5

Other approaches

Although we have now developed enough of the basic algebraic theory of lo-
cal cohomology so that we could, if we wished, start right away with serious
calculations with local cohomology modules, there are two other approaches
to the construction of local cohomology modules which are useful, and pop-
ular with many workers in the subject. One approach uses cohomology of
C̆ech complexes, and the other uses direct limits of homology modules of
Koszul complexes. Links between local cohomology and Koszul complexes
and C̆ech cohomology are described in A. Grothendieck’s foundational lecture
notes [25, §2]; related ideas are present in J.-P. Serre’s fundamental paper [77,
§61]. Among other texts which discuss links between local cohomology and
the C̆ech complex or Koszul complexes are those by W. Bruns and J. Herzog
[7, §3.5], D. Eisenbud [10, Appendix 4], M. Herrmann, S. Ikeda and U. Or-
banz [32, §35], P. Roberts [70, Chapter 3, §2], J. R. Strooker [83, §4.3] and J.
Stückrad and W. Vogel [84, Chapter 0, §1.3].
We shall make very little use in this book of the descriptions of local coho-
mology modules as direct limits of homology modules of Koszul complexes.
However, we will use the approach to local cohomology via cohomology of
C̆ech complexes, and so we present the basic ideas of this approach in this
chapter. As this work leads naturally to the connection between local coho-
mology and direct limits of homology modules of Koszul complexes, we also
present some aspects of that connection.
The C̆ech complex approach is particularly useful for calculations in Han (R)
when a can be generated by n elements. We shall illustrate this in §5.3 in the
case where R has prime characteristic p. Then each local cohomology module
Hai (R) (i ∈ N0 ) of R itself carries a natural ‘Frobenius action’, that is, an
Abelian group homomorphism F : Hai (R) −→ Hai (R) such that F (rm) =
rp F (m) for all m ∈ Hai (R) and r ∈ R. The Frobenius action on Han (R),
82 Other approaches

where a can be generated by n elements, can be described very simply using

the C̆ech complex.
d
Later in the book, we shall often study aspects of Hm (R) where (R, m) is
local and of dimension d. Let a1 , . . . , ad be a system of parameters for R, and
√
set q := Ra1 + · · · + Rad . Since q = m, we have Hm d
(R) = Hqd (R), and
so, in the case when R has prime characteristic p, the above-mentioned C̆ech
complex approach facilitates calculations with the natural Frobenius action on
Hmd
(R). There is an illustration of this idea in §6.5.

5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes

Throughout this chapter, a1 , . . . , an (where n > 0) will denote n elements
which generate a, and M will denote an arbitrary R-module. Our first task
is to define the (extended) C̆ech complex C(M )• of M with respect to the
sequence a1 , . . . , an . This has the form
d0 dn−1
0 −→ C(M )0 −→ C(M )1 −→ · · · −→ C(M )n−1 −→ C(M )n −→ 0.
The following lemma will be helpful. Recall again that, for a ∈ R, the nota-
tions Ra and Ma denote, respectively, the ring and module of fractions of R
and M with respect to the multiplicatively closed subset ai : i ∈ N0 of R.
5.1.1 Lemma. Let a, b ∈ R. There is an isomorphism of R-modules
μ : Mab −→ (Ma )b
for which μ(m/(ab)i ) = (m/ai )/bi for all m ∈ M and all i ∈ N0 .
Proof. Suppose that m, y ∈ M and i, j ∈ N0 are such that m/(ab)i =
y/(ab)j in Mab . Then there exists k ∈ N0 such that
 
(ab)k (ab)j m − (ab)i y = 0.
Thus, in Ma , we have bk+j m/ai = bk+i y/aj , so that (m/ai )/bi = (y/aj )/bj
in (Ma )b . Therefore there is indeed a mapping μ : Mab −→ (Ma )b given by
the formula in the statement of the lemma. It is now a very easy exercise to
check that μ is an R-isomorphism.
5.1.2 Exercise. Complete the proof of Lemma 5.1.1.
5.1.3 Remark. In situations such as that of 5.1.1, we shall use μ to iden-
tify the R-modules Mab and (Ma )b without further comment. Thus, when we
speak of the natural R-homomorphism ω : Ma −→ Mab , we shall be referring
to the natural R-homomorphism from Ma to (Ma )b and employing the above
 5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes 83

identification, so that ω(m/ai ) = bi m/(ab)i for all m ∈ M and i ∈ N0 . These

ideas are employed in the construction of the C̆ech complex of M with respect
to a1 , . . . , an in 5.1.5 below.
5.1.4 Notation. For k ∈ N with 1 ≤ k ≤ n, we shall write
I(k, n) := (i(1), . . . , i(k)) ∈ Nk : 1 ≤ i(1) < i(2) < . . . < i(k) ≤ n ,
the set of all strictly increasing sequences of length k of positive integers taken
from the set {1, . . . , n}. For i ∈ I(k, n), we shall, for 1 ≤ j ≤ k, denote the
j-th component of i by i(j), so that i = (i(1), . . . , i(k)).
Now suppose that k < n, and s ∈ N with 1 ≤ s ≤ k+1. Let j ∈ I(k+1, n).
Then by
 . . . , j(k + 1))
j s or (j(1), . . . , j(s),
we mean the sequence (j(1), . . . , j(s − 1), j(s + 1), . . . , j(k + 1)) of I(k, n)
obtained by omitting the s-th component of j.
It is perhaps worth pointing out here that, if t ∈ N with 1 ≤ t < s, then
(j s)t = (j t )
s−1
.
Again under the assumption that k < n, let i ∈ I(k, n). By the n-comple-
ment of i we mean the sequence j ∈ I(n − k, n) such that
{1, . . . , n} = {i(1), . . . , i(k), j(1), . . . , j(n − k)} .
5.1.5 Proposition and Definition. Define a sequence C(M )• of R-modules
and R-homomorphisms
d0 dn−1
0 −→ C(M )0 −→ C(M )1 −→ · · · −→ C(M )n−1 −→ C(M )n −→ 0
as follows:
(a) C(M )0 := M ;
(b) for k = 1, . . . , n, and with the notation of 5.1.4,

C(M )k = Mai(1) ...ai(k) ;
i∈I(k,n)

(c) d0 : C(M )0 −→ C(M )1 is to be such that, for each h = 1, . . . , n,

the composition of d0 followed by the canonical projection from
C(M )1 to Mah is just the natural map from M to Mah ; and
(d) for k = 1, . . . , n − 1, i ∈ I(k, n) and j ∈ I(k + 1, n), the compo-
sition
dk
Mai(1) ...ai(k) −→ C(M )k −→ C(M )k+1 −→ Maj(1) ...aj(k+1)
(in which the first and third maps are the canonical injection and
84 Other approaches

canonical projection respectively) is to be the natural map from

Mai(1) ...ai(k) to Mai(1) ...ai(k) aj(s) multiplied by (−1)s−1 if i = j s
for an s with 1 ≤ s ≤ k + 1, and is to be 0 otherwise.

