06) = –100 V
2Vm
cos α = Va
π
100π
cosα = − = −0.504
2 × 2 × 220
α = 120°
(iii) α = 160°:
2Vm 2 × 220 2 cos160°
Va = cos α = = −186 V
π π
Va = E + IaRa
–186 = E + 150 × 0.06
E = –195 V
195
N2 = − × 875 = −893.2 rpm
191

Solution : 5

Vs

Vs

V0
is i0 = ia
+ + Vs
R = 0.065 Ω
Ra = 0.045 Ω ia = i0 imx imn = 180 A
imx = 230 A
imn

Vs V0 = Vt L = 7 mH
TON TOFF
is
+ I mx
iFd Ea
–
– – ifd
Circuit arrangement Imx
Imn

T
Performance of circuit
during one-cycle

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 Electrical Engineering •
42 Power Electronics

For a separately-excited DC motor:

Vt = V0 = Ea + Iara
72 = kN + (200 × 0.045)
72 − 9 63
k= = V/rpm
2500 2500
At 1000 rpm, counter emf of motor:
Ea = k × 1000
63
= × 1000 = 25.2 V
2500
Vs − E
Imx = (1 − e −TON / Ta ) + Imn e −TON / Ta ...(1)
R

L 7 × 10−3
Ta = = = 0.064s
R 0.045 + 0.065
Putting in equation (1),
72 − 25.2
230 = [1 − e −TON / 0.064 ] + 180 − eTON / 0.064
0.11

⇒ 245.45 e −TON / 0.064 = 195.45

TON = 0.01458s
During free wheeling period:
E
Imn = − (1 − e −TOFF / Ta ) + Im x e −TOFF / Ta
R

L 7 × 10−3
Ta = = = 0.1556s
R 0.045
25.2
180° = − (1 − e −TOFF / 0.1556 ) + 230 e −TOFF /0.1556
0.045
790
TOFF = 0.1556 ln = 0.01017 s
740
Chopping period = T = TON + TOFF
= 0.01458 + 0.01017
= 0.02475s
1 1
Chopping frequency, f= = = 40.40 Hz
T 0.02475
TON 0.01458
Duty cycle = = = 0.589 = 58.9%
T 0.024754

Solution : 6
(a) Motor constant = 0.5 V-sec/rad = 0.5 Nm/A = Km
Motor torque, T = Km Ia
15
Ia = = 30 A
0.5

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 Rank Improvement Workbook 43

2π
Motor emf, Ea = K m ω m = 0.5 × × 1000 = 52.36 V
60
For a 1-phase, half wave converter feeding a dc motor,
Vm
Vt = (1 + cos α) = Ea + Ia ra
2π
2 230
= (1+ cos α) = 52.36 + (30 × 0.7) = 73.36 V
2π
Firing angle of armature converter,
α = 65.336°
(b) Rms value of thyristor current,

π−α 180 − 65.336

IThyristor = Ia = 30 = 16.931
2π 360
Rms of free wheeling diode current,
π+α 180 + 65.336
Ifd = Ia = 30 = 24.766 A
2π 360
Vt Ia
(c) Input power factor of armature converter =
Vs Isr
Isr = IThyristor
73.36 × 30
= = 0.5651lag
230 × 16.931

Solution : 7

3Vml 3 × 400 × 2 3
(a) Motor terminal voltage = cos30° = = 467.75 V
π π 2
Vt = Ea + Iara + 2
467.75 = Km ωm + (21 × 0.1) + 2
467.75 − 4.1
No-load motor speed = = 289.78 rad/sec.
1.6
(b) At rated armature current and at 2000 rpm
V0 = Kω ωm + Iara + 2
3 2 × 400 ⎛ 2π ⎞
cos α = ⎜ 1.6 × × 2000⎟ + (210 × 0.1) + 2 = 358.1 V
π ⎝ 60 ⎠

358.1× π
cosα = = 0.663
3 2 × 400
α = 48.47°
Rms value of source current,

2 2
Isr = Ia = 210 = 171.46
3 3
Vt Ia 358.10 × 210
Supply p.f. = = = 0.633 lag
3 Vs Isr 3 × 400 × 171.46

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 Electrical Engineering •
44 Power Electronics

(c) At rated load, speed is 2000 rpm, armature voltage Vt = 358.1 V and firing angle is 48.47°.
If load reduced to zero then,
Vt = Kmωm + Iara + 2
358.1 = Kmωm + (21 × 0.1) + 2
358.1 − 4.1
ωm = = 221.25 rad/sec. or 2112.8 rpm
1.6
2112.8 − 2000
Speed regulation = × 100 = 5.64%
2000

Solution : 8
Rotor induced emf at stand still = 700 V (line)
700
E2 = V
3
1500 − 1200
s= = 0.2
1500
DC voltage across diode rectifier is

3 6 sE2 3 2 × 0.2 × 700

Vd = − 2 × 0.7 = − 1.4
π π
Inverter dc voltage is given by
⎡ 3 2 × 415 ⎤
Vdc = − ⎢ cos α − 2 × 1.5⎥
⎣ π ⎦
With no voltage drop in inductor,
Vdc = Vd
3 2 × 415 3 2 × 0.2 × 700
− cos α + 3 = − 1.4
π π
⎡ −184.6379 × π ⎤
α = cos−1 ⎢ ⎥ = 109.24°
⎣ 3 2 × 415 ⎦
Firing advance angle of inverter = 180° – α = 70.76°

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