LOAD CALCULATIONS

Current per circuit and number of sub-circuits

There are different wiring systems available for electrical installations. Before
choosing the suitable one the sizes of cables for the different circuits have to be
selected after the maximum current liable to flow in the circuit without undue heating
has been determined. The following example will illustrate a simple way of going
about it by some contractors.

Example One
A domestic installation consists of the following circuits in conduit:
8 lights, each to be controlled by l-way switch; 2 lights, each to be controlled by 2-
way switch and rated 100W;
10, 13A socket outlets wired in ring main circuits;
An electric cooker with a total rating of l2kW, plus a socket on the cooker unit.
Instantaneous water heater rated at 3kW and the supply voltage is 240 V. Floor area
is 30m x 20m

Determine:
Current per circuit.
Number of sub-circuits.
Protection/fuse rating.
Size of cable for each circuit.

Lighting Circuit
Power, P = I x V,
= (8 + 2) x 100 W = I x 240, ie l,000 W = 240 x I
Current, I =P/V, =1,000/240 = 4.2 A.
5/6A protection and 1.5sqmm cable is chosen.

Socket Outlet/Ring circuit

10 Socket outlets in ring can form one circuit. Because not all outlets are put in
circuit at the same time,
30/32A protection and 2.5mm2 cable is normally chosen.

Cooker Circuit
I= P/V= l2, 000 /240 =50 A.
Because not all 4 hot plates, the grill and the oven will be used at the same time
(application of diversity) 30A/32A circuit breaker/fuse is used for protection. The
cable used is 6sqmm².

Instantaneous water heater

Current I = P/V
= 3x1000/240
= 12.5A
The protective size will be 16A and the cable used is 4mm²
There will be one spare circuit for future, so total number of sub-circuits is 5.

Example two
In a four-bedroom apartment, the following lamps are to be used
15-40W fluorescent lamp
10-60W CFL
The supply voltage is 240V. Determine the rating of an appropriate protective device
for the lighting system.
Solution
Total power for fluorescent lamp = 15 × 40
= 600𝑊
𝑃 600×1.8
Current I = = = 4.5𝐴
𝑉 240

Total power for CLF = 10 × 60

= 600𝑊
𝑃 600
Current I = = = 2.5𝐴
𝑉 240

Total current I = (2.5 + 4.5)𝐴

= 7𝐴
Size of appropriate protective device = 10A

ASSESSMENT OF DIVERSITY FACTOR

Diversity factor must be considered when selecting cables and switch gears for the
distribution centres of all large installations.
Diversity factor is define as the ratio of average load to maximum load. It makes
permissible reduction in cables, switch gears and hence the cost of installation may be
reduced considerably. It is impossible to lay down hard and fast rules for the calculation
of diversity factor since no two installation are the same?
The following points however, are worth considering when seeking to arrive at realistic
figures.
IEE TABLES OF DIVERSITY ALLOWANCE
The IEE Regulation contains a table which suggests values of diversity application to
domestic installation, shops, offices and similar situation. It does not however suggest
any values for industrial premises where the application of diversity requires the
greatest care. Examination of the table shows that it treats its separate items lightning,
socket outlets, fixed heating, cooking applications, motors and water heaters. The
largest item under each heading is assumed at all times to take its full rated current
irrespective of the kind of installation in which it is used. The obvious reasoning behind
this approach is that, at least one piece of equipment in each class will be likely to be
in use at any given instant. This line of thought must be carried over to any calculation
regarding industrial installation. Another consideration of the tables shows that, in
commercial installation the diversity allowable for second and subsequent item of
equipment under each heading is less than that permitted in domestic installation. This
is because if a commercial enterprise is to make profit, its equipment must be used to
its full capacity and every effort is made to keep it working for as much of time as
possible.
DIVERSITY IN INDUSTRIAL SITUATION
The load in a factory or industrial site can be broken down into a number of distinct
parts. The major part of the load will be associated with production and this can be
further sub divided into that involving continuous operation and that working
intermittently. Parts of the load will be used to control the working environment, is
heating ventilation and lighting. In addition, these will be auxiliary load supply offices,
canteens and stores. Diversity may be applied to the auxiliary parts of an industrials
load and to the intermittently parts of the production load. There is not much
opportunity for applying diversity of the heating ventilation and lightning load nor the
steady portion of the production load. The following simple example will illustrate the
use of the table.
Example One
A 415V/250V three phase supply is connected to a domestic installation consisting of
the following single phase loads.
10- 40W twin tube fluorescent lamps
2- 3KW cooker control unit incorporating a 13A socket outlet
2- 5KW thermal storage heater
3- Ring circuits
Determine the
i. Total assumed current
ii. Size of the main switch gear
Solution
Lighting
Total power P= 10 × 40 × 2 × 1.8
= 1440𝑊
𝑃
Maximum Load current 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉
1440
= 250
= 5.76𝐴
Applying diversity factor of Table 1B-1
66% of total current demand
66
Assumed load current = × 5.76
100
= 3.8𝐴
Cooker Circuits
Total power P= 2 × 3 × 1000
= 6000𝑊
𝑃
Maximum load current 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉
6000
= 250
= 24𝐴
Applying diversity factor of Table 1B-3
10A+30% full load of the connected cooking appliance in excess of 10A+5A if
socket outlet incorporated in the unit.
Assumed current = 10𝐴 + 30% 𝑜𝑓(24 − 10) + 5
= 10 + 4.2 + 5
= 19.2𝐴
Thermal storage
Total power P = 2 × 5 × 1000
= 10000𝑊
𝑃
Maximum load current 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉
10000
= 250
= 40𝐴
No diversity allowable
Assumed current = 40A
Ring circuit
Let one ring circuit be protected by 30A
Maximum load current = 3 × 30
= 90𝐴

