Unit - Lesson 2 : Simple AC Circuits

Title of the Lesson : AC Fundamentals

Duration: 6 hrs (Weeks 3-4)

Introduction: When the input to an electrical machine is electrical energy (seen as

applying a voltage to the electrical terminals of the machine), and the output is
mechanical energy (seen as a rotating shaft), the machine is called an electric motor.
Thus an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

When the input to an electrical machine is mechanical energy (seen as, say, a diesel
motor, coupled to the machine by a shaft), and the output is electrical energy (seen
as a voltage appearing at the electrical terminals of the machine), the machine is
called a generator. Thus, a generator converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy. The principle of operation of a generator is explained in generation of
voltages and currents fig 1.1 (a) and (b).

Objectives/Competencies: At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• determine the instantaneous value for voltage and current
• distinguish the exact location of the voltage and current equation in rectangular
coordinate plane.
• differentiate RMS and maximum values
• compare phase difference between different alternating quantities
• analyze how the instantaneous value for voltage and current is presented in
rectangular coordinate plane

Pretest: This pretest is intended to measure what you already know about complex
algebra from your previous studies and personal readings/learnings. Answer
honestly for your own growth and development. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.
1. What does AC stands for
a. direct current
b. alternating current
c. direct cycle
d. alternating cycle
2. The type of current where charges flow in one direction
a. direct current
b. alternating current
c. shaking current
d. switchback current
3. The type of current where charges shake back and forth in a circuit
a. direct current
b. alternating current
c. shaking current
d. switchback current
4. The equipment that lowers the AC voltage so that we can use it in our home
a. diode

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 b. generator
c. motor
d. transformer
5. A battery makes
a. direct current
b. alternating current
c. shaking current
d. switchback current
6. A phone charger needs to
a. step down the voltage and turn it to DC
b. step down the voltage and turn it to AC
c. step up the voltage and turn it to DC
d. step down the voltage and turn it to AC
7. Which one of the item below is NOT an AC device?
a. washing machine
b. drill machine
c. fridge
d. microwave
8. A sine wave has a peak value of 354 V, what is the RMS value?
a. 200 V
b. 250 V
c. 354 V
d. 500 V
9. Formula for calculating circuit voltage, current or resistance
a. series circuit
b. parallel circuit
c. ohms law
d. phasor law
10. Measures amount of current in a circuit
a. ammeter
b. voltmeter
c. circuit breaker
d. fusible link

Lesson Proper:
Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as
shown in Figure 2.1 (a) or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as
shown in Figure 2.1 (b).

9
 Figure 2.1 (a)

Figure 2.1(b)

The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number
of turns in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic
field rotates. Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown
above, but rotating-field method is the one which is mostly used in practice.

For AC Voltage

(1) The V reverses polarity at a specific rate. Consider one terminal of the Ac source
positive at a given time with respect to the other terminal. A little later in time, the
positive terminal will become negative to reverse the polarity of the AC output
voltage. The polarity reversals are continuously repeated at a regular rate.
(2) For either polarity the AC voltage varies in amplitude. In fact, the voltage must
vary from a maximum value to zero in order to be ready for the next polarity
reversal.
(3) The cycle includes 3600 or 2π rad.
(4) The polarity reverses each half cycle.
(5) The maximum values are 900 and 2700. They are in opposite polarity.

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(6) The zero values are 00 and 1800. Note that zero at the start and zero after the
half turn are not the same.
(7) The waveform changes its values the fastest when it crosses the zero axis.
(8) The waveform changes its values the slowest when it is at its maximum value.
The value must stop increasing before they can decrease.

Simple Waveforms

Waveform means the shape and form of a signal such as a wave moving in a
physical medium or an abstract representation. In many cases the medium in which
the wave is being propagated does not permit a direct visual image of the form. In
these cases, the term 'waveform' refers to the shape of a graph of the varying
quantity against time or distance. An instrument called an oscilloscope can be used
to pictorially represent a wave as a repeating image on a screen. By extension, the
term 'waveform' also describes the shape of the graph of any varying quantity
against time.

This is the sine wave

An ideal waveform accepted as standard

Parameters
Cycle is a complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity. It is
sometimes defined as to spread over 3600 or 2π radians.
Period is the time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle. It is
denoted by T.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second of the alternating quantity. It has a
unit of Hertz.
PN
f =
120

where f = frequency in Hertz

P = number of poles
N = number of revolutions per minute
1
f =
T
where T = period in seconds
Amplitude is the maximum value of an alternating quantity.