Then C(M )• is a complex, called the (extended) C̆ech complex of M with

respect to a1 , . . . , an . (Henceforth, we shall omit the word ‘extended’.)
We denote C(R)• by
d0 di
C • : 0 −→ C 0 −→ C 1 −→ · · · −→ C i −→ C i+1 −→ · · · −→ C n −→ 0.

Proof. We have only to prove that dk+1 ◦ dk = 0 for all k = 0, . . . , n − 2.

Let m ∈ M . To show that d1 ◦ d0 = 0, it is enough to show that, for each
i ∈ I(2, n), the component of d1 ◦ d0 (m) in the direct summand Mai(1) ai(2) of
C(M )2 is 0. The only contributions to this component that could conceivably
be non-zero must come ‘through’ the direct summands Mai(1) and Mai(2) of
C(M )1 . It follows that the component of d1 ◦ d0 (m) in the direct summand
Mai(1) ai(2) of C(M )2 is (−1)(m/1) + (m/1) = 0. Hence d1 ◦ d0 = 0.
Now consider the case where 1 ≤ k ≤ n−2. In order to show dk+1 ◦dk = 0,
it is enough to show that, for each i ∈ I(k, n), the restriction of dk+1 ◦ dk to
the direct summand Mai(1) ...ai(k) of C(M )k is zero, and this is what we shall
do. So let m ∈ M, v ∈ N0 and j ∈ I(k + 2, n): we calculate the component
of
 
m
d k+1
◦d k
(ai(1) . . . ai(k) )v

in the direct summand Maj(1) ...aj(k+2) of C(M )k+2 . This component will be
(conceivably) non-zero only if i = (j s)t for some integers s, t with 1 ≤ t <
s ≤ k + 2, and, when this is so, will (in view of the penultimate paragraph of
5.1.4) be
(−1)t−1 (−1)s−2 avj(t) avj(s) m (−1)s−1 (−1)t−1 avj(s) avj(t) m
+ ,
(aj(1) . . . aj(k+2) )v (aj(1) . . . aj(k+2) )v

which is zero. Hence dk+1 ◦ dk = 0, and the proof is complete.

5.1.6 Example. The reader might find it helpful if we write down explicitly
the C̆ech complex C • = C(R)• of R with respect to a1 , . . . , an when n has a
fairly small value: when n = 3, the complex is
d0 d1 d2
0 → R −→ Ra1 ⊕ Ra2 ⊕ Ra3 −→ Ra2 a3 ⊕ Ra1 a3 ⊕ Ra1 a2 −→ Ra1 a2 a3 → 0

where the di (i = 0, 1, 2) are described as follows. For r, r1 , r2 , r3 ∈ R and

 5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes 85

v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ∈ N0 ,
r r r
d0 (r) = , , ,
1 1 1
 
r1 r2 r3
d1 , ,
av11 av22 av33
 v3 
a2 r3 av32 r2 av13 r3 av31 r1 av12 r2 av21 r1
= − , − , −
(a2 a3 )v3 (a2 a3 )v2 (a1 a3 )v3 (a1 a3 )v1 (a1 a2 )v2 (a1 a2 )v1
and
 
r1 r2 r3
d2 , ,
(a2 a3 )v1 (a1 a3 )v2 (a1 a2 )v3
av11 r1 av22 r2 av33 r3
= v
− v
+ .
(a1 a2 a3 ) 1 (a1 a2 a3 ) 2 (a1 a2 a3 )v3
5.1.7 Exercise. Suppose that n > 1 and M is Ran -torsion. Show that the
C̆ech complex of M with respect to a1 , . . . , an is the C̆ech complex of M with
respect to a1 , . . . , an−1 .
5.1.8 Exercise. Show that a homomorphism f : M → N of R-modules
induces a chain map of complexes C(f )• : C(M )• −→ C(N )• such that
C(f )0 : C(M )0 → C(N )0 is just f : M → N .
Show further that, with these assignments, C( • )• becomes a functor from
the category C(R) to the category of complexes of R-modules (and R-homom-
orphisms) and chain maps of such complexes.
We remind the reader that we use the notation
d0 di
C • : 0 −→ C 0 −→ C 1 −→ · · · −→ C i −→ C i+1 −→ · · · −→ C n −→ 0
for the C̆ech complex of R itself with respect to a1 , . . . , an . We interpret C i as
0 for i ∈ Z \ {0, 1, . . . , n}, of course.
It should be clear to the reader that H i (( • ) ⊗R C • ) is, for each i ∈ N0 , a
covariant R-linear functor from C(R) to itself.
5.1.9 Lemma. The sequence (H i (( • ) ⊗R C • ))i∈N0 is a negative strongly
connected sequence of covariant functors from C(R) to itself.
Proof. Let
α β
0 - L - M - N - 0

λ μ ν

? ? ?
α β
0 - L - M - N - 0
86 Other approaches

be a commutative diagram of R-modules and R-homomorphisms with exact

rows. Now for each i ∈ N, the R-module C i is flat, since it is a direct sum of
finitely many modules of fractions of the form S −1 R for suitable choices of
the multiplicatively closed subset S of R. It follows that there is a commutative
diagram
α⊗C • β⊗C •
0 - L ⊗R C • - M ⊗R C • - N ⊗R C • - 0

λ⊗C • μ⊗C • ν⊗C •

? ? ?
α ⊗C • β  ⊗C •
0 - L ⊗ R C • - M  ⊗R C • - N  ⊗R C • - 0

of complexes of R-modules and chain maps of such complexes such that, for
each i ∈ N0 , the sequence
α⊗C i β⊗C i
0 - L ⊗R C i - M ⊗R C i - N ⊗R C i - 0

is exact, and a similar property holds for the lower row. Thus the above commu-
tative diagram of complexes gives rise to a long exact sequence of cohomology
modules of the complexes in the top row, a similar long exact sequence for the
bottom row, and a chain map of the first long exact sequence into the second.
The claim follows from this.

The technique used in the above proof will solve the following exercise.

5.1.10 Exercise. Show that (H i (C( • )• ))i∈N0 is a negative strongly con-

nected sequence of covariant functors from C(R) to itself.

5.1.11 Exercise. Use the natural isomorphisms

∼
=
M ⊗R Rai(1) ...ai(k) −→ Mai(1) ...ai(k) (for i ∈ I(k, n))

(where 1 ≤ k ≤ n) to produce an isomorphism of complexes

∼
=
•
ωM : M ⊗R C • −→ C(M )• .

Show further that, as M varies through C(R), the ωM

•
constitute a natural
equivalence of functors ω • : ( • ) ⊗R C • −→ C( • )• (from C(R) to the
category of all complexes of R-modules (and R-homomorphisms) and chain
maps of such complexes).
Show also that ω • induces an isomorphism
∼
=
(H i (ω • ))i∈N0 : (H i (( • ) ⊗R C • ))i∈N0 −→ (H i (C( • )• ))i∈N0
 5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes 87

of negative strongly connected sequences of covariant functors (from C(R) to

C(R)).