Applying diversity factor of Table 1B-9

100% of current demand of largest circuit +40% of current demand of every other
circuit
Assumed load current = 100% (30𝐴) + 40%(2 × 30𝐴)
= 30 + 24
= 54𝐴
Total assumed current= 3.8 + 19.2 + 40 + 54
= 117𝐴
117
Assumed current per phase= 3
= 39𝐴
Allowance for future estimated load is 20%
= 0.2 × 39
= 7.8𝐴
Size of main switch = 39 + 7.8
= 46.8𝐴
= 50𝐴 𝑇𝑃𝑁
Assignment
The following single phase loads are connected in an industrial household across a
240V supply
48- 40W discharge lamps
60A cooker connected to a 13A socket outlet
4- ring circuits
4- 2KW instantaneous water heater,
Determine the
a) Assumed current for each type of the load
b) Total assumed current
c) Size of main switch
GROWTH FACTOR
A growth factor is the ratio of estimated future load to the present load. One thing is
certain is that, any commercial enterprise that is healthy will expand. This factor takes
into account all the maximum connected loads and makes its necessary to increase sizes
of mains cable and switch gear for future expansion of the installation.
This expansion will be reflected in its consumption of electrical energy and must be
allowed for some idea of the requirement to be expected for the future can be obtained
by plotting a graph of load over the past five years, if the necessary figures are
available. The load line so obtained can then be extended to indicate the degree of
expansion to be obtained in this manner should not be taken entirely at their face value
as many things can affect the growth production. Probability the most significant of
these will be the degree of mechanization already existing in an under taken. A rapid
increase in load is much more probable in an under mechanized installation than in one
that takes full advantages of modern equipment and production techniques.
After this, is an important point as considerable expansion is unlikely in situation where
space is limited, where insufficient information is available to produce an accurate
forecast of allowance of 20% should prevent gross overloading at least during the early
load.
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Growth factor = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Example One
The future estimated load of an installation is 260KW. The growth factor is taken as
1.3.
Determine the present load.
Solution
𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Growth factor =
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
260𝐾𝑊
1.3 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
260𝐾𝑊
Present load = 1.3
= 200𝐾𝑊
Example Two
A load of 200KW is estimated to be added to an existing load of 500KW in future.
Determine the growth factor in future.

Solution
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Growth factor =
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
200
=
500
2
=
5
= 2.5
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Electric-power transmission
This is the bulk transfer of electrical energy from generating power plants or station to
electrical substations located near demand centers. Transmission lines, when
interconnected with each other, become transmission networks. In Ghana, these are
typically referred to as the "National Grid". Most transmission lines use high-voltage
three-phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in
railway electrification systems.

Transmission system
The act of transferring bulk power from a generating station to primary substations.
Electric power distribution
This is the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers. It is the final
stage in the delivery of electricity to end users. Electricity is transmitted at high
voltages 161 kV to reduce the energy lost in long-distance transmission. The reason
for these high voltage is simply that the higher the voltage the less current is required
to flow for the transmission of given amount of power. Reduced currents also effect a
reduction in conductor losses, cable size and switchgear capacities.

