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Cambridge (CIE) A Level Physics Your notes

Potential Dividers
Contents
Potential Dividers
Potentiometer
Galvanometer
Potential Divider Components

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Potential Dividers
Your notes
Potential divider circuit
When two resistors are connected in series, through Kirchhoff’s Second Law, the potential difference
across the power source is divided between them
Potential dividers are circuits which produce an output voltage as a fraction of its input voltage
Potential dividers have three main purposes:
To provide a variable potential difference
To enable a specific potential difference to be chosen
To split the potential difference of a power source between two or more components
Potential dividers are used widely in volume controls and sensory circuits using LDRs and thermistors
Potential divider circuits are based on the ratio of voltage between components. This is equal to the
ratio of the resistances of the resistors in the diagram below, giving the following equation:

R2
V out = V in
R1 + R2
The resistance R2 on the numerator of the fraction is always the resistance of the component that Vout is
connected to

Potential divider circuit diagram

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Your notes

A potential divider circuit is a combination of resistors, voltage in from a source and voltage out
The input voltage Vin is applied to the top and bottom of the series resistors
The output voltage Vout is measured from the centre to the bottom of resistor R2
The potential difference V across each resistor depends upon its resistance R:
The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference than the other one
from V = IR
If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of the potential
difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share

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In potential divider circuits, the p.d across a component is proportional to its resistance from V = IR

Your notes

Worked Example
The circuit is designed to light up a lamp when the input voltage exceed a preset value.
It does this by comparing Vout with a fixed reference voltage of 5.3 V.

Vout is equal to 5.3

Calculate the input voltage Vin.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Resistance of first resistor, R1 = 20 kΩ
Resistance of the second resistor, R2 = 12 kΩ
Vout = 5.3 V
Step 2: State the potential divider equation
The R1 is on the numerator as this is the resistor that Vout is from
⎛⎜ R1 ⎞⎟
V out = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟V
R + R2 ⎟ in
⎝ 1 ⎠
Step 3: Rearrange for the input voltage, Vin

V out ⎛⎜ R 1 + R 2 ⎞⎟
V in = = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟V
⎛⎜ R 1 ⎞⎟ R1 ⎟ out
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎜R + R ⎟
⎝ 1 2 ⎠

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Step 4: Substitute in values

⎛ 12 + 20 ⎞⎟ Your notes
V in = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × 5 . 3 = 8 . 5 V (2 s . f . )
⎝ 20 ⎠

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Always make sure the correct resistance is in the numerator of the potential divider equation. This will
be the resistance of the component you want to find the output voltage of.

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Potentiometer
Your notes
The potentiometer
A potentiometer is similar to a variable resistor connected as a potential divider to give a continuously
variable output voltage
It can be used as a means of comparing potential differences in different parts of the circuit
The circuit symbol is recognised by an arrow next to the resistor

Potentiometer circuit symbol

A potentiometer circuit symbol looks like a resistor with an arrow towards it

A potentiometer is a single component that (in its simplest form) consists of a coil of wire with a sliding
contact, midway along it

A potentiometer

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Your notes

A potentiometer is a type of variable resistor

It is recognised on a circuit diagram with a resistor fitted with a sliding contact
The sliding contact has the effect of separating the potentiometer into two parts (an upper part and a
lower part), both of which have different resistances

Potentiometer circuit diagram

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Your notes

Moving the slider (the arrow in the diagram) changes the resistance (and hence potential difference) of
the upper and lower parts of the potentiometer

If the slider in the above diagram is moved upwards, the resistance of the lower part will increase and so
the potential difference across it will also increase
Therefore, the variable resistor obtains a maximum or minimum value for the output voltage
If the resistance is 3 Ω:
Maximum voltage is when the resistance is 3 Ω
Minimum voltage is when the resistance is 0 Ω

Worked Example
A potential divider circuit consists of fixed resistors of resistance 5.0 Ω and 7.0 Ω connected in
series with a 6.0 Ω resistor fitted with a sliding contact. These are connected across a battery of
e.m.f 12 V and zero internal resistance, as shown.

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Your notes

What are the maximum and minimum output voltages of the circuit with the sliding contact?

Maximum voltage / V Minimum voltage / V

A. 8.7 4.7

B. 6 0

C. 12 6.5

D. 12.5 4.7

Answer: A
Step 1: List the known quantities:
Input voltage, Vin = 12 V
First resistor, R1 = 5.0 Ω
Second resistor, R2 = 6.0 Ω
Third resistor, R3 = 7.0 Ω
Step 2: Determine the maximum and minimum resistance with the sliding contact
When the sliding contact is at the top of the 6.0 Ω resistor, the output voltage takes into
account the 6.0 Ω and 7.0 Ω resistor
When the sliding contact is at the bottom of the 6.0 Ω resistor, the output voltage only takes
into account the 7.0 Ω
Step 3: State the potential divider equation for the three resistors

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This time, R2 and R3 are on the numerator as they are where Vout is from
⎛⎜ R2 + R3 ⎞⎟
V out = ⎜ ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟V Your notes
R + R + R ⎟ in
⎝ 1 2 3 ⎠
Step 4: Calculate the maximum output voltage
This is when the sliding contact is at the top of the 6.0 Ω resistor
⎛ 6.0 + 7.0 ⎞⎟
V out = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × 12. 0 = 8 . 7 V
⎝ 5.0 + 6.0 + 7.0 ⎠
Step 5: Calculate the minimum output voltage
This is when the sliding contact only covers the 7.0 Ω resistor
⎛ 7.0 ⎞⎟
V out = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × 12. 0 = 4 . 7 V
⎝ 5.0 + 6.0 + 7.0 ⎠

