SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (20A02504a) - ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

UNIT-I

1. What are advantages and disadvantages of SF6 circuit breaker and

also explain the working of a SF6 circuit breaker?

SULPHUR HEXAFLOURIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

The circuit breaker uses SF6 gas is used as the arc quenching
medium. SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb
free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure
flow of SF6 gas and arc is struck between them. The conducting free
electrons are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile ions.
This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough
insulation strength to extinguish the arc. The SF6 circuit breakers have been
found to be very effective for high power and high voltage service.
Fig. shows parts of a typical SF6 circuit breaker. It consists of fixed
and moving contacts enclosed in a chamber containing SF6 gas. This
chamber is connected to SF6 gas reservoir. When contacts of breaker are
opened, the value mechanism permits a high pressure SF6 gas from the
reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber. The fixed contact is
hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with an arc horn. The
moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in the sides
to permit the SF6 gas in contact and arcing horn are coated with copper-
tungsten arc resistant material.
In the closed position of the breaker, the contacts remain surrounded
by SF6 gas at a pressure of 2.8
kg/cm2. When the breaker
operates, the moving contact is
pulled apart and an arc is struck
between the contacts. The
movement of the moving contact
is synchronized with the opening
of a valve which permits SF6 gas
at 14kg/cm2 pressure from the
reservoir to the arc interruption
chamber. The high pressure flow
of SF6 rapids absorbs the free
electrons in the arc path to form immobile negative ions which are
ineffective as charge carriers. This result the medium between the contacts
quickly builds up high dielectric strength and causes the arc. After the
breaker operation (i.e., after arc extinction), the valve is closed by the action
of a set of springs.

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Advantages:
• Due to superior arc quenching properties of SF6 gas, these breakers have
very short arcing time.
• Since the dielectric strength of the SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such
breakers can interrupt much larger currents.
• The SF6 circuit breaker gives noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit
and no exhaust to atmosphere unlike the air blast circuit breaker.
• The closed gas enclose keeps the interior dry so that there is no moisture
problem.
• There is no risk of fire in such breakers because SF6 gas is non-
inflammable.
• SF6 breakers have low maintenance cost.
• Since SF6 breakers are totally enclosed and sealed from atmosphere, they
are particularly suitable where explosion hazard exists. E.g. Coal mines
Disadvantages:
• SF6 breakers are costly due to high cost of SF6
• Since SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker,
additional equipment is required for this purpose.

2. (a) Explain the arc phenomena and interruption.

Arc Phenomenon:

When short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flow through the

contacts of the circuit breaker before they are opened by the protecting
system. At the instant, when the contacts starts to separate, the contact
area decreases rapidly and large fault current will lead to increased current
density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the medium
between contacts (usually the medium is oil or air) is sufficient enough to
ionize the air or vaporize and ionize the oil. The ionized air or vapour acts as
conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts. The potential
difference between the contacts is quite small and which is sufficient to
maintain the arc. The arc provides a low resistance path and consequently
the current in the circuit remains uninterrupted as long as the arc persists.
During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts
depends upon the arc resistance. The arc resistance depends upon the
following factors:
(i) Degree of ionization – the arc resistance increases with the decrease
in the number of ionized particles between the contacts.
(ii) Length of arc – the arc resistance increases with the length of the arc.
i.e., separation of contacts.
(iii) Cross-section of arc – the arc resistance increases with the decrease
in area of cross-section of the arc.

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Principles of Arc interruption (or) Arc Extinction:

When current carrying contacts of circuit breaker are separated, an

arc is formed, which persists during the brief period after separation of
contacts. The circuit breaker should be capable of extinguishing the arc
without causing any damage to the equipment or danger to personnel.
The factors responsible for the maintenance between the contacts.

1.Potential difference between the contacts

2. Ionized particles between the contacts.

When the contacts have a small separation, the p.d. between them is
sufficient to maintain the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate
the contacts to such a distance that potential difference becomes inadequate
to maintain the arc. However, this method is impracticable in high voltage
system where a separation of many meters be required.
The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc.
If the arc path is de-ionized the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may be
achieved by cooling the arc or by removing ionized particles from the space
between the circuit breaker contacts.