5.1.12 Exercise. In this and the next few exercises, we shall be concerned
with relationships between C̆ech complexes of M with respect to different se-
quences of elements of R, and, for such discussions, it will help if we use a
slightly more complicated notation. Thus, in this and a few subsequent situa-
tions, we shall use C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )• to denote the C̆ech complex of M with
respect to a1 , . . . , an .

(i) Suppose that n ≥ 2, and let m ∈ N be such that 1 ≤ m < n. Let

b1 , . . . , bn denote the sequence

a1 , . . . , am−1 , am+1 , am , am+2 , . . . , an

obtained from the sequence a1 , . . . , an by interchange of the m-th and

(m + 1)-th terms.
Let k ∈ N with 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Let i ∈ I(k, n).
If neither m nor m + 1 appears as a term in i, then

Mai(1) ...ai(k) = Mbi(1) ...bi(k) :

define ψ(i) : Mai(1) ...ai(k) −→ Mbi(1) ...bi(k) to be the identity mapping

in this case.
If m + 1 does not appear as a term in i but m = i(s), then

Mai(1) ...ai(k) = Mbi(1) ...bi(s−1) bi(s)+1 bi(s+1) ...bi(k) :

define ψ(i) : Mai(1) ...ai(k) −→ Mbi(1) ...bi(s−1) bi(s)+1 bi(s+1) ...bi(k) to be

the identity mapping in this case.
If m does not appear as a term in i but m + 1 = i(s), then

Mai(1) ...ai(k) = Mbi(1) ...bi(s−1) bi(s)−1 bi(s+1) ...bi(k) :

define ψ(i) : Mai(1) ...ai(k) −→ Mbi(1) ...bi(s−1) bi(s)−1 bi(s+1) ...bi(k) to be

the identity mapping in this case.
If m and m + 1 both appear in i, with, say, m = i(s) (so that m + 1 =
i(s) + 1 = i(s + 1)), then Mai(1) ...ai(k) = Mbi(1) ...bi(k) : in this case,
define ψ(i) : Mai(1) ...ai(k) −→ Mbi(1) ...bi(k) to be the identity mapping
multiplied by −1.
Let

ψk = ψ(i) : C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )k −→ C(b1 , . . . , bn ; M )k .
i∈I(k,n)
88 Other approaches

Also, let ψ 0 : M −→ M be the identity mapping. Show that

 
Ψ = ψ k 0≤k≤n : C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )• −→ C(b1 , . . . , bn ; M )•

is an isomorphism of complexes.
(ii) Let σ be a permutation of the set {1, . . . , n}. Show that there is an iso-
morphism of complexes
∼
=
C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )• −→ C(aσ(1) , . . . , aσ(n) ; M )• .

5.1.13 Definition. Let m ∈ Z, and let

dk dk+1
Q• : · · · - Qk Q•
- Qk+1 Q• - Qk+2 - ···

be a complex of R-modules and R-homomorphisms. We define {m}Q• , the

result of shifting Q• by m places, as follows: ({m}Q• )k = Qm+k for all k ∈
Z, and the k-th ‘differentiation’ homomorphism dk{m}Q• in {m}Q• is given
by dk{m}Q• = dm+k
Q• : Qm+k −→ Qm+k+1 . Thus changing Q• into {1}Q•
(respectively {−1}Q• ) amounts to shifting it one place to the left (respectively
right).

5.1.14 Exercise. In this exercise, we use the extended notation for C̆ech
complexes introduced in Exercise 5.1.12.
Let b ∈ R. Show that there is a sequence of complexes (of R-modules and
R-homomorphisms) and chain maps

0 −→ {−1}C(a1 , . . . , an ; Mb )• −→ C(a1 , . . . , an , b; M )•
−→ C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )• −→ 0

which is such that, for each i ∈ N0 , the sequence

0 −→ ({−1}C(a1 , . . . , an ; Mb )• )i −→ C(a1 , . . . , an , b; M )i
−→ C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )i −→ 0

is exact.

5.1.15 Exercise. In this exercise, we use the extended notation for C̆ech com-
plexes introduced in Exercise 5.1.12.
Let a ∈ R. Show that H i (C(a; M )• ) ∼
= HRai
(M ) for all i ∈ N0 .

5.1.16 Exercise. Show that all the cohomology modules of the C̆ech com-
plex C(M )• are a-torsion. (Here are some hints: try induction on the number
of elements needed to generate a, in conjunction with 5.1.14 and 5.1.12.)
 5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes 89

5.1.17 Exercise. In this exercise, we again use the extended notation for C̆ech
complexes introduced in Exercise 5.1.12.
Suppose that b1 , . . . , bm also generate a. Prove that

H i (C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )• ) ∼
= H i (C(b1 , . . . , bm ; M )• ) for all i ∈ N0 ,

that is, the cohomology modules of the C̆ech complex C(M )• are, up to R-
isomorphism, independent of the choice of sequence of generators for a. (We
suggest that you use 5.1.14 to compare

C(a1 , . . . , an , b1 ; M )• and C(a1 , . . . , an ; M )• .

Also, you may find 5.1.16 and 5.1.12 helpful.)

Our first major aim in this chapter is to show that, for each i ∈ N0 , the local
cohomology module Hai (M ) is isomorphic to H i (C(M )• ), the i-th cohomol-
ogy module of the C̆ech complex C(M )• . The next remark is a first step.

5.1.18 Remark. In the C̆ech complex

d0
C(M )• : 0 −→ M −→ Ma1 ⊕ Ma2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Man −→ . . . ,

we have

H 0 (C(M )• ) = Ker d0
= {m ∈ M : for each i = 1, . . . , n, there exists

hi ∈ N with ahi i m = 0
= Γa (M ).

It will probably come as no surprise to the reader to learn that we intend

to exploit the above Remark 5.1.18 by use of negative strongly connected
sequences of functors and 1.3.5.

5.1.19 Remark. It is immediate from 5.1.18 and 5.1.11 that there is an R-

∼
=
isomorphism γM 0
: Γa (M ) −→ H 0 (M ⊗R C • ) for which γM 0
(m) = m ⊗ 1
for all m ∈ Γa (M ), and it is then clear that, as M varies through C(R), the
γM0
constitute a natural equivalence of functors γ 0 : Γa −→ H 0 (( • ) ⊗R C • )
from C(R) to itself.