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Galvanometer
Your notes
The galvanometer
A galvanometer is a type of sensitive ammeter used to detect electric current
It is used in a potentiometer to measure e.m.f between two points in a circuit
The circuit symbol is recognised by an arrow in a circle:

Galvanometer circuit symbol

The galvanometer circuit symbol is a circle with an arrow which deflects

A galvanometer is made from a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core that rotates inside a magnetic
field:

A galvanometer

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Your notes

A galvanometer contains a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core between magnets
The arrow represents a needle which deflects depending on the amount of current passing through
When the arrow is facing directly upward, there is no current
This is called null deflection
Ohm’s law tells us that the current through a conductor (wire) is directly proportional to the potential
difference through it i.e. no p.d means no current flows through the galvanometer
A galvanometer has a p.d of zero when the potential on one side equals the potential on the other side
This is at the position at which it is connected on the wire (which varies with the sliding contact)
gives a p.d equal to the EMF of the cell connected to the galvanometer
The cell should be connected such that its potential opposes the potential on the wire i.e. the positive
terminal of the power supply faces the positive terminal of the cell:

A null galvanometer

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Your notes

A circuit diagram showing a null galvanometer. The voltage V1 = V2

When the sliding contact moves along the potentiometer wire, you add or remove resistance from/to
the external circuit. This changes the potential drop across X and Y
The location of the sliding point is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. This is until the potential
difference equals E2
The direction of the two e.m.fs oppose each other and there is no current

Worked Example
A power supply and a cell are compared using the potentiometer circuit shown.

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Your notes

The e.m.f produced by the cell is measured on the potentiometer. The potentiometer wire AB is
150.0 cm long and has a resistance of 2.4 Ω. The power supply has an e.m.f of 5.000 V and the solar
cell has an e.m.f of 6.25 mV.
Which resistance R must be used so the galvanometer reads zero when AS = 32.0 cm?
A. 735 Ω
B. 451 Ω
C. 207 Ω
D. 401 Ω
Answer: D
Step 1: List the known quantities
Length of wire AB = 150.0 cm
Resistance of wire AB = 2.4 Ω
E.m.f of the power supply = 5.000 V
E.m.f of the solar cell = 6.25 mV
Step 2: State the condition for the galvanometer to read zero
The e.m.f of the cell must be equal to the p.d such that the p.d across the galvanometer is zero
Step 3: State the potential divider equation

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⎛⎜ R1 ⎞⎟
V out = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ V
R + R2 ⎟ in Your notes
⎝ 1 ⎠
Step 4: Determine the resistance R1 and R2

32
R1 = proportion of resistance of the wire AB = × 2 . 4 = 0 . 504 Ω
150
R2 = resistance of resistor R = R
Step 5: Substitute values into the equation
The galvanometer reads 0 when the e.m.f of the solar cell is 6.25 mV
Therefore, Vout must be equated to the e.m.f of the cell
⎛ 0 . 504 ⎞⎟
V out = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × 5 . 000 = 6 . 25 × 10−3
⎝ R + 2 . 4 ⎠
Step 6: Rearrange for the resistance R

5 . 000 × 0 . 504
R= − 2 . 4 = 400 . 8 = 401 Ω (3 s . f . )
6 . 25 × 10−3

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you’re unsure as to whether the p.d will increase as the contact slider is moved along the wire,
remember p.d is proportional to the length of the wire (from Ohm’s law and the resistivity
equation). The longer the length of a wire, the higher the p.d.

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Potential Divider Components

Your notes
Variable resistance components
Variable and sensory resistors are used in potential dividers to vary the output voltage
This could cause an external component to switch on or off e.g. a heater switching off
automatically when its surroundings are at room temperature
Sensory resistors used are Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) and thermistors

LDR and thermistors in a circuit

LDR and thermistor in a potential divider circuit with a fixed resistor R

The voltmeter in both circuits is measuring Vout
Recall that the resistance of an LDR varies with light intensity
The higher the light intensity, the lower the resistance and vice versa
An LDR circuit is often used for street and security lights
The resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature
The hotter the thermistor, the lower the resistance and vice versa
A thermistor circuit is used in fire alarms, ovens and digital thermometers
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From Ohm’s law V = IR, the potential difference Vout from a resistor in a potential divider circuit is
proportional to its resistance
Your notes
If an LDR or thermistor's resistance decreases, the potential difference through it also decreases
If an LDR or thermistor's resistance increases, the potential difference through it also increases
Since the total p.d of the components must be equal to Vin, if the p.d of the sensory resistor decreases
then the p.d of the other resistor in the circuit must increase and vice versa

Worked Example
A potential divider consists of a fixed resistor R and a thermistor.

What happens to the p.d through resistor R and the thermistor when the temperature of the
thermistor decreases?

P.d of thermistor / V P.d of resistor / V

A. Increases Increases

B. Decreases Increases

C. Decreases Decreases

D. Increases Decreases

Answer: D

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Due to Ohm’s Law (V = IR), both the resistor and thermistor are connected in series and have the
same current I
In a thermistor, if the temperature decreases, its resistance increases Your notes
This means the potential difference across the thermistor also increases
As the resistance R increases, the potential difference across the thermistor also increases
In series, the potential difference is shared equally amongst the components. Their sum equals
the e.m.f of the supply (Kirchhoff’s second law)
This means the potential difference across the resistance R must decrease, to keep the same
overall total e.m.f

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