(b) A 50 Hz, 11 kV, 3-phase alternator with earthed neutral has a

resistance of 6 ohms per phase and is connected to a bus bar through a
circuit breaker. The distributed capacitance up to circuit breaker
between phase and neutral is 0.02. Determine: (i) Peak restriking
voltage across the contacts of the breaker. (ii) Frequency of oscillations
(iii) The average rate of rise of restriking voltage up to the first peak.

3. With neat sketch, describe the working principle of an axial air blast
type circuit breaker and explain why resistance switching is used with
this type of circuit breaker.

Axial –blast Circuit Breaker:

Fig.shows the essential components of a typical axial blast air circuit
breaker. The fixed and moving
contacts are held in the closed
position by spring pressure under
normal conditions. The air
reservoir is connected to the
arcing chamber automatically by
the tripping impulse when a fault
occurs on the system.
When a fault occurs, the
tripping impulse causes opening
of the air value which connects

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the circuit breaker reservoir to the arcing chamber. The high pressure air
entering the arcing chamber pushes away the moving contact against spring
pressure. The moving contact is separated and an arc is struck. At the
same time, high pressure airblast flows along the arc and takes away the
ionized gases along with it. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and
current flow is interrupted.
The contact separation required for interruption is generally small
(1.75cm). Such a small gap may constitute inadequate clearance for the
normal service voltage. Therefore, an isolating switch is incorporated as a
part of this type of circuit breaker. This switch opens immediately after fault
interruption to provide the necessary clearance for insulation.

Resistance Switching:
To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity of the transient
oscillations, a resistance is connected across the contacts of the circuit
breaker. This is known as resistance switching. The resistance is in parallel
with the arc.
Suppose a fault occurs on the line. Because of the occurrence of fault,
the contacts of breaker will open and an arc will stuck between the contacts.
Since the contacts of breaker are shunted by resistance R, therefore a part
of arc current will flow through this resistance R.
Due to this the magnitude of arc current will reduce which in turn will
result in increase in the rate of de-ionization of arc path. In this way, the arc
resistance increases. This increased arc resistance leads to further increases
in the current through the shunt resistance R. Thus again, the arc current
will reduce and hence the arc resistance
increases. Thus the arc extinguishes and the
current is interrupted by the breaker.
The analysis of resistance switching can be
made to find out the critical value of shunt
resistance to obtain complete damping of
transient oscillations. Figure shows the circuit for
analysis of resistance switching.
Hence, the voltage equation is given by
𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
And 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑅
Therefore the above equation becomes
𝑑(𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑅 )
𝐿 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Or 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑐 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑅 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝐶𝑉𝑐 )
𝑖𝑐 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑑2𝑞 𝑑 2 𝐶𝑉𝐶 𝑑2 𝑉𝐶

= = = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑖𝑅 𝑑( 𝑅 ) 1 𝑑𝑉𝑐
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Substitute these values in above equation, we get
𝑑 2 𝑉𝐶 𝐿 𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝐿𝐶 + + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Take Laplace transform on both sides

𝐿 𝐸
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) +
𝑠𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) + 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) =
𝑅 𝑠
1 1 𝐸
𝐿𝐶𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) [𝑠 2 + 𝑠+ ]=
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑠
𝐸
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = 1 1
𝑠𝐿𝐶 [𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶 ]
For no transient oscillations, all the roots of the equation should be real.
One root is zero, i.e. S=0 which is real. For the other two roots to be real, the
roots of the quadratic equation in the denominator should be real. For this
the following condition should be satisfied.

1 2 1 1 1
[(2𝑅𝐶) − 𝐿𝐶] ≥ 0or4𝑅2 𝐶 2 ≥ 𝐿𝐶

4 1 𝐿𝐶
≤ 𝑅2 𝐶 2 or𝑅 2 ≤
𝐿𝐶 4𝐶 2

1𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑅2 ≤ 4𝐶
or R ≤ 2
√
𝐶

4. Discuss the recovery rate theory and energy balance theory of Arc
interruption in a circuit breaker. With the help of diagram.