11
Phase is the fraction of the period of that alternating current which has elapsed since
the current last passed through the zero position of reference.
Phase Difference is the relative phase between different alternating quantities.
A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum (or zero) value
earlier as compared to another quantity while it is lagging when it is the quantity that
reaches its maximum (or zero value) later than the other quantity.

Leading and Lagging Relationship

In the figure shown, quantity B leads quantity A by exactly Ø0

Take note that (+) denotes leading and (-) denotes lagging when affixed before the
phase difference.

Different Forms of emf Equation

e = EmsinƟ or v = VmsinƟ V where Ɵ in degrees (2-1)

e = Emsinωt or v = Vmsinωt V (2-2)

where ω is angular velocity in radian per second
e = Emsin2πft or v = Vmsin2πft V (2-3)
where ω = 2πf, π = 3.1416 radians,
f = frequency in cycle per second or Hertz
2π
e = Emsin tV (2-4)
T
(i) It should be noted that the maximum value or peak value or amplitude of an
alternating voltage is given by the coefficient of the sine function.
(ii) The frequency f is given by the coefficient of time divided by 2π.
(iii) π can be represented by 3.1416 or 1800.

(iv) Angular speed (velocity) ω can be represented in degrees per second.

Representation of Alternating Quantities

Vectors are shorthand for the representation of alternating voltages and currents.
e = Em sin( t + )

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 i = Im sin t

Em
Measured counterclockwise
θ in the reference of Im

Im

Waveform and Phasor Diagram

Take note that – sin 𝜃 = sin (𝜃 + 1800)

Take note that cos 𝜃 = sin (𝜃 + 900)
sin 𝜃 = cos (𝜃 – 900)
Also, vectors of the same ω (angular speed) can be added or subtracted.

Root Mean Square (R. M. S.) Value

The root-mean-square (RMS) value or effective value of an ac waveform is a

measure of how effective the waveform is in producing heat in a resistance. If you
connect a certain value Vrms source across a resistor, it will produce the same
amount of heat as you would get if you connected the same value of Vdc source
across that same resistor.
R.M.S. Value of a Sinusoidal Current
The RMS value of an alternating current or is given by that steady state(DC)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the
same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
Im
circuit for the same time and derived as, I rms =
2
Derivation:

13
 2

 Im sin  d
1
I 2rms =
2

2 0
2
1
= Im2  sin 2  d
2 0
2
1 1
=
2
Im2  2 (1− cos 2) d
0
2
1  1
= Im2   − sin 2
4  2 0

Im2
= (2 − 0)
4
Im2
I 2rms =
2
Im
I rms =
2

In one complete cycle of a sinusoidal waveform as represented below

where:
cos 2 = cos2  − sin 2 
cos 2 = 1− sin 2 
1
sin 2  = (1− cos 2)
2

R.M.S. Value of a Complex Wave

The root mean square value of complex current wave is equal to the square
root of the sum of the squares of the RMS values of their individual components. If a
direct current is included, it is considered to be in its RMS value already, that is if the
equation of the current wave is
i = I dc + I m1 sin wt + I m3 sin 3 wt + I m5 sin 5 wt A
Im1 I m3 I m5
Therefore: Irms = (Idc + ( )2 + ( )2 + (
2
)2 ) (2-5)(1-5)
2 2 2
Average Value

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 The average value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady
current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that
alternating current during the same time.

In case of symmetrical alternating current the average value over a complete

cycle is zero. Thus, in this case, the average value is obtained by adding or
integrating the instantaneous values of current over one half cycle only.
But in the case of an unsymmetrical alternating current or quantity, the average
value must always be taken over the whole cycle.
i1 + i 2 + i 3 + ... + i n
I ave =
n

i3
i2
i1

The average value represents the area of the curve bounded by it over a
considerable cycle thus,
1 t
Ti  t 0
Iav = i d

Average Value of the Alternating Quantity

2 Im
Iave =

Derivation:
 1  
I ave = 2  Im sin  d
 2 0 


=
Im
(− cos 
 0

Im
=

(
− cos  + cos 00 )
2 Im
I ave =

The RMS value is always greater than average value except in the case of a
rectangular wave when both are equal.