5.1.20 Theorem. (Recall that a1 , . . . , an (where n > 0) denote n elements

which generate a, and C • denotes the C̆ech complex of R with respect to
a1 , . . . , an .) There is a unique isomorphism
∼
=
(δ i )i∈N0 : (H i (C( • )• ))i∈N0 −→ (Hai )i∈N0
90 Other approaches

of negative (strongly) connected sequences of covariant functors (from C(R)

to C(R)) which extends the identity natural equivalence on Γa .
Consequently, there is a unique isomorphism
∼
=
(γ i )i∈N0 : (Hai )i∈N0 −→ (H i (( • ) ⊗R C • ))i∈N0
of negative strongly connected sequences of covariant functors (from C(R) to
C(R)) which extends the natural equivalence γ 0 of 5.1.19.
Proof. Recall from 5.1.18 that H 0 (C( • )• ) = Γa . We shall be able to use
Theorem 1.3.5 to prove the first part provided we can show that H i (C(I)• ) =
0 for all i ∈ N whenever I is an injective R-module. We shall achieve this
by induction on n, and we shall use the extended notation for C̆ech complexes
introduced in Exercise 5.1.12.
τI
When n = 1, the C̆ech complex C(a1 ; I)• is just 0 −→ I −→ Ia1 −→ 0,
where τI is the natural map. But, by 2.2.20, Coker τI ∼ = HRa1
1
(I), and the
latter is zero because I is injective. Thus H i (C(I)• ) = 0 for all i ∈ N. We
note also that Ker τI = ΓRa1 (I), which is injective by 2.1.4. Hence the exact
τI
sequence 0 −→ ΓRa1 (I) −→ I −→ Ia1 −→ 0 of 2.2.20 splits, and Ia1 is an
injective R-module.
Now suppose, inductively, that n > 1 and the result has been proved for
smaller values of n. By 5.1.14, there is a sequence of complexes (of R-modules
and R-homomorphisms) and chain maps
0 −→ {−1}C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; Ian )• −→ C(a1 , . . . , an ; I)•
−→ C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; I)• −→ 0
which is such that, for each i ∈ N0 , the sequence
0 −→ ({−1}C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; Ian )• )i −→ C(a1 , . . . , an ; I)i
−→ C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; I)i −→ 0
is exact. This sequence of complexes therefore induces a long exact sequence
of cohomology modules. Since Ian is an injective R-module (by the imme-
diately preceding paragraph of this proof), we can deduce from our inductive
hypothesis that
H i ({−1}C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; Ian )• ) = 0 for all i ≥ 2
and
H i (C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; I)• ) = 0 for all i ≥ 1.
Furthermore, an easy check shows that the connecting homomorphism
H 0 (C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; I)• ) −→ H 1 ({−1}C(a1 , . . . , an−1 ; Ian )• )
 5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes 91

induced by the above sequence of complexes is just the map

ΓRa1 +···+Ran−1 (I) −→ ΓRa1 +···+Ran−1 (Ian )
induced by the natural homomorphism I → Ian , and this is surjective since
the canonical exact sequence
0 −→ ΓRan (I) −→ I −→ Ian −→ 0
of 2.2.20 splits. It follows from the long exact sequence of cohomology mod-
ules that H i (C(a1 , . . . , an ; I)• ) = 0 for all i ≥ 1. This completes the induc-
tive step. We can now use Theorem 1.3.5 to complete the proof of the first
part.
For the second part, we recall the isomorphism
∼
=
(H i (ω • ))i∈N0 : (H i (( • ) ⊗R C • ))i∈N0 −→ (H i (C( • )• ))i∈N0
of negative strongly connected sequences of 5.1.11, and deduce that
 i • −1  i −1 ∼
=
(H (ω ))i∈N0 ◦ (δ )i∈N0 : (Hai )i∈N0 −→ (H i (( • ) ⊗R C • ))i∈N0
is an isomorphism of connected sequences; moreover, (H 0 (ω • ))−1 ◦ (δ 0 )−1 is
just the natural equivalence γ 0 of 5.1.19, as is easy to check. The uniqueness
in the second part follows from 1.3.4.
5.1.21 Remark. The reader should note that it is immediate from Theorem
5.1.20 that, when a can be generated by n elements, Hai (N ) = 0 for all R-
modules N whenever i > n: we proved this result by means of the Mayer–
Vietoris sequence in Theorem 3.3.1. This is one example of a situation where
the use of a different approach to the calculation of local cohomology modules
can provide a simpler proof and additional insight. The next exercise provides
another example.
5.1.22 Exercise. Prove that Han (R) = 0 if and only if there exists k ∈ N
such that, for every t ∈ N, it is the case that
(a1 . . . an )t ∈ Rat+k
1 + · · · + Rat+k
n .

Deduce that, for h ∈ N, in the ring R[X1 , . . . , Xh ] of polynomials over R, we

h
have H(X 1 ,...,Xh )
(R[X1 , . . . , Xh ]) = 0.
Compare this approach with that of Exercise 4.2.4.
5.1.23 Proposition. Let K 1 (M ) := Ker d1 , where d1 : C(M )1 −→ C(M )2
is the first ‘differentiation’ map in the C̆ech complex C(M )• of M with respect
to the sequence a1 , . . . , an . (It is clear from 5.1.8 that K 1 ( • ) can easily be
made into a functor from C(R) to itself.)
92 Other approaches

There is a natural equivalence of functors ε̃ : K 1 ( • ) −→ Da which is such

that, for each R-module M , the diagram
d0
M - K 1 (M )

ε̃M

ηa,M
?
M - Da (M )

commutes.

Proof. By 5.1.16, the cohomology modules H i (C(M )• ) are all a-torsion,

and so both the kernel and cokernel of d0 : M −→ K 1 (M ) are a-torsion. It
therefore follows from 2.2.15 that there is a unique R-homomorphism ε̃M :
K 1 (M ) −→ Da (M ) such that the diagram

d0
M - K 1 (M )

ε̃M

ηa,M
?
M - Da (M )

commutes, and that ε̃M = Da (d0 )−1 ◦ ηa,K 1 (M ) . This formula and 2.2.6(i)(c)
show that ε̃M is injective, since Γa (K 1 (M )) ⊆ Γa (C 1 (M )) = 0. Further-
more, it is easy to use the uniqueness aspect of 2.2.13 to deduce that, as M
varies through the category C(R), the ε̃M constitute a natural transformation
of functors.
Let t ∈ N, and let h ∈ HomR (at , M ). It is straightforward to check that the
element
 
h(at1 ) h(at2 ) h(atn )
, , . . . , ∈ C(M )1
at1 at2 atn

actually belongs to K 1 (M ). (Note that ati h(atj ) = h(ati atj ) = atj h(ati ) for
integers i, j with 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n.) Hence there is an R-homomorphism γt,M :
HomR (at , M ) → K 1 (M ) for which
 
h(at1 ) h(at )
γt,M (h) = t , . . . , tn for all h ∈ HomR (at , M ).
a1 an
 5.1 Use of C̆ech complexes 93

Also, it is straightforward to check that, for t, u ∈ N with u ≥ t, the diagram

HomR (at , M )
@
HomR (jtu ,M ) @ γt,M
@
? R
@
HomR (au , M ) - K 1 (M )
γu,M

(in which jtu : au → at denotes the inclusion map) commutes, and so the
γt,M (t ∈ N) induce an R-homomorphism γM : Da (M ) −→ K 1 (M ) for
which γM ◦ ηa,M = d0 . Note that ε̃M ◦ γM = IdDa (M ) by the uniqueness
aspect of 2.2.15. Hence ε̃M is surjective, and so is an isomorphism.