The phenomenon of arc extinction is explained by two theories as follows.

(i) Energy balance or Cassie theory (ii) Recovery Rate or Slepian’s Theory

(i) Energy Balance or Cassie Theory:

This theory states that “if the rate of heat dissipation between the contacts is
greater than the rate at which heat is generated, the arc will be extinguished,
otherwise it will restrike”.

The heat generated varies from time to time depending upon the separation
of breaker contacts. Initially when the contacts are about to open, the
restriking voltage is zero and therefore, the heat generated is zero. Again
when the contacts are fully open, the resistance between the contacts is also

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infinite and hence the heat generated is zero. Between these two limits the
heat generation reaches a maximum. Now if the heat so generated could be
removed by cooling, lengthening and splitting the arc at a higher than that
of generation, the arc is extinguished.

(ii) Recovery Rate or Slepian’s Theory:

This theory states that “ if the rate at which the ions and electrons combine to
form or are replaced by neutral molecules ie., the rate which the gap recovers
its dielectric strength is faster than the rate at which voltage stress rises, the
arc will be extinguished; if otherwise the arc may be interrupted for a brief
period but it again restrikes”.

This theory assumes that the restriking voltage and build-up of dielectric
strength are independent quantities.

In an a.c. system, current drops to zero after every half-cycle. At every

current zero, the arc extinguishes for a brief moment. Now the medium
between the contacts contains ions and electrons so that it has small
dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by the rising contact
voltage known as restriking voltage. If such a breakdown occurs, the arc will
persist for another half cycle. If immediatedly after current zero, the
dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts is built up more
rapidly than the voltage across the contacts, the arc fails to restrike and the
current will be interrupted.

The dielectric strength between the contact need to improve to bring the
current to zero, the rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near
current zero can be achieved by
• Causing the ionised particles in the space between contacts to
recombine into neutral molecules.
• Sweeping the ionised particles away and replacing them by unionised
particles.

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Therefore, the real problem in AC arc interruption is to rapidly deionise the

medium between contacts as soon as the current becomes zero so that the
rising contact voltage or restriking voltage cannot breakdown the space
between contacts.The de-ionisation of the medium can be achieved by:
(i) Lengthening of the gap: The dielectric strength of the medium is
proportional to the length of the gap between contacts. Therefore, by
opening the contacts rapidly, higher dielectric strength of the medium can
be achieved.
(ii) High pressure: If the pressure in the vicinity of the arc, is increased, the
density of the particles constituting the’ discharge also increases. The
increased density of particles causes higher rate of de-ionisation and
consequently the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts is
increased.
(iii) Cooling: Natural combination of ionised particles takes place more
rapidly if they are allowed to cool. Therefore, dielectric strength of the
medium between the contacts can be increased by cooling the arc
(iv) Blast effect: If the ionised particles between the contacts are swept
away and replaced by un-ionised particles, the dielectric strength of the
medium can be increased consider-ably. This may be achieved by a gas
blast directed along the discharge or by forcing oil into the contact space.

5. What is resistance switching and derive the expression for critical

resistance in terms of system inductance and capacitance which gives
no transient oscillation?

Resistance Switching:
To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity of the transient
oscillations, a resistance is connected across the contacts of the circuit
breaker. This is known as resistance switching. The resistance is in parallel
with the arc.
Suppose a fault occurs on the line. Because of the occurrence of fault,
the contacts of breaker will open and an arc will stuck between the contacts.
Since the contacts of breaker are shunted by resistance R, therefore a part
of arc current will flow through this resistance R.
Due to this the magnitude of arc current will reduce which in turn will
result in increase in the rate of de-ionization of arc path. In this way, the arc
resistance increases. This increased
arc resistance leads to further increases
in the current through the shunt
resistance R. Thus again, the arc current
will reduce and hence the arc resistance
increases. Thus the arc extinguishes and
the current is interrupted by the breaker.
The analysis of resistance switching