The transmission voltages are reduced to the distribution voltages of 33KV and 11KV,
then by large consumers and then further reduced for domestic consumers to
415V/240V, three-phase, 4-wire, 50Hz. A single-phase supply at 240V, 50Hz is the
most common supply for domestic premises. Power is usually transmitted through
overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost
and greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive
locations.
Distribution system
The act of sending power from a substation to the consumers.

The above figure shows a simple radial AC power distribution system. The figure
does not show other equipment like circuit breakers, measuring instruments etc. for
simplicity purpose.
Functions of substation
1. A substation reduces the incoming voltage to the required level for distribution
to consumers.
2. It also reroutes power to other transmission lines that serve local markets.
3. The distribution substations transform power from transmission voltage to the
low voltage used for local distribution to homes and businesses.
Methods of power distribution
Basically there are four methods of power distribution. These are;
1. Single phase two-wire system
2. Single phase three-wire system
3. Three phase four-wire system
4. Three phase three-wire system
1. Single phase two-wire system
This system of distribution comes with only two wires, live and neutral which are
normally taken form the secondary of a transformer at the distribution substation. One
side of the secondary is taken as the live while the other side is earthed and taken as
the neutral.

Single Phase Two-Wire System

2. Single phase three-wire system

In this system, the supply is taken form the secondary of a distribution transformer.
Notice that the neutral is obtained by tapping and earthing the centre of the transformer.

Single Phase Three-Wire System

This type of supply is commonly used in the rural areas where power is required for
farming purpose and high voltage system in single phase.
3. Three phase four-wire system
This system of distribution is employed in situations where there is a three-phase
supply available. Three single phase circuits with a common earthed conductor known
as neutral are taken from two secondary windings of a transformer which are connected
in star formation. The mid-point is earthed and the neural is taken from there. VL =
√3 Vph. IL = Iph

Three Phase Four-Wire System

4. Three phase three-wire system

In this distribution system, there is no neutral conductor. IL = √3 Iph, VL = Vph

Three Phase Three-Wire System

A sophisticated control system is required to ensure electric generation very closely

matches the demand. If the demand for power exceeds the supply, generation plants
and transmission equipment can shut down which, in the worst cases, can lead to a
major regional blackout. To reduce the risk of such failures, electric transmission
networks are interconnected into regional, national or continental wide networks
thereby providing multiple redundant alternative routes for power to flow should
failures occur.
Transmission and distribution tools and equipment
 Safety belt
 Ladder
 Stay wire
 Insulators
 Cross Arms
 Helmet
 Boots
Safety belt
It is an insulation belt fastening electrical technician to a pole to prevent him from
falling.
Ladder
It an insulation wood structure consisting of a series of bars or steps between two
lengths of the wood used for climbing up or down a pole.
Stay wire
The stay wire ensures that the pole is balance.
Cross arm
Cross arms are the horizontal bars found on the poles.
Boots
Boots provides protection against impact, or electrical shock. The soles of Electrical
Hazard Safety Shoes provide a safety barrier to protect employees from open electrical
currents up to 600 volts.
Electrical Hazard shoes are often needed in maintenance, welding and engineering
positions, where the chance of exposure to electrical currents is high. Workers exposed
to hazards such as falling objects, sharp objects, moving machinery, electrical contact,
abrasives, and similar circumstances may be at risk of a foot injury.
ILLUMINATION/LUMINANCE (E)
This is the measure of the amount of light falling on a surface. The unit is lux (lx) or
lumen/m2.

TERMINOLOGIES IN ILLUMINATION

LUMINOUS INTENSITY (I)

This is the measure of the power or the strength of a light source. This unit is candela
(cd).
LUMINOUS FLUX (F)
This is the measure of the flow or amount of light emitted from a source. This unit
lumen (lm)
LUMINOUS EFFICACY (k)
This is the ratio of luminous flux to electrical power input. It could be thought as the
efficacy of the light source. The unit is lumen per watt (lm/w).

