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Cambridge (CIE) A Level Physics Your notes

Practical Circuits
Contents
Circuit Symbols
Electromotive Force
Internal Resistance

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Circuit Symbols
Your notes
Circuit symbols
The diagrams below show the various circuit symbols that could be used in circuit diagrams. You will be
expected to recognise and draw all of these
The most common symbols are as follows:

Circuit symbols

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Common circuit symbols

The function of the most common components are: Your notes
Switch: Turn the circuit on (closed), or off (open)
Fixed resistor: A resistor limits the flow of current. A fixed resistor has a resistance it cannot change
Variable resistor: A resistor with a slider that can be used to change its resistance. Used often in
dimmer switches and volume controls
Thermistor: The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. As its temperature
increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
Light-dependent resistor (LDR): The resistance of an LDR depends on the light intensity. As the
light intensity increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
Diode: A diode allows current to flow in one direction only. They are used to convert AC to DC
current
Light-emitting diode (LED): This is equivalent to a diode and emits light when a current passes
through it. These are used for aviation lighting and displays (TVs, road signs)
Ammeter: Used to measure the current in a circuit. Connected in series with other component
Voltmeter: Use to measure the potential difference of an electrical component. Connected in
parallel with component
The more uncommon, yet relevant symbols, are as follows:

Uncommon circuit symbols

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Your notes

Other circuit symbols

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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You must memorise all of these circuit symbols for the exam. To make it easier for you, we have
separated the symbols into the most common symbols, and the symbols that don’t come up as
often, however, you should be aware of all of them! Your notes

Interpreting circuit diagrams

Being able to draw and interpret circuit diagrams using circuit symbols is an essential skill in Electronics

Worked Example
Which circuit diagram correctly represents a circuit with current flowing through?

Answer: B
For a circuit to be connected, the switch must be closed
This is either circuit B or D
The other circuit symbol is a diode
Diodes only allow current to flow in one direction
Since current flow is from positive to negative, a forward-biased diode must point in this
direction in order for the current to flow

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This is seen in circuit B

Your notes

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Electromotive Force
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Electromotive force
When charge passes through a power supply such as a battery, it gains energy
The electromotive force (e.m.f) is the amount of energy transferred per coulomb of charge (C) when
charge passes through a power supply
That energy drives the charge around the complete circuit and is transferred to the components
e.m.f is measured in Volts (V)

energy transferred
e. m. f =
charge
e.m.f is a measure of the energy transferred into the circuit by the power source
E.m.f is also the potential difference across the cell when no current is flowing
E.m.f can be measured by connecting a high-resistance voltmeter around the terminals of the cell in an
open circuit

Measuring e.m.f in a cell

E.m.f is measured using a voltmeter connected in parallel with the cell

Emf & potential difference

Potential difference is also the energy transferred per unit charge
But potential difference is a measure of the energy transferred out of the circuit via the components

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energy transferred
potential difference =
charge Your notes
When charge passes through a resistor, for example, energy is transferred from the charge (electron)
to the resistor
The resistor therefore has a potential difference across it

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Although voltage and potential difference are the same thing, make sure not to confuse them with
e.m.f, which is slightly different!

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Internal Resistance
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Internal resistance
All power supplies have some resistance between their terminals
This is called internal resistance (r)
This internal resistance causes the charge circulating to dissipate some energy from the power supply
itself
This is why the cell becomes warm after a period of time
The internal resistance therefore causes a loss of voltage or energy loss in a power supply
A cell can be thought of as a source of e.m.f with an internal resistance connected in series. This is
shown in the circuit diagram below:

Circuit with e.m.f

Circuit showing the e.m.f and internal resistance of a power supply

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VR is the terminal potential difference

This is the voltage available in the circuit itself Your notes
Terminal p.d = I × R (Ohm’s law)
When a load resistor is connected, current flows through the cell and a potential difference develops
across the internal resistance. This voltage is not available to the rest of the circuit so is called the ‘lost
volts’
Vr is the lost volts
This is the voltage lost in the cell due to internal resistance, so, from conservation of energy:
Lost volts = e.m.f − terminal p.d
Lost volts = I × r (Ohm’s law)
The e.m.f is the sum of these potential differences, giving the equation below:

E = IR + Ir = I ( R + r )
Where:
E = e.m.f (V)
I = current (A)
R = load resistance (Ω)
r = internal resistance (Ω)
IR is collectively known as the 'terminal potential difference'
Ir is collectively known as the 'lost volts'

Worked Example
A battery of e.m.f 7.3 V and internal resistance r of 0.3 Ω is connected in series with a resistor of
resistance 9.5 Ω.

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Your notes

Determine:
a) The current in the circuit
b) Lost volts from the battery
Answer:
a)
Step 1: List the known quantities:
E.m.f, E = 7.3 V
Load resistance, R = 9.5 Ω
Internal resistance, r = 0.3 Ω
Step 2: Use the e.m.f equation to determine the current I

E = I (R + r)
E
I=
R+r
Step 3: Substitute the values

7.3
I= = 0 . 745 = 0 . 7 A
9.5 + 0.3
b)
Step 1: State the equation for lost volts
The lost volts are the voltage lost due to internal resistance
lost volts = Ir

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Step 2: Substitute the values

0 . 7 × 0 . 3 = 0 . 21 = 0 . 2 V Your notes

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