5.1.24 Exercise. Consider the special case of 5.1.23 in which M = R. Note

n
that C 1 = C(R)1 = i=1 Rai has a natural structure as a (commutative
Noetherian) ring (with identity), and that d0 : R → C 1 is a ring homomor-
phism. Recall also from 2.2.5 that Da (R) has a structure as a commutative
ring with identity.
Show that K 1 (R) is a subring of C 1 , and deduce from 2.2.17 that ε̃R :
K (R) −→ Da (R) (where ε̃R is as in 5.1.23) is actually a ring isomorphism.
1

The next exercise concerns the ring K 1 (R) in a geometrical situation.

5.1.25 Exercise. Let V be an affine variety over the algebraically closed field
K. Consider C 1 and K 1 (R) (of 5.1.24) in the special case in which R =
O(V ), and assume that the ideal a of O(V ) is non-zero (and generated by
a1 , . . . , an , all of which are assumed to be non-zero). Let U be the open subset
V \ {p ∈ V : a1 (p) = · · · = an (p) = 0} of V .
For each j = 1, . . . , n, let Uj denote the open subset {p ∈ V : aj (p) = 0}
of U , identify the subring O(V )aj of K(V ) with the ring O(Uj ) of regular
functions on Uj in the natural way, and let ιj : O(U ) −→ O(Uj ) be the
restriction homomorphism.
n
Show that the map λ : O(U ) −→ j=1 O(Uj ) for which

λ(g) = (ι1 (g), . . . , ιn (g)) for all g ∈ O(U )

is an injective ring homomorphism with image K 1 (O(V )). In this way, we

∼
obtain a ring isomorphism λ : O(U ) −→ K 1 (O(V )). Show that, with the
=
94 Other approaches

notation of 5.1.24, the diagram

O(V )
U
- O(U )
@
ηa,O(V )
@ ∼
= ε̃O(V ) ◦λ
@
@
R ?
Da (O(V ))

commutes, and deduce from 2.3.2 that ε̃O(V ) ◦ λ is the νV,a of that theorem.

5.2 Use of Koszul complexes

We revert to the general situation and remind the reader that, throughout this
chapter, a1 , . . . , an (where n > 0) denote n elements which generate a, and
M denotes an arbitrary R-module.
There is yet another method of calculation of local cohomology modules:
this describes them as direct limits of homology modules of Koszul complexes.
We present this description here, because it can be derived quickly from our
work so far in this chapter on the C̆ech complex. We need to specify our nota-
tion for the Koszul complexes that we shall use.
5.2.1 Notation. For all u ∈ N, we denote by K(au )• (or K(au1 , . . . , aun )• )
the usual Koszul complex of R with respect to au1 , . . . , aun . Thus, if F denotes
the free R-module Rn and, for each i = 1, . . . , n, the element
(0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) ∈ Rn
which has i-th component 1 and all its other components 0 is denoted by ei ,
then K(au )• has the form
d(au )k
0 - K(au )n - ··· - K(au )k - K(au )k−1 -

··· - K(au )0 - 0,

where

k 
k
K(au )k = F = (Rn ) for k = 0, . . . , n

(so that K(au )0 = R) and, for k = 1, . . . , n and i ∈ I(k, n) (with the notation
of 5.1.4),
k
d(au )k (ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ) = (−1)h−1 aui(h) ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ e
i(h) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ,
h=1
 5.2 Use of Koszul complexes 95

where the ‘e

i(h) ’ indicates that ei(h) is omitted.
Of course, we set K(au )k = 0 for all k ∈ Z \ {0, 1, . . . , n}.
5.2.2 Lemma. Let u, v ∈ N with u ≤ v. There is a chain map
(ψuv )• = ((ψuv )k )k∈Z : K(au )• −→ K(av )•
of complexes of R-modules and R-homomorphisms such that (ψuv )n is the
!n
identity mapping of F , such that (ψuv )0 is the endomorphism of R given
by multiplication by (a1 . . . an )v−u , and such that, for k = 1, . . . , n − 1 and
i ∈ I(k, n),
(ψuv )k (ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ) = (aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) )v−u ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ,
where j ∈ I(n − k, n) is the n-complement of i (see 5.1.4).
Proof. We must check that d(av )k ◦ (ψuv )k = (ψuv )k−1 ◦ d(au )k for each
k = 1, . . . , n. We leave this to the reader in the case in which k = n. For
1 ≤ k < n and i ∈ I(k, n), j ∈ I(n − k, n) as in the statement of the lemma,
we have

(d(av )k ◦ (ψuv )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) )

k
= (−1)h−1 avi(h) (aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) )v−u ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ e
i(h) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ,
h=1

and

((ψuv )k−1 ◦ d(au )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) )

 k

= (ψuv )k−1 (−1)h−1 aui(h) ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ e
i(h) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k)
h=1
k
= (−1)h−1 (aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) )v−u avi(h) ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ e
i(h) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k)
h=1
= (d(av )k ◦ (ψuv )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ).
The result follows.
5.2.3 Exercise. Complete the proof of 5.2.2. In other words, show that, with
the notation of the lemma, d(av )n ◦ (ψuv )n = (ψuv )n−1 ◦ d(au )n .
5.2.4 Remark. It is clear that, in the notation of 5.2.2, for u, v, w ∈ N with
u ≤ v ≤ w, we have (ψvw )• ◦ (ψuv )• = (ψuw )• , and that (ψuu )• is the identity
chain map of the complex K(au )• to itself. Thus the (ψuv )• turn the family
96 Other approaches

(K(au )• )u∈N into a direct system of complexes of R-modules and chain maps.
Our immediate aim is to show that the direct limit complex, which we denote
by K(a∞ )• , is isomorphic to a shift of the C̆ech complex C • of 5.1.5.

5.2.5 Theorem. There is an isomorphism of complexes

∼
K(a∞ )• = lim K(au )• −→ {n}C •
=
−→
u∈N

between the direct limit complex of Koszul complexes described in 5.2.4 and
the shift {n}C • of the C̆ech complex of R with respect to a1 , . . . , an .

Proof. Let u ∈ N. We first define a chain map of complexes

(gu )• : K(au )• −→ {n}C • .

Define (gu )n : K(au )n −→ ({n}C • )n = C −n+n = C 0 = R by requiring

that

(gu )n (re1 ∧ . . . ∧ en ) = (−1)1+2+···+(n−1) r for all r ∈ R.