BRIGHTNESS
This is the luminous intensity of light source. It is measured in candela per unit area.
(cd/m)
GLARE
This is the excessive brightness in the field of vision.
EFFECTS OF GLARE
 Disability
 Discomfort

HOW TO REDUCE GLARE

1. Lamps must be adequately concealed from direct view.
2. Mounting height of the fitting must be increased.

LAWS OF ILLUMINATION/LUMINACE
1. Inverse square law
2. Cosine law

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

This law states that the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance of the surface from the source.
𝐼
E = 𝑑2

Where E = illumination
I= luminous intensity
d= distance
QUESTION 1: A light emits 100candela in all directions. Determine the illumination
produced at a point on a horizontal surface 2m vertically below it.
SOLUTION
Luminous Intensity (i) =100cd distance= 2m
𝐼 100 𝟏𝟎𝟎
a) E = 𝑑2 = = = 25 lux
22 𝟒

QUESTION 2: A lamp emits 100candela in all directions. To what distance above

the surface would the lamp be adjusted so that the illumination value should be 16lux
SOLUTION
Luminous Intensity (I) = 100cd Illumination (E) = 16 Lux
𝐼 𝐼 100
E = 𝑑2 d = √𝐸 = √ 16 = √6.25 d= 2.5m

COSINE LAW
This law states that the illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of angle made
by the normal to the illuminated surface with the direction of the incident flux.
Icos3 ᴓ
E=
d2
Where E= Illumination in lux
I= Luminous Intensity in candela in the direction
d = distance in metres.

QUESTION 1 A 250W sodium vapour lamp emits a light of 22500 candela and is
situated 5m above the road. Calculate the illumination a) directly below the lamp b) at
a horizontal distance along the road of 6m.

SOLUTION
Power=250W Luminous Intensity=22500cd distance=5m
I 22500 22500
a) Illumination directly below the lamp E = d2 = = = 900lx
52 25
Icos3 ᴓ
b) Illumination at a horizontal distance along the road of 6m = E = d2
6
Tanᴓ = 5 = 1.2 ᴓ = tan−1 ( 1.2) ᴓ = 50.194 cos 50.194 = 0.64
Icos3 ᴓ 22500×0.643 22500×0.262
E= = = = 235.9lx
d2 52 25
QUESTION 2
Light
500 cd

4m

B 3m C

From the figure above, find

i) The illumination at point B
ii) Illumination at point C

SOLUTION
𝐼 500 500
i) Illumination at point B E = 𝑑2 = 16 = 31.25 lux
42
Icos3 ᴓ 3
ii) Illumination at point C E= tanᴓ 4 = 0.75 ᴓ = tan−1 0.75 = 36.8 Cos
d2
=36.86=0.8
Icos3 ᴓ 500×0.83 500×0.512
E= = = E = 16lux
d2 42 16
QUESTION 3: If a light source of intensity of 450cd is 3m directly above a point on
a horizontal bench, calculate
a) the illumination on that point
b) illumination on the second point on the bench which is 4m from the first point
SOLUTION
Luminous Intensity (I) = 450cd distance=3m
𝐼 450 450
a) Illumination on that point E = 𝑑2 = = 50lux
32 9

b) Illumination on the second point on the bench

Icos3 ᴓ
E= d2
4
tan 3 = 1.33 ᴓ = tan−1 ( 1.33 )= 53.13 Cos =53.13=0.6
Icos3 ᴓ 450×0.63 450×0.216
E= = = = 10.8lux
d2 32 9
PHOTOMETRY
Photometry is the measurement of light’s brightness, or luminous intensity. The
instrument used to measure the amount of light falling on a surface is the photoelectric
photometer.

This consists of a photoelectric cell made up of a layer of selenium coated onto a steel
base plate. A film of gold is formed over the selenium and is so thin that any light
which falls on the cell will penetrate the gold layer to release electrons inside the
selenium. These electrons then flow to the gold layer giving it a negative charge. The
cell is coupled to a sensitive micro-ammeter whose scale is marked off in lm/m2. The
greater the amount of light falling on the cell the greater will be the voltage (lm/m 2)
recorded.

FACTORS AFFECTING ILLUMINATION

 Coefficient of utilization
 Maintenance factor
 Mounting Height
 Spacing
 Absorption factor

COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
This is the proportion of light that emitted by the lamp that actually reaches the working
plane. All of the luminous flux emitted from a light source does not reach the working
plane, some of it is absorbed by the walls, ceiling and adjacent objects. The value of
coefficient of utilization is about 0.6

FACTORS UPON WHICH THE COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION DEPENDS

 Size of the room
 Height of the fitting
 Colour of the walls and ceiling
 Type of fitting used.