Here is another way to derive the Average and RMS value for a sine wave:

Angle
Interval sin θ (sin θ)2
(degrees)

1 15 0.259 0.067

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 2 30 0.5 0.25

3 45 0.707 0.5

4 60 0.866 0.75

5 75 0.966 0.933

6 90 1.0 1.0

7 105 0.966 0.933

8 120 0.866 0.75

9 135 0.707 0.5

10 150 0.5 0.25

11 165 0.259 0.067

12 180 0.0 0.0

Total 7.60 6.0

7.6
For average value = = 0.6333  0.637
12
6
and RMS value = = 0.5 = 0.707
12
0.707
The ratio of RMS to Average value is then = 1.11
0.637
0.637
and the ratio of Average to RMS is = 0.9
0.707

It is observed from the diagram that RMS value = 0.707 x peak value and
average value = 0.637 x peak value.
Therefore:
E rms = 0.707E m or E m = 2E rms (1-6)
(2-6)
Also
Irms = 0.707I m or I m = 2I rms (1-7)
(2-7)
Form Factor (Kf)

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 rms value
Kf = (1-8)
(2-8)
average value
Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Ka)
max. value
Ka = (1-9) (2-9)
rms value
Sample Problem
Example 1. Convert 170V peak to RMS value.
Solution:
E rms = 0.707 (170 ) = 120 .2V
170
or E rms = = 120 .2V
2

Example 2. Convert 10V RMS to peak value.

Solution:
E rms = 0.707 (E m )
10
Em = = 14.14 V
0.707
or E m = 2 (10) = 14.14 V

Example 3. Convert 1V RMS to peak – to – peak value.

Solution:
E m = 2 (1) = 1.414 V
Since peak - to - peak value, the answer is 2(1.414) = 2.824V.

Example 4. Find the peak value of the sinusoidal voltage in an electrical network with
220 V RMS value.
Solution:
Em = √2 (220) = 311.13 V

Example 5. Find the peak value of the sinusoidal voltage in an electrical network with
110 V RMS value.
Solution:
Em = √2 110 = 155.56 V
Example 6. Find the (absolute) average of the sinusoidal voltage if its RMS value is
220 V.
Solution:
Eave = 0.637 Em and Em = √2 (220) = 311.13 V
Therefore Eave = 0.637(311.13) = 198.19 V

Example 7. Find the (absolute) average of the sinusoidal voltage if its RMS value is
110 V.
Solution:
The peak value of the voltage from Example 5 is 155.56 V and
hence: Eave = 0.637 Vm = 0.637 (155.56) = 99.1 V

17
Example 8. A 60 cycle alternating current has an RMS value of 42.42A.
(a) Determine the instantaneous values of the current for angles 15 0, 300, 600, 750,
2700; (b) to what value of time do these angles correspond the axis in a positive
direction.
Solution:
Using i = I m sin  and  = t
at θ1=150
i1 = 60 sin 15 0
i1 = 15.53 A
15
t1 = = 0.694 m sec .
2(60)
at θ2=300
i 2 = 60 sin 30 0
i 2 = 30 A
30
t2 = = 1.39 m sec
260
at θ3=600
i 3 = 60 sin 60 0
i 3 = 51.96 A
60
t3 = = 2.77 m sec
260
At θ4 = 750
i 4 = 60 sin 75 0
i 4 = 57.98 A
75
t4 = = 3.47 m sec
260

At θ5 = 2700
i 5 = 60 sin 270 0
i 5 = −60 A
270
t5 = = 12.5m sec
260
Example 9. A current is given by i = 22.62 sin377t A. Determine (a) maximum
value; (b) rms value; (c) frequency; (d) radians through which its vectors has gone
when t = 0.01 sec.; (e) degrees in (d); (f) value of current at instant in (d).
Solution:
The equation of instantaneous current i =22.62sin377t A; the maximum value is:
a) Im = 22.62A

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 b) I m = 2I rms
22.62
I rms = = 16 A
2
or I rms = 0.707(22.62) = 16A

c) Since  = 2f = 377 rad/sec

377
f= = 60cycles / sec
2
d)  = 2f at t=0.01 sec
rad = 2π(60)(0.01) = 3.77 rad
e) In terms of degrees
180 0
3.77radian  = 216 0
3.1416 radians
f) i = 22.62 sin 2160 = - 13.3 A
Example 10. The r.m.s. value of a 50 cycle e.m.f. is 200V. Determine (a)
equation of e.m.f. as a sine function of time t; (b) equation of e.m.f. squared
wave; (c) value of e.m.f. squared at t = 1/200 sec. and 1/400 sec.
Solution:
First, find the maximum value of voltage
Em = 2 (200 ) = 282 .84 V
(a) e = 282 .84 sin[ 2(3.1416 )(50)]t
e = 282 .84 sin 314 t V
1 − cos 2wt 
(b) e 2 = E 2 m 
 2 
1 − cos 628 t 
e2 = (282.84) 2  
 2
(c) at t = 1/200 sec
There are two ways to find emf squared value
1 − cos 628 1
e = (282 .84) 
2 2 200
( ) …… angle in radians
 2 
 