(We point out now, to help the reader discern a pattern in what follows, that
n−1 n
i=1 i = −n + i=1 i.) Now let k ∈ {1, . . . , n − 1} and let i be a typical
element of I(k, n) (with the notation of 5.1.4). Define an R-homomorphism

(gu )k : K(au )k −→ ({n}C • )k = C n−k

by requiring that, for i ∈ I(k, n) as above,

(−1)i(1)+···+i(k)−k
(gu )k (ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ) =
(aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) )u

in the direct summand Raj(1) ...aj(n−k) of C n−k , where j ∈ I(n − k, n) is the

n-complement of i. Lastly, define an R-homomorphism (gu )0 : K(au )0 =
R −→ ({n}C • )0 = C n = Ra1 ...an by
r
(gu )0 (r) = for all r ∈ R.
(a1 . . . an )u
In order to show that ((gu )k )0≤k≤n gives rise to a chain map of complexes
(gu )• , we must show that (with the notation of 5.1.5 concerning the C̆ech com-
plex C • of R)

(gu )k−1 ◦ d(au )k = dn−k ◦ (gu )k for all k = 1, . . . , n.

We leave this to the reader in the case when k = n, and deal here with the
 5.2 Use of Koszul complexes 97

case when 1 ≤ k < n. Let i ∈ I(k, n), and let j ∈ I(n − k, n) be the
n-complement of i. Then

((gu )k−1 ◦ d(au )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) )

 k 
= (gu )k−1 (−1)h−1 aui(h) ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ e
i(h) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k)
h=1
k
(−1)i(1)+···+i(h)+···+i(k)−(k−1) (−1)i(h)
= (−1)h−1 aui(h)
(aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) ai(h) )u
h=1
k
(−1)i(1)+···+i(k)−k aui(h)
= (−1)i(h)+h .
(aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) ai(h) )u
h=1

On the other hand,

 
(−1)i(1)+···+i(k)−k
(d n−k
◦ (gu )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ) = d n−k
.
(aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) )u

We now refer back to 5.1.5: in order to evaluate the right-hand side of the above
equation, we need to know, for each h = 1, . . . , k, at which point i(h) should
be inserted in the sequence (j(1), . . . , j(n − k)) in order to make an increasing
sequence: if it should occupy the sh -th position in the new sequence, then

{1, 2, . . . , i(h) − 1} = {i(1), . . . , i(h − 1), j(1), . . . , j(sh − 1)} ,

so that i(h) − 1 = h − 1 + sh − 1. We thus see that

(dn−k ◦(gu )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) )

k
(−1)i(1)+···+i(k)−k aui(h)
= (−1)i(h)−h
(aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) ai(h) )u
h=1
= ((gu )k−1 ◦ d(au )k )(ei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ).

It follows that we do indeed obtain a chain map of complexes

(gu )• : K(au )• −→ {n}C • .

Next note that, for u, v ∈ N with u ≤ v and the chain map

(ψuv )• = ((ψuv )k )k∈Z : K(au )• −→ K(av )•

98 Other approaches

of complexes of 5.2.2, we have a commutative diagram

v
(ψu )•
K(au )• - K(av )•
@
@ (gv )•
(gu )•
@
@R ?
{n}C • .

It follows that there is induced a chain map of complexes

(g∞ )• = ((g∞ )k )k∈Z : K(a∞ )• = lim K(au )• −→ {n}C •
−→
u∈N

which is clearly such that (g∞ )k is surjective for all k ∈ Z. In order to show
that (g∞ )• is an isomorphism, it is enough to show that, for u ∈ N, k ∈ N0
with 0 ≤ k ≤ n and β ∈ Ker(gu )k , there exists v ∈ N with u ≤ v such that
β ∈ Ker(ψuv )k . This is very easy (and left to the reader) in the cases when
k = 0 and k = n, and so we suppose that 1 ≤ k < n. Let i ∈ I(k, n). Now
(gu )k maps the direct summand Rei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) of K(au )k into the direct
summand Raj(1) ...aj(n−k) of C n−k = ({n}C • )k , where j ∈ I(n − k, n) is the
n-complement of i. In view of this and the fact that I(k, n) is a finite set, we
can assume that β has the form rei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) for some r ∈ R. In this
case, the fact that β ∈ Ker(gu )k means that there exists w ∈ N0 such that
(aj(1) . . . aj(n−k) )w r = 0, and then (ψuu+w )k (rei(1) ∧ . . . ∧ ei(k) ) = 0.
It follows that (g∞ )• is an isomorphism of complexes.
5.2.6 Exercise. Complete the proof of Theorem 5.2.5.
Because the C̆ech complex C • can, by 5.1.20, be used to calculate the local
cohomology modules Hai (M ) (i ∈ N0 ), it is a consequence of Theorem 5.2.5
that these local cohomology modules can also be computed in terms of Koszul
complexes.
The result of the following exercise will be used in the proof of Theorem
5.2.9.
5.2.7 Exercise. Let N be an R-module. Let (Λ, ≤) be a (non-empty) di-
rected partially ordered set, and let ((Wα )• )α∈Λ be a direct system of com-
plexes of R-modules and chain maps over Λ, with constituent chain maps
β ) : (Wβ ) → (Wα ) (for each (α, β) ∈ Λ × Λ with α ≥ β). Set
(hα • • •

(W∞ )• := lim (Wα )• .

−→
α∈Λ

β ) (for α, β ∈ Λ with α ≥ β) turn the

Show that the chain maps N ⊗R (hα •
 5.2 Use of Koszul complexes 99

family (N ⊗R (Wα )• )α∈Λ into a direct system of complexes of R-modules

and R-homomorphisms and chain maps over Λ, and show that there is an iso-
morphism of complexes
 
• ∼
lim (N ⊗R (Wα ) ) = N ⊗R (W∞ ) = N ⊗R lim (Wα ) .
• •
−→ −→
α∈Λ α∈Λ

5.2.8 Exercise. For each u ∈ N, let K(au , M )• denote M ⊗R K(au )• ,

the Koszul complex of M with respect to au1 , . . . , aun . Let α : M −→ N
be a homomorphism of R-modules. For v, w ∈ N with v ≤ w, there is a
commutative diagram
α⊗K(av )•
M ⊗R K(av )• - N ⊗R K(av )•

M ⊗(ψvw )• N ⊗(ψvw )•

? α⊗K(aw )•
?
M ⊗R K(aw )• - N ⊗R K(aw )•

of complexes and chain maps; use this to show that, for each j ∈ Z, the family
(Hj (K(au , M )• ))u∈N is a direct system, and that lim Hj (K(au , • )• ) is a
−→
u∈N
covariant R-linear functor from C(R) to itself.
Show further that
 
lim Hn−i (K(au , • )• )
−→
u∈N i∈N0

is a negative strongly connected sequence of functors from C(R) to itself.

5.2.9 Theorem. In the situation and with the notation of 5.2.8, there is a
∼
=
natural equivalence of functors δ 0 : lim Hn (K(au , • )• ) −→ Γa from C(R) to
−→
u∈N
itself; furthermore, there is a unique isomorphism
 
∼
=
(δ i )i∈N0 : lim Hn−i (K(au , • )• ) −→ Hai
−→ i∈N0
u∈N i∈N0

of negative (strongly) connected sequences of covariant functors (from C(R)

to C(R)) which extends δ 0 .
Consequently, for each i ∈ N0 and each R-module M ,

Hai (M ) ∼
= lim Hn−i (K(au , M )• ).
−→
u∈N
100 Other approaches

Proof. We shall use Theorem 1.3.5 again.