MAINTENANCE FACTOR
This is the ratio of illumination on a given area after a period of time to the initial
illumination on the same area. That is, immediately a lighting installation is put into
service, it begins to deteriorate. A film of dust or dirt begins to reduce the transparency
or reflecting power of all the exposed surfaces of the lamps, fittings and the walls and
ceiling of a room. This process if unchecked may results in the level of illumination
falling very low in a comparatively short time. Maintenance factor is used in lighting
calculation to account for the depreciation of lamp of reflection. Maintenance factor
can also involve the replacement of lamps which have either failed or have suffered
reduction in their light output. The value of maintenance factor is 0.8.
MOUNTING HEIGHT
This is the distance from the bottom of the fixtures to either the floor or the working
plane. The ceiling may be very low or very high. If the fittings is fixed at the lower
levels care must be taken to diffuse the light and cut down glare.

SPACING/MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO

This is the ratio of distance between adjacent fittings to the height of the fittings above
the working plane. Correct spacing provides even illumination over the whole area and
thus do away with dark area which are so often found when the fittings are badly
spaced.
distance between adjacent fitting
Spacing/Mounting height ratio= height of fitting above the working plane

ABSORPTION FACTOR
Absorption factor is a measure of the ability of an object to absorb radiation, equal to
the ratio of the absorbed radiant flux to the incident flux. In situations where the
atmosphere is smoke or dust laden, the illumination level on working plane is reduced
by the fact that absorption occurs, which is the scattering of light by the foreign
particles.

CALCULATION OF LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS

In order to estimate the number and the type of lighting fittings required to suit a
particular environment, it is necessary to know what level of illumination is required,
the area to be illuminated, the maintenance factor, the coefficient of utilization and
efficacy of the lamp to be used.
E×A Total lumen Power
F = CU×MF Power = Number of lamps =
Lumen per watt Wattage of lamp
Where F = Total lumen (lm) E = Illumination (Lux) A = Area (m2) CU=
Coefficient of utilization MF= Maintenance factor
Question 1: A work area at bench level is to be illuminated to a value of 300lx,
using 85W single fluorescent fittings having an efficacy of 80lumen/watt. The work
area is 10m×8m, the maintenance factor is 0.6 and the coefficient of utilization is 0.6,
Calculate the number of fittings required.
Solution
E=300lx Power=85W Efficacy=80lumen/watt Area=10m× 8m

Maintenance factor (MF) =0.8 Coefficient of utilization (CU) =0.6

E×A 300×10×8 24,000
Total Lumen (F) = CU×MF = = = 50,000lm
0.8×0.6 0.48
Total lumen 50,000
Power= = = 625W
Lumen per watt 80

Power 625
Number of lamps = Wattage of lamp = = 7.35
85

Lamps = 8 lamps

Question 2: A hall of a room 15m by 20m is to be illuminated to a level of 70lx.

Incandescent fittings having an efficacy of 12 lm/w and spacing –height ratio 1.2 are
to be suspended 4m above the floor. Estimate the number of fittings required. Assumed
the utilization factor is 0.5 and maintenance factor is 0.8.

Solution
Area=15m by 20m E=70lx Efficacy=12lm/w Spacing-height ratio=1.2
Distance=4m
UF=0.5 MF=0.8
E×A 70×15×20 21,000
Total Lumen (F) = CU×MF = = = 52,500 lm
0.5×0.8 0.4
S S
Spacing – Height ratio=H 1.2=4 Spacing(S) =1.2× 4m = 5m
width of room 15
Number of rows of fittings = = = 3m
Spacing 5
Lengh of room 20
Number of length of fittings = = = 4m
Spacing 5
52,500
Total number of fittings= 4 × 3=12 Lumen per fitting = = 4375 lm
12
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Over current protection
Compared to other energy sources, electricity has many advantages, but also many
risks. It is used daily by the general public and many accidents still occurs, resulting
in burns, fires, and electrocution. Dependable protective devices have been designed
by carefully analyzing the risks and consequences of equipment failures or incorrect
use, The IEE Regulation is to help protect lives, properties, Equipment’s and
sometimes leakages. With the guidelines to know and use circuit protective devices
appropriately.

