UNIT 3: POWER MEASUREMENTS

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Electric power is the rate of doing work. It is expressed in Watts. The higher units of power
PWatts  VI cos 
used in practice include kilowatts, megawatts, etc. , i.e., a power of one watt is
said to be expended when a source of one volt passes a current of one ampere through a load
resistance/ impedance of one ohm at unity power factor.
The power measurements are made with the help of a wattmeter. Wattmeter is an indicating
deflecting type of instrument used in laboratories for measurement of power in various ranges.
A wattmeter consists of two coils as shown in the schematic representative Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Wattmeter connections

Current coil (CC): connected in series with circuit and carries the load current. It is designed
such that it is wound with 2 to 3 turns of thick wire and hence it has a very low resistance.

Voltage or Pressure or Potential coil (PC): connected across the load circuit and hence carries
a current proportional to the load current. The total load voltage appears across the PC. It is
designed such that it is wound with several turns of thin wire and hence it has a very high
resistance.

The wattmeter can be a HPF meter or LPF meter depending on the type of the load connected
in the measuring circuit. For power measurements in AC circuits, the wattmeter is widely
adopted. In principle and construction, it is a combination of those applicable for an ammeter
and a voltmeter.
The electrical power can be of three forms:
Real power or simply, the power is the power consumed by the resistive loads on the system.
It is expressed in watts (W). This is also referred as true power, absolute power, average power,
or wattage.
Reactive power is the power consumed by the reactive loads on the system. It is expressed in
reactive volt-amperes (VAr).
Apparent power is the vector sum of the above two power components. It is expressed in volt-
amperes (VA).

Figure 3.2: The power Triangle

Thus, it is observed from the power triangle shown in figure 3.2, that more is the deviation of
power factor from its unity value, more is the deviation of real power from the apparent power.
Also, we have
W  VAR
2 2 2
VA 3.1
And power factor,
Watts
cos  
VA 3.2
3.2 SINGLE PHASE REAL POWER MEASUREMENTS

3.2.1 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

FA FB
An electrodynamometer wattmeter consists of two fixed coils, and and a moving coil M as
shown in Figure 3.3. The fixed coils are connected in series with the load and hence carry the load
current. These fixed coils form the current coil of the wattmeter. The moving coil is connected
across the load and hence carries a current proportional to the voltage across the load. A highly
non-inductive resistance R is put in series with the moving coil to limit the current to a small value.
The moving coil forms the potential coil of the wattmeter.

Figure 3.3: Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire of minimum number of turns. The fixed coils embrace
the moving coil. Spring control is used for movement and damping is by air. The deflecting torque
is proportional to the product of the currents in the two coils. These watt meters can be used for
both DC and AC measurements. Since the deflection is proportional to the average power and the
spring control torque is proportional to the deflection, the scale is uniform. The meter is free from
waveform errors. However, they are more expensive.

3.2.2. Expression for the deflection torque:

ic , i p
Let : Current in the fixed and moving coils respectively, M : Mutual inductance between the
two coils,
 : Steady final deflection of the instrument,
K : Spring constant,
v  2 V sin  t

V
ip  2 sin  t  2I p
sin  t
R p

ic  2 I sin  t   

 dM 
T i  ic i p  
 d 

  2 I sin  t    2I p

 dM 
sin  t  
 d  3.3
Average deflecting torque,
T
1
Td  T i
d t
T 0

T
1  dM 

T
 I I cos 
P
 cos  2  t    d t
 d 
0

 V   dM 
  I  cos   
 
 IP   d 
3.4
Tc  K 
Since the controlling torque,
We have at balance of the moving point,
Td  Tc

 VI cos    dM 
    
 KR p   d  
So that
  dM 
 K P
 d 
3.5
K   KR
Where p
and P is the power consumption. Thus the deflection of the wattmeter is found
to be the direct indication of the power being consumed in the load circuit.