Let u ∈ N. Note that (with the notation of 5.2.1) the homomorphism

IdM ⊗d(au )n : M ⊗R K(au )n −→ M ⊗R K(au )n−1

has kernel {m ⊗ (e1 ∧ . . . ∧ en ) : m ∈ (0 :M (au1 , . . . , aun ))}, and that


Γa (M ) = (0 :M (au1 , . . . , aun )).
u∈N

Hence, for each u ∈ N, there is a monomorphism

δu,M : Ker(IdM ⊗d(au )n ) −→ Γa (M )

with image (0 :M (au1 , . . . , aun )); furthermore, for u, v ∈ N with u ≤ v, the

diagram

Ker(IdM ⊗d(au )n )
@
⊆ @ δu,M
@
? R
@
Ker(IdM ⊗d(av )n ) - Γa (M )
δv,M

commutes. It follows that there is induced an isomorphism

∼
=
0
δM : lim Hn (K(au , M )• ) −→ Γa (M ),
−→
u∈N

and it is easy to check that, as M varies through C(R), the δM

0
constitute a
∼
=
natural equivalence of functors δ : lim Hn (K(a , • )• ) −→ Γa from C(R) to
0 u
−→
u∈N
itself.
Let I be an injective R-module. The fact that passage to direct limits pre-
serves exactness ensures that
 
u ∼ u
lim Hj (K(a , I)• ) = Hj lim (K(a , I)• ) for all j ∈ Z.
−→ −→
u∈N u∈N

It now follows from Exercise 5.2.7 that there is an isomorphism of complexes

lim (K(au , I)• ) = lim (I ⊗R K(au )• ) ∼

= I ⊗R K(a∞ )• .
−→ −→
u∈N u∈N

But 5.2.5 shows that K(a∞ )• ∼

= {n}C • , and 5.1.20 shows that

H i (I ⊗R C • ) ∼
= Hai (I) for all i ∈ N0 .
 5.3 Local cohomology in prime characteristic 101

Hence lim Hn−i (K(au , I)• ) = 0 for all i ∈ N.

−→
u∈N
We can now use Theorem 1.3.5 to complete the proof.

5.3 Local cohomology in prime characteristic

Since a can be generated by n elements, we must have Han+j (M ) = 0 for all
j ∈ N (by 3.3.3), so that interest focusses on Han (M ). In this section, we are
going to illustrate how the C̆ech complex approach of this chapter facilitates
calculation in Han (M ).
5.3.1 Remark. (Recall that a1 , . . . , an (where n > 0) denote n elements
which generate a.) By 5.1.20, the local cohomology module Han (M ) is iso-
morphic to Coker dn−1 , where

n
dn−1 : C(M )n−1 = Ma1 ...ai−1 ai+1 ...an −→ C(M )n = Ma1 ...an
i=1

is the (n − 1)-th homomorphism in the C̆ech complex of M with respect to

a1 , . . . , an . We use ‘[ ]’ to denote natural images of elements of Ma1 ...an
n
"in this cokernel. # Thus a typical element of Ha (M ) can be represented as
m/(a1 . . . an ) for some m ∈ M and i ∈ N0 . Note that, for u ∈ {1, . . . , n},
i

we have
$ %
aiu m
= 0 for all i ∈ N0 and m ∈ M.
(a1 . . . an )i
Thus [m /(a1 . . . an )i ] = 0 whenever m ∈ (ai1 , . . . , ain )M . It is important for
us to know exactly when an element of Coker dn−1 is zero, and this is covered
in the next lemma.
5.3.2 Lemma. Denote the product a1 . . . an by a. Let m, g ∈ M and i, j ∈
N0 . Then, with the notation of 5.3.1,
" # " #
(i) m/ai = g/aj if and only if there exists k ∈ N0 such that k ≥
n
max{i, j} and" ak−i m# − a k−j
g ∈ k
u=1 au M ;
(ii) in particular, m/ai = 0 if and only if there exists k ∈ N0 such that
n
k ≥ i and ak−i m ∈ u=1 aku M .
Proof. (i) Since
&m' & g ' $ aj m % $ a i g % $ a j m − a i g %
− j = i+j − i+j = ,
ai a a a ai+j
it is enough for us to prove (ii).
102 Other approaches
n
(ii) (⇐) There exist m1 , . . . , mn ∈ M such that ak−i m = u=1 aku mu .
Therefore
& m ' $ ak−i m % $ n ak m %
u=1 u u
= = =0
ai ak ak
 n 
because ak m /ak ∈ Im dn−1 .
" u i #u
u=1
(⇒) Since m/a = 0, we have m/ai ∈ Im dn−1 , so that there exist
j1 , . . . , jn ∈ N0 and m1 , . . . , mn ∈ M such that

m aj11 m1 ajnn mn
= + · · · + .
ai aj1 ajn
Let j := max{j1 , . . . , jn }; then there exist m1 , . . . , mn ∈ M such that
m/ai = (aj1 m1 + · · · + ajn mn )/aj , so that there is an h ∈ N0 such that

ah (aj m − ai (aj1 m1 + · · · + ajn mn )) = 0.

Take k := i + j + h to complete the proof.

5.3.3 Notation for the section. In addition to the standard notation for this
chapter, we are going to assume, for the remainder of this section, that R has
prime characteristic p. In these circumstances, the map f : R −→ R for which
f (r) = rp for all r ∈ R is a ring homomorphism (simply because the binomial
coefficient pi is an integer divisible by p for all i ∈ {1, . . . , p − 1}). We call
f the Frobenius homomorphism.
In this section, we shall use f to denote the functor obtained from restric-
tion of scalars using f , rather than the R of Chapter 4. We are making this
change in the interests of clarity: when the two rings concerned are the same,
the notation R could be confusing.
Thus R f denotes R considered as an R-module via f .
By a Frobenius action on the R-module M , we mean an Abelian group
homomorphism F : M −→ M such that F (rm) = rp F (m) for all m ∈ M
and r ∈ R. For example, the Frobenius homomorphism f : R −→ R is a
Frobenius action on R.
n
For an ideal b of R and n ∈ N0 , we shall denote by b[p ] the ideal of R
generated by all the pn -th powers of elements of b. This ideal is called the
pn -th Frobenius power of b. Observe that, if b can be generated by b1 , . . . , bt ,
n n n n n+1
then bp1 , . . . , bpt generate b[p ] , and that (b[p ] )[p] = b[p ] .