Necessity of Protective Devices is meant to protect electrical appliance or

equipment and lives against.
a). Short Circuit
b). Abnormal variations in the supply voltage
c). Overloading of equipment
d). To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment, falling
which the operator may get a severe shock. (In all, is to Protect Lives, Properties and
Equipment’s
Types protective devices
 Fuse
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs
 Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
 Arc fault circuit breakers (AFCBs
 Surge protection devices (SPDs)
Fuses
A fuse is an electrical device for the purpose of protecting a circuit against damage
from excessive current flow. When the excessive current flows, the element of the fuse
melts thereby causing the circuit to become open. Once the circuit is open, current
from the source of supply will not reach the current using equipment. This makes the
circuit safe and dead.
The fuse is also regarded as the weakest part of the circuit because in terms of overload,
it is the fuse that must blow rather than any other part of the circuit.
Precaution
A blown fuse should not be rewired and replaced in haste. Care must be taken to ensure
that the circuit is in a perfect condition before replacing the fuse. This is because a
blown fuse indicates some sort of fault in the circuit which needs to be cleared. It is
unfortunate that a person replacing a fuse becomes tempted to increase the fuse
continues to blow. This is a very serious mistake and should never be encouraged.
When the fuse continues to blow, it shows that the fault is still present. When the
wrong bigger fuse size is used, the fuse may no more blow because it is no more
weakest part of the circuit. This will eventually lead to fire outbreak in the electrical
system. Remember therefore to use the correct fuse size at all times.
Types of fuse
There are three types of fuse. These are:
a. Semi-enclosed
b. Cartridge
c. High breaking capacity (H.B.C).

Semi-enclosed fuse
This fuse consists of an element which is made up of a piece of tin-lead or tinned-
copper wire. The usual form of fuse called the Home Office Type. It consists of a
porcelain or Bakelite fuse carrier with contacts capable of being plugged into sockets
in the fuse base. The element is connected between terminals on the carrier.

ADVANTAGES
1. Very cheap
2. Rewirable

Disadvantages
1. Wrong size of fuse wire can be used when rewiring,
2. Even when correct wire is used for the element, the current rating and fusing
factor may not be exactly as intended.
3. Unsuitable for protection against very large fault currents
4. Deterioration of fuse wire over a period
5. Slow action so fire and damage can occur before it melts.
Cartridge fuse
The fuse consists of a sealed tube with metal caps. The fuse wire passes through the
tube from cap to cap and is welded or soldered to the inside of the cap. The cartridge
fuse is an advance on semi-enclosed fuse, as the rating of the replacement fuse element
is determined by the manufacturer. Cartridge fuses only are used in fused plugs, such
as in the 13A plug for the common ring circuit.
Advantages
1. Quick and easy replacement
2. Colour coding of fuse sizes
3. Lack of deterioration
4. The rating is accurately known

Disadvantages
1. Fuse element is more expensive to replace.
2. Unsuitable for use where extremely high values of fault current may occur.

High breaking capacity fuse

The high breaking capacity fuse, otherwise, known as the high rupturing capacity fuse,
consists of a ceramic tube with metal end caps and fixing tags. The fuse is a silver strip
of special shape with a low melting point rivet in the centre. The strip is entirely
surrounded by chemically purified silica.
When an overload occurs breaking the fuse element; the silica prevents the formation
of an arc, thus preventing overheating of the fuse and its surroundings. The H.B.C.
fuse is normally used to give adequate protection against very large short circuit
currents as well as low resistance earth fault conditions.

Advantages
1. Its characteristic can be designed to suit the nature of the load.
2. Ability to clear heavy fault currents safety.
3. Fast action, they are designed to rupture dangerous faults of 35 kilo ampers in
1 milli second.
4. No deterioration of fuse because fuse element is hermetically sealed.

Disadvantages
1. Very expensive
Prospective current
Prospective current is the value which would be reached by a short circuit current if
the fuse were replaced by a solid link. A graph which includes the actual or cut-off
current value when protection is by means of a high breaking capacity fuse is shown
below.
It could be seen from the graph that while the current is rising in value, it is quickly
cut-off by the H.B.C. fuse thereby preventing it from reaching such a high value as
indicated by the arrow labeled prospective current.

Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs)

A miniature circuit breaker is a device that switches and/or protects the lowest
common distributed voltage in an electrical system. It is designed to protect
conductors and insulation from damage due to overload and short circuits.
Residential miniature fuses are only of the plug-in type. These are designed for
residential load centers, commercial units, and light industrial applications. They
typically range from 6 to 125 amps, with an interrupting rating of 6 or 22 KAIC.
Miniature circuit breaker construction is simple, yet very precise. A miniature circuit
breaker has no replacement parts. Miniature circuit breakers are typically available
in single pole and double pole types. A pole is a hot conductor. A single-pole breaker
disconnects one conductor, and a double pole breaker disconnects two conductors.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker is one kind of safety device used for installing an
electrical device with high earth impedance to avoid shock. These devices identify
small stray voltages of the electrical device on the metal enclosures and intrude the
circuit if a dangerous voltage is identified. The main purpose of Earth leakage circuit
breaker (ECLB) is to stop damage to humans and animals due to electric shock.