3.2.3 Low Power Factor Wattmeter

If an ordinary electrodynamometer wattmeter is used for measurement of power in low power fac-
tor circuits, (PF<0.5), then the measurements would be difficult and inaccurate since:

• The deflecting torque exerted on the moving system will be very small and

• Errors are introduced due to pressure coil inductance (which is large at LPF) Thus, in a LPF
wattmeter, special features are incorporated in a general electro-dynamometer wattmeter circuit to
make it suitable for use in LPF circuits as under:

(a) Pressure coil current:

The pressure coil circuit is designed to have a low value of resistance so that the current through
the pressure coil is increased to provide an increased operating torque.

(b) Compensation for pressure coil current:

On account of low power factor, the power is small and the current is high. In this context, there
are two possible connections of the potential coil of a wattmeter as shown in Figure 3.4. The
connection (a) cannot be used, since owing to the high load current, there would be a high power
loss in the current coil and hence the wattmeter reading would be with a large error. If the
connection (b) is used, then the power loss in the pressure coil circuit is also included in the meter
readings.

Figure 3.4

Thus it is necessary to compensate for the pressure coil current in a low power factor wattmeter.
For this, a compensating coil is used in the instrument to compensate for the power loss in the
pressure coil circuit as shown in figure 3.5.
(c) Compensation for pressure coil inductance:
At low power factor, the error caused by the pressure coil inductance is very large. Hence, this
has to be compensated, by connecting a capacitor C across a portion of the series resistance in the
pressure coil circuit as shown in Figure 3.5.

(d) Realizing a small control torque:

Low power factor wattmeters are designed to have a very small control torque so that they can
provide full scale deflection (f.s.d) for power factor values as low as 10%. Thus, the complete
circuit of a low power factor wattmeter is as shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5

3.3 REACTIVE POWER MEASUREMENTS

A single wattmeter can also be used for three phase reactive power measurements. For example,
the connection of a single wattmeter for 3-phase reactive power measurement in a balanced three
phase circuit is as shown in figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Reactive power measurement circuit

The current coil of the wattmeter is inserted in one line and the potential coil is connected across
V RB  V R  V B
the other two lines. Thus, the voltage applied to the voltage coil is where, VR and VB
are the phase voltage values of lines R and B respectively, as illustrated y the phasor diagram of
figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Phasor diagram for reactive power measurements

W 3 ph
The reading of the wattmeter , can be obtained base on the phasor diagram of Figure 3.7as
follows
W ph
 I y V RB

 I y V L cos  90   

  3 V ph I ph
sin 

  3  Re active power per phase  3.6

Thus, the three phase power is given by,
W 3 ph  VArs / phase 

 3W ph
/ 3 
  3 Wattmeter reading  3.7
3.4 THREE PHASE REAL POWER MEASUREMENTS
The three phase real power is given by,
P3 ph  3 V ph
I ph
cos 

P3 ph  3 V L I L cos 
Or 3.8
The three phase power can be measured by using either one wattmeter, two wattmeters or three
wattmeters in the measuring circuit. Of these, the two wattmeter method is widely used for the
obvious advantages of measurements involved in it as discussed below.

3.4.1 Single Wattmeter Method

Here only one wattmeter is used for measurement of three phase power. For circuits with the
balanced loads, we have: W3ph=3(wattmeter reading). For circuits with the unbalanced loads, we
have: W3ph=sum of the three readings obtained separately by connecting wattmeter in each of the
three phases. If the neutral point is not available (3 phase 3 wire circuits) then an artificial neutral
is created for wattmeter connection purposes. Instead three wattmeters can be connected
simultaneously to measure the three phase power. However, this involves more number of meters
to be used for measurements and hence is not preferred in practice. Instead, the three phase power
can be easily measured by using only two wattmeters, as discussed next.