Among other things, we aim in this section to show that there is a natural
Frobenius action on each local cohomology module Hai (R) of R itself with
respect to a, and to give a detailed description of this action in the case where
i = n. (Recall our assumption that a can be generated by n elements.)
 5.3 Local cohomology in prime characteristic 103

5.3.4 Theorem. (Recall that R has prime characteristic p, and that R f

denotes R considered as an R-module via f .) The Frobenius homomorphism
f : R −→ R f is a homomorphism of R-modules, and thus induces
R-homomorphisms Hai (f ) : Hai (R) −→ Hai (R f ) for all i ∈ N0 .
By the Independence Theorem 4.2.1, there is a unique isomorphism
= 
∼ 
Λ = (λi )i∈N0 : Hfi (a)R ( • ) f −→ Hai ( • f ) i∈N
i∈N0 0

of negative strongly connected sequences of covariant functors (from C(R) to

C(R)) such that λ0 is the identity natural equivalence.
For each i ∈ N0 , the map (λiR )−1 ◦ Hai (f ) is a Frobenius action on Hai (R).
√ √
Proof. Note that f (a)R = a[p] . Since a = a[p] , the local cohomol-
ogy functor with respect to a coincides with the local cohomology functor
with respect to a[p] . Thus (λiR )−1 is an R-isomorphism from Hai (R f ) to
Hfi (a)R (R) f = Hai [p] (R) f = Hai (R) f . Thus F := (λiR )−1 ◦ Hai (f ) :
Hai (R) −→ Hai (R) f is an R-homomorphism (and so certainly an Abelian
group homomorphism). Since F (rh) = f (r)F (h) = rp F (h) for all h ∈
Hai (R) and r ∈ R, we see that F is a Frobenius action on Hai (R).
5.3.5 Remark. It is important to note that the Frobenius actions defined in
5.3.4 on the Hai (R) (i ∈ N0 ) do not depend on any choice of generators for a.
However, our next task is to describe the Frobenius action on Han (R) given
by 5.3.4 in terms of our generators a1 , . . . , an for a.
5.3.6 Theorem. (Recall that R has prime characteristic p.) The natural
Frobenius action F on Han (R) of 5.3.4 is such that, with the notation of 5.3.1
and when we identify H n (C • ) with Han (R) by means of the isomorphism δR n

of 5.1.20,
$ % $ %
r rp
F = for all r ∈ R and k ∈ N0 .
(a1 . . . an )k (a1 . . . an )kp
Proof. We have F = (λnR )−1 ◦ Han (f ), and so the precise formula that we
must establish is that
$ % $ %
n −1 n −1 r rp
(δR ) ◦ (λR ) ◦ Ha (f ) ◦ δR
n n
= .
(a1 . . . an )k (a1 . . . an )kp
As in 5.3.4, let f : C(R) −→ C(R) denote the functor obtained from re-
striction of scalars using f . Since δ n is a natural equivalence of functors,
Han (f ) ◦ δR
n n
= δR f
◦ H n (C(f )• ); also
$ % $ %
r rp
H n (C(f )• ) = .
(a1 . . . an )k (a1 . . . an )k
104 Other approaches

It is therefore sufficient for us to show that

$ % $ %
n −1 n −1 m m
(δM ) ◦ (λM ) ◦ δM f n
=
(a1 . . . an )k (a1 . . . an )kp
for all m ∈ M and k ∈ N0 .
Let b ∈ R. It is straightforward to check that there is an R-isomorphism
∼
=
νM,b : (M f )b −→ (Mb ) f for which νM,b (m/bj ) = m/bpj for all m ∈ M
and j ∈ N0 . Therefore, for each k ∈ N with 1 ≤ k ≤ n, we have an R-
isomorphism
 ∼
=
k
τM := νM,ai(1) ...ai(k) : C(M f )k −→ C(M )k f
i∈I(k,n)

(the notation I(k, n) was defined in 5.1.4). It is straightforward to check that

k
the τM (k ∈ {1, . . . , n}), together with the identity map on M f , constitute
∼
=
an isomorphism τM •
: C(M f )• −→ C(M )• f of complexes of R-modules
and R-homomorphisms. Note that
n
τM (m/(a1 . . . an )k ) = m/(a1 . . . an )kp for all m ∈ M and k ∈ N0 .
As M varies through C(R), the τM constitute a natural equivalence of func-
•

∼
=
tors τ • : C( • f )• −→ C( • )• f (from C(R) to the category of all complexes
of R-modules (and chain maps of such complexes)), and τ • induces an iso-
morphism
∼
=
(H i (τ • ))i∈N0 : (H i (C( • f)
•
))i∈N0 −→ (H i (C( • )• ) f )i∈N0

of negative strongly connected sequences of covariant functors which extends

the identity natural equivalence on Γa ( • f ) = Γa ( • ) f .
We now use the isomorphism of connected sequences
∼
=
(δ i )i∈N0 : (H i (C( • )• ))i∈N0 −→ (Hai )i∈N0
of 5.1.20 to produce further isomorphisms of connected sequences
∼
=
(δ i• f
)i∈N0 : (H i (C( • f)
•
))i∈N0 −→ (Hai ( • f ))i∈N0

and
∼
=
(δ i• f )i∈N0 : (H i (C( • )• ) f )i∈N0 −→ (Hai ( • ) f )i∈N0

which extend the identity natural equivalence on Γa ( • f ) = Γa ( • ) f . But

then
 −1  i −1
(δ i• f )i∈N0 ◦ (H i (τ • ))i∈N0 ◦ (δ • f )i∈N0 :
 i  = 
∼ 
Ha ( • ) f i∈N −→ Hai ( • f ) i∈N
0 0
 5.3 Local cohomology in prime characteristic 105

is an isomorphism of connected sequences which extends the identity natural

equivalence on Γa ( • f ) = Γa ( • ) f . By the uniqueness aspect of the Inde-
pendence Theorem 4.2.1, this isomorphism must be the Λ = (λi )i∈N0 of 5.3.4.
Hence (λnM )−1 = (δM n
f ) ◦ H (τM ) ◦ (δM f )
n • n −1
. Therefore
$ % $ %
n −1 n −1 m m
(δM ) ◦ (λM ) ◦ δM f n n •
= H (τM )
(a1 . . . an )k (a1 . . . an )k
$ %
m
= ,
(a1 . . . an )kp
as required.
5.3.7 Exercise. For u, v ∈ N with u ≤ v, let hvu : R/(au1 , . . . , aun ) −→
R/(av1 , . . . , avn ) be the R-homomorphism induced by multiplication by av−u ,
where a := a1 . . . an . These homomorphisms turn the family
(R/(au1 , . . . , aun ))u∈N
into a direct system. For each u ∈ N, let
hu : R/(au1 , . . . , aun ) −→ lim R/(aw w
1 , . . . , an ) =: H
−→
w∈N
∼
=
be the natural homomorphism. Show that there is an isomorphism α : H −→
Han (R).
Use the isomorphism α and the Frobenius action of 5.3.4 on Han (R) to put
a Frobenius action F  on H, and show that F  is given by the following rule:
F  (hu (r + (au1 , . . . , aun ))) = hpu (rp + (apu
1 , . . . , an )) for all u ∈ N, r ∈ R.
pu

We plan to exploit the Frobenius action described in 5.3.4 and 5.3.6, but the
applications we have in mind will have to be postponed until the final section of
the next chapter, by which point we shall have covered the Non-vanishing The-
orem and some interactions between local cohomology and regular sequences.