There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

 Current Operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker/ Residual current device (RCD)
 Voltage Operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

Current operated earth leakage circuit breaker/ residual current device

Residual Current Circuit Breaker is the generally used Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
and it comprises of a three winding transformer, that has two primary windings and
also one secondary winding. Neutral & line wires work as the two main windings. A
wire wound coil is the minor winding.
Under normal condition, the current that passes through the phase coil, the load and the
neutral coil are the same. Hence the magnetic effect of phase and neutral currents
cancel each other. When an earth fault occurs, the current taken from the phase coil
exceeds the current through the neutral coil and produces residual magnetism in the
core. This disturbs the balanced magnetic effect of the two coils thereby inducing
voltage into the search coil which in turn drives current through the trip coil. This action
causes tripping mechanism to operate.

Current Operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker/ Residual current device (RCD)
 Connection of RCD in a Circuit

Principles of operation of voltage operated earth leakage circuit breaker.

Voltage-operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker device is used to detect a voltage to
choose the Earth leakage. A single-phase voltage ELCB includes 6-terminals namely
line in, line out, neutral in, neutral out, Earth and fault. The metal body of the load is
associated with the fault terminal of the Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) and
Earth terminal is associated with the ground.
For usual working, the voltage across the trip coil is ‘0’, as the Load’s body is isolated
from the supply line. When an Earth fault happens on the load due to the interaction of
line wire to the metal body, a current will run through fault to the ground. The flow of
current will set up a voltage across the trip coil, which is associated between E and F.
The energized trip coil will tour the circuit to guard the load device and the user

Voltage operated earth leakage circuit breaker

EARTHING AND GROUNDING
Earthing is another method of protection which is done by connecting one point of the
supply transformer as well as metal parts exposed to touch to the general mass of earth.
Besides protecting the circuit against leakage current, earthing also ensures that neutral
is obtained and so prevents the voltage of any live conductor rising above the expected
value (phase voltage).
Definition of earthing
Earthing is the method of making connections to the general mass of the earth. When
one point of the supply transformer as well as metallic parts of an installation work is
connected to the general mass of earth, then earthing is done.

Reasons of earthing
i. It ensures that a neutral conductor is obtained for single-phase loads
ii. It prevents the potential of live conductors from rising above the declared value.
iii. To cut off the supply automatically when an appreciable leakage current flows,
during fault conditions.
iv. It minimizes the danger of electric shock from exposed metals, which may be
live.
v. To prevent danger of fire outbreak due to overheating from leakage current
flow.

Earthing terminologies
Earth: The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any point is taken
as zero.
Earthing: The act of connecting the exposed conductive parts of an installation to the
main earthing terminal of an installation.
Earthing conductor: A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal of
an installation to an earth electrode or to other means of earthing.
Earth electrode: A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and
providing an electrical connection to Earth.
Earth electrode resistance: The resistance of an electrode to Earth.
Electric shock: A dangerous physiological effect resulting from the passing of an
electric current through a human body or livestock.
Earth fault current: A fault current which flows to Earth
Earth fault loop impedance: The impedance of the earth fault current loop starting
and ending at the point of earth fault. This impedance is denoted by the symbol
Earth leakage current: A current which flows to earth or to extraneous conductive –
parts in a circuit which is electrically sound.
Earth fault loop path: Earth fault loop is the path which the leakage current will take
back to the supply transformer when there is an earth leakage in an installation.
Earthing resistance area: This is the surface area of ground on which a significant
voltage gradient may exist.
TYPES OF SYSTEM EARTHING

1. TN-S systems
Single-source systems
TN-S systems have one point directly earthed at the source, the exposed-conductive
parts of the installation(s) being connected to that point by protective conductors. Two
types of TN system are considered according to the arrangement of neutral and
protective conductors.

TN-S

Separate neutral and protective conductors throughout the system.

The protective conductor (PE) is the metallic covering of the cable supplying the
installations or a separate conductor.
All exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are connected to this protective
conductor via the main earthing terminal of the installation.

2. TN-C-S (PME) system

Neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (PEN) in a part of the
system.
This type of distribution is known also as protective multiple earthing (PME).
The supply system PEN conductor is earthed at two or more points and an earth
electrode may be necessary at or near a consumer’s installation.
All exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are connected to the PEN conductor via
the main earthing terminal and the neutral terminal, these terminals being linked
together.
 TN-C-S

3. TT system
Single-source system
A TT system has only one point directly earthed at the source, the exposed-conductive-
parts of the installation(s) being connected to earth electrodes electrically independent
of the earth electrode of the supply system (the source earth).
All exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are connected to an earth electrode
which is electrically independent of the source earth.
Separate neutral and protective conductors throughout the system.