3.4.2 Two Wattmeter Method

The circuit diagram for two wattmeter method of measurement of three phase real power is as
shown in the figure 3.7. The current coil of the wattmeters W1 and W2 are inserted respectively in
R and Y phases. The potential coils of the two wattmeters are joined together to phase B, the third
V RB  V R  V B
phase. Thus, the voltage applied to the voltage coil of the meter, W1 is , while the
 VY  V B
voltage applied to the voltage coil of the meter, W2 is V YB , where, VR, VB and VC are the
phase voltage values of lines R, Y and B respectively, as illustrated by the phasor diagram of Figure
3.8. Thus, the reading of the two wattmeters can be obtained based on the phasor diagram of Figure
3.8, as follows:
W 1  I R V RB

 I L V L cos  30    3.9
W 2  I Y V YB

 I L V L cos  30    3.10

W1  W 2  3 V L I L cos   P3 ph
Hence, 3.11
W 1  W 2  V L I L sin 
And, 3.12

3 W 1  W 2 
Tan  
So that, W 1  W 2  3.13

1
 3 W 1  W 2  
  Tan  
 W 1  W 2  
 3.14
 IR
VR

W1

IB
VB

W2

IY
VY

Figure 3.7 Circuit of two wattmeter method of 3-phase power measurement

Two wattmeter method of 3-phase power measurement

Figure 3.8: Phasor diagram for real power measurements

The readings of the two wattmeters used for real power measurements in three phase circuits as
above vary with the load power factor as described in the Table 3.1.
 Table 3.1
PF angle PF W1 W2 W 3 ph  W 1  W 2 Remarks


(lag) cos  V L I L cos  30    V L I L cos  30    3 V L I L cos  W1  W 2
Gen. Case (always )
00 UPF 3 3 2 W 1 or 2 W 2 W1  W 2
VLIL VLIL
2 2

300 0.866 VLIL VLIL 1 . 5 W 1 or 3 W 2 W1

W2 
2 2

600 0.5 3 W1 W2
VLIL
alone reads zero
2 Zero
>600 <0.5 W1 W2 W 1   W 2  For taking readings, the PC or
reads
W2
negative CC connection of should be
reversed (LPF case)

Example 3.1
The power input to a 2000 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase motor running on full-load at an efficiency of 90 %
is measured by two measured by two wattmeters which indicate 300 kW and 100 kW respectively.
Calculate:
i. the input power ii. Power factor.
Solution
W 1  300 kW and W 2  100 kW

P  W 1  W 2  300  100  400 kW

i. Input power,
1 W1  W 2 1 300  100
  Tan 3  Tan  3  40 . 89
0

W1  W 2 300  100
Phase angle

ii. Power factor  cos   cos 40 . 89

0
 0 . 756  lagging 

Example 3.2

A 3-phase balanced load connected across a 3-  , 400 V ac supply draws a line current of 10 A.
Two wattmeters are used to measure input power. The ratio of two wattmeter readings is 2: 1. Find
the readings of the two wattmeters.
Solution
W2
r 
W1
Let the ratio of wattmeter readings be r,
  W2 
1 
 W1  W 2   W1  1 r 
tan   3   3  3 
   W2 
 W1  W 2  1 r 
1 
 W1 
And
1 1 1
cos    
sec  1  tan
2

2
1 r 
1  3 
And power factor, 1 r 

W2 1
r    0 .5
W1 2
Substituting
1
cos    0 . 866
2
 1  0 .5 
1  3 
Power factor of the load,  1  0 .5 

1
  cos 0 . 866  30
0

Or phase angle,

Wattmeter reading, W 1  V L I L cos 30  0

 30
0
  400  10 cos 0
0
 4000 W

Wattmeter reading, W 2  V L I L cos 30  0

 30
0
  400  10 cos 60
0
 2000 W

Assignment 3
1a Draw a schematic diagram of an electrodynamometer type wattmeter and explain its
principle of operation.

1b Show that the angle of deflection  of an electrodynamometer can be express as

 VI cos    dM 
    
 KR p   d  

2a Show that in two-wattmeter method of a 3-phase power measurement the sum of the
readings of the two wattmeters gives the total power consumed in 3-phase circuit.
2b. Hence prove that
W1  W
Tan  
2
3
W1  W 2

3. A 3-phase 400 V load has Power Factor (pf) of 0.6 lagging. The wo wattmeters read a total
input of 20 kW. Find the reading on each wattmeter.
4. Power is measured in a 3-phase balanced load with the help of two wattmeters. What will
be the power factors:
(i) When the readings of the two wattmeters are equal.
(ii) When the reading of one of the wattmeters is zero.
(iii) When the readings of the two wattmeters are equal and opposite.