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can be made to find out the critical value of shunt resistance to obtain
complete damping of transient oscillations. Figure shows the circuit for
analysis of resistance switching.
Hence, the voltage equation is given by
𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
And 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑅
Therefore the above equation becomes
𝑑(𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑅 )
𝐿 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Or 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑐 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑅 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝐶𝑉𝑐 )
𝑖𝑐 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑑2𝑞 𝑑 2 𝐶𝑉𝐶 𝑑2 𝑉𝐶

= = =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑖𝑅 𝑑( 𝑅 ) 1 𝑑𝑉𝑐
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Substitute these values in above equation, we get
𝑑 2 𝑉𝐶 𝐿 𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝐿𝐶 + + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Take Laplace transform on both sides

𝐿 𝐸
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) +
𝑠𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) + 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) =
𝑅 𝑠
1 1 𝐸
𝐿𝐶𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) [𝑠 2 + 𝑠+ ]=
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑠
𝐸
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = 1 1
𝑠𝐿𝐶 [𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶 ]
For no transient oscillations, all the roots of the equation should be real.
One root is zero, i.e. S=0 which is real. For the other two roots to be real, the
roots of the quadratic equation in the denominator should be real. For this
the following condition should be satisfied.

1 2 1 1 1
[(2𝑅𝐶) − 𝐿𝐶] ≥ 0or4𝑅2 𝐶 2 ≥ 𝐿𝐶

4 1 𝐿𝐶
≤ 𝑅2 𝐶 2 or𝑅 2 ≤
𝐿𝐶 4𝐶 2

1𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑅2 ≤ or R ≤ √
4𝐶 2 𝐶

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The frequency of damped oscillations is given by

1 1 1
𝐹𝑛 = √ − 2 2
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4𝐶 𝑅

1 𝐿
The critical resistance R = √
2 𝐶

6. Explain current chopping phenomenon associated with air blast

circuit breaker and explain the working of an air blast circuit breaker
with the help of suitable circuit diagrams.

Current Chopping:
Current Chopping in circuit breaker is defined as a phenomenon in
which current is forcibly interrupted before the natural current zero.
Current Chopping is mainly observed in Vacuum Circuit Breaker and Air
Blast Circuit Breaker. There is no such phenomenon in Oil Circuit Breaker.
Generally the arc extinction in
a circuit breaker take place at natural
current zero. But this is true if the
capacity of the breaker to extinguish
the arc is varies with the level of fault
current.
In Air Blast Circuit Breaker
or Vacuum Circuit Breaker, the fault
clearing capacity is fixed and
independent of the fault current level.
In this case, when breaker is used to break the circuit of unloaded
transformer or shunt reactor, the current will be brought to zero well before
the natural current zero. This is because, the breaker is interrupting only
the magnetizing current which is very less compared to full load current or
fault current. As the capability of breaker arc extinction is high enough,
therefore the low magnetizing current will be brought to zero before the

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natural current zero position. This phenomena is known as Current

Chopping.
In the figure above, L is the inductance of shunt reactor, C is the
capacitance of winding and R is for eddy current loss in the reactor. Breaker
in the figure above is Air Blast Circuit Breaker.
We know that shunt reactor always takes magnetizing current. This
magnetizing current is, of course, low. Under normal condition, the current
flowing through the reactor is I (say) and hence the stored magnetic energy
in it is (LI2 / 2). But as soon as the breaker is open, current chopping will
take place and the current through the reactor becomes zero. Due to this
sudden drop of current through the inductor, a high voltage will be
developed across it.The stored energy in the inductance of reactor is
basically transferred to the capacitor. Therefore mathematically we can write
as

1 2 1 2
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉
2 2

Here V = Voltage across the capacitor

𝐿
𝑉=𝑖√
𝐶
Here V is called prospective voltageacross the capacitor.

AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER:

These circuit breakers employ a high pressure air-blast as an arc

quenching medium. The contacts are separated in a flow of air-blast
established by the operating of blast valve. The air-blast cools the arc and
sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere. This rapidly increases
the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts and prevents from
re-establishing the arc. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of
current is interrupted.
Advantages:
Air blast circuit breaker has the following advantages over an oil circuit
breaker.
• The risk of fire is eliminated
• The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas the oil
deteriorates with successive operations; the expense of regular oil
replacement is avoided.
• The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final contact gap needed for
arc extinction is very small. This reduces the size of the device.
• The arcing time is very small due to the rapid buildup of dielectric strength
between contacts

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• Due to lesser arc energy, air-blast circuit breakers are very suitable
for conditions where frequent operation is required.
• The energy supplied for arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air
and is independent of the current to be interrupted.
Disadvantages:
• The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing properties.
• The air-blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variations in the Rate
of Rise of restriking voltage.
• Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant which
supplies the air-blast.
Note:Majority of air blast circuit breakers are used for voltages beyond
110kV.

Types of air-blast circuit breakers:

Depending upon the direction of air-blast in relation to the arc, air-blast
circuit breakers are classified into:

a. Axial –blast Circuit Breaker: In this type of breaker the air-blast is directed
along the arc path as shown in fig.(i)
b. Cross-blast Circuit Breaker:In this type of breaker the air-blast is directed
at right angles to the arc path as shown in fig(ii)
c. Radial-blast Circuit Breaker:In this type of breaker the air-blast is directed
radially as shown in fig(iii)

7. (a) Derive the expression for the restriking voltage in terms of

system capacitance and inductance.

Expression for Restriking Voltage and RRRV:

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Fig (b) shows equivalent electrical circuit where L and C are the
inductance and capacitance per phase of the system up to the point of
circuit breaker location.
When the circuit breaker is closed, the short circuit current flows
through R, L and the contacts of the circuit breaker, the capacitance C is
being short circuited by the fault.
When the circuit breaker contact are opened, and the arc is
extinguished, the current i is diverted through the capacitance C, resulting
in transient condition. The inductance and capacitance forms a oscillatory
circuit.
the voltage across capacitance which is restriking voltage, rises and
oscillates.

The natural frequency of oscillations is given by

1 1
Fn = or ωn =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶

The voltage across the capacitance, which is the voltage across the
contacts of the circuit breaker, can be calculated in terms of L, C, Fn and
system voltage.

The mathematical expression for system voltage is

𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Where E = system peak voltage
In general
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝐶𝑉𝑐 )
𝑖= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑞
Vc is the voltage across the capacitor = 𝑐
Therefore
𝑑𝑖 𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑 2 𝐶𝑉𝐶 𝑑 2 𝑉𝐶
= = = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

1 𝑞
∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = = 𝑉𝑐
𝐶 𝑐
Substituting these values in the equation given above, we get

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𝑑 2 𝑉𝐶
𝐿𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 2
By taking the Laplace transform on both sides. We get
𝐸
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) + 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) =
𝑠
𝐸
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠)[𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 1] =
𝑠
𝐸 𝐸
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = 2
= 1
𝑠[𝐿𝐶𝑠 + 1] 𝐿𝐶𝑠[𝑠 2 + ] 𝐿𝐶
1 1
We know that ωn= , therefore = ωn 2
√𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
ωn 2 𝐸 ωn E ω𝑛
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = = [ ]
𝑠(𝑠 2 + ωn 2 ) 𝑠 𝑠 2 + ω2𝑛

Now take the inverse Laplace transform,

𝑡
𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = ω𝑛 𝐸 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑛 𝑡
= ω𝑛 𝐸[− ]
ωn
𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸(1 − cos ωn 𝑡)

= Restriking Voltage
The maximum value of restriking voltage = 2*𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑑
The rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV) = 𝐸(1 − cos ωn 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

RRRV = ω𝑛 𝐸 sin ωn t

The maximum value of rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV) =

ω𝑛 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 .

(b) In 110 kV system the phase to ground capacitance is 0.02 μf and

inductance is 8H. Calculate the voltage appearing across the pole of C.B,
if a magnetizing current of 6 A is interrupted. Calculate the value of
resistance to be used across the contact space to eliminate the striking
voltage transient.

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