NOTE: Additional earthing of the PE in the installation may be provided.

TT-S
 IT System

Types of earth electrode

The acceptable electrode listed in making contact with general mass of earth include.
1. Earth rod or pipe
2. Earth tape or wire
3. Earth plate or mat
Underground structural metal work embedded in foundation. The effectiveness of an
earth electrode in making contact with the general mass of earth is variable depending
on the type of soil and its moisture content. The earthing conductor connection to earth
electrode must be protected against mechanical damage and corrosion. Accident
removed of the connection to the electrode must be avoided label reading.
Measurement of the earth electrode resistance

To conduct the test it is necessary to disconnect electrode under test from the earthing
system. As the basis concept is shown in the diagram, an electrode C is driven as the
earth at a distance of 50m from electrode A and B is placed approximately half way
between them. This ensures that B is outside the resistance area of A. An alternating
current from a low voltage A is applied to the electrode as shown in the diagram. The
resistance being calculated form the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
Electrode B is first moved to position B1 then to B2 either side of position B and
reading latter provided the three readings are similar, the value will be taken as the
earth electrode resistance, the value will depend upon the soil and moisture content.

Description of earth fault loop impedance

If a fault occurs between the phase conductor and the earthed metal case, the leakage
current flows from the faulty circuit into the circuit protective conductor. The leakage
current then flows along the circuit protective conductor to the earthing lead. The
earthing lead carries the current to the earth electrode. The leakage current now takes
the shortest path back to the earthed neutral of the supply transformer.
Effects of high loop impedance
1. Earth leakage current relaying is difficult
2. Produces high transient voltage
3. Ground fault current is increased
4. Causes persistent arcing grounds.

Typical values of soil resistivity

Garden soil = 5 – 50 Ω
Clay soil = 10 – 100 Ω
Sandy soil = 250 – 500 Ω
Rocky soil = 1000 – 10000 Ω

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL INSTALLATION

Lightning protection
Lightning is simultaneously a fascinating, awesome, and mysterious phenomenon. It is
beautiful to witness, but destructive and fatal to experience. Yet it is a natural,
necessary occurrence. Lighting is electricity on exhibit, and as with the electrical power
in our homes, businesses, and factories, specific precautions are to be taken or we must
expect to suffer the consequences.
Lightning protection systems have three basic components.
a. Air terminals
b. Lightning conductor
c. Ground connections

Air terminal (lightning rod)

The lightning rod or air terminal is highest element of a lightning protection system. It
is sharp-pointed solid or tabular rod made of copper, bronze or aluminium. The
terminal attracts lightning, but does not prevent lightning. The lightning stroke is
attracted to the terminal, because it is a part of the path that offers the least impedance
to the ground. In general, air terminal should.
1. Extend above the object to be protected, not less than 25.4cm or more than
100cm.
2. Be placed on ridges of gables and hip roofs.
3. Be placed on the perimeter of flat-roofs at intervals not exceeding 6m and
within 0.6m of the edge.
4. Be placed in the centre of a roof area at intervals not exceeding 15m.

Lightning conductors
Lightning conductors are installed to connect and interconnect to earth. The air
terminals and others metal parts of the object to be protected. They are made of
copper or aluminium. In general lightning conductors should
1. Not be bent to a radius of less than 20cm.
2. Not be bent to an angle of more than 900.
 3. Maintain a horizontal or doward course.
4. Provide at least two paths for current flow from an air terminal to earth.
5. Provide and earth path for every 30.5m of perimeter.
6. Connect all metallic bodies, such as exhaust fans and roof vents, to the
protection system.
7. Be securely fastened to the protection to the terminals, the ground and the
structure.
8. Not be concealed in metallic conduit, unless the conductor is securely bonded
to the conduit at both end.

Ground connections
The grounds are usually copper clad steel rods at least 3m long and 1.2cm in
diameter.
However, where the top soil is very shallow, ground plates may be use. In general,
grounding connections should be;
1. Made with rod driven into the earth, at least 0.6m from the protected object so that
the rod top is 3m under the earth.
2. Made to underground metallic pipes of metal casing.
3. Interconnected with driven ground electrodes.