1− cos 2(2)(180)(50)(1 200 ) …… angle in degrees
e 2 = (282.84) 2  
 2
Solving first the angle in radians:
1 − cos 3.14 ……angle in radians
e 2 = (282 .84) 2  
 2
 180 0 
 1 − cos 3 .14  
e 2 = (282 .84) 2   
 2 
 
1 − cos180 0 
e 2 = (282 .84) 2   = 79,997 .47 V
 2 
Second way

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 1 − cos180 0 
e 2 = (282.84) 2   = 79,998.47V
 2 
While at t = 1/400 sec and doing either way, will give e2 = 39,999.235 V
Phase Relation

AC phase
Things start to get complicated when we need to relate two or more AC
voltages or currents that are out of step with each other. By “out of step,” I mean that
the two waveforms are not synchronized: that their peaks and zero points do not
match up at the same points in time. The graph in figure 1-17 illustrates an example
of this.

Figure 1-17 Out of Phase Waveforms

The two waves shown above (A versus B) are of the same amplitude and
frequency, but they are out of step (phase) with each other. In technical terms, this is
called a phase shift. The starting point of a sine wave was zero amplitude at zero
degrees, progressing to full positive amplitude at 90 degrees, zero at 180 degrees,
full negative at 270 degrees, and back to the starting point of zero at 360 degrees.
We can use this angle scale along the zero (horizontal) axis of our waveform plot to
express just how far out of step one wave is with another illustrated in figure 1-18
below.

Figure 1-18 Wave A leads wave B by 45o

The shift between these two waveforms is about 45 degrees, the “A” wave
being ahead of the “B” wave. A sampling of different phase shifts is given in the
following graphs to better illustrate this concept: Figures below illustrate examples of
phase shifts.

20
 Figure 1-19 Examples of Phase Shifts

Because the waveforms in the above examples are at the same frequency,
they will be out of step by the same angular amount at every point in time. For this
reason, we can express phase shift for two or more waveforms of the same
frequency as a constant quantity for the entire wave, and not just an expression of
shift between any two particular points along the waves. That is, it is safe to say
something like, “voltage 'A' is 45 degrees out of phase with voltage 'B'.” Whichever
waveform is ahead in its evolution is said to be leading and the one behind is said to
be lagging.
Phase shift, like voltage, is always a measurement relative between two
things. There's really no such thing as a waveform with an absolute phase
measurement because there's no known universal reference for phase. Typically in
the analysis of AC circuits, the voltage waveform of the power supply is used as a
reference for phase that voltage stated as “n volts at 0 degrees.” Any other AC
voltage or current in that circuit will have its phase shift expressed in terms relative to
that source voltage.
This is what makes AC circuit calculations more complicated than DC. When
applying Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Laws, quantities of AC voltage and current must
reflect phase shift as well as amplitude. Mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division must operate on these quantities of phase
shift as well as amplitude. Fortunately, there is a mathematical system of quantities

21
called complex numbers ideally suited for this task of representing amplitude and
phase.

Example 1. Determine how v1 leads or lags v2.

v1 = 4cos(2t + 300 ) V
v 2 = −2 sin( 2t + 18 0 ) V
Solution:
v1 = 4 cos(2t + 30 0 ) V
v1 = 4 sin( 2t + 30 0 + 90 0 ) V
v1 = 4 sin( 2t + 120 0 )V
v 2 = −2 sin( 2t + 18 0 )V
v 2 = 2 sin( 2t + 18 0 + 180 0 )
v 2 = 2 sin( 2t + 198 0 )V
V1 y(t)

θ 1980 1200
Shifting of reference
t
V2

V2 serves as reference

V2 -780

θ = 780 V1
V1 serves as reference
V2 leads V1 by 780 or V1 leads V2 by -780
V1 lags V2 by 780
Example 2. Determine the amplitude and phase of the following sinusoids:
(a) 6 cos 2t + 8 sin 2t (referred to sine)
(b) (4 3 − 3) cos(2t + 30 0 ) + (3 3 − 4) cos(2t + 60 0 ) (referred to sine)
Solution:

(a) 6 cos 2t + 8 sin 2t

= 6 sin( 2t + 90 0 ) + 8 sin 2t
= 690 0 + 80
= 1036.87 0
= 10 sin( 2t + 36.87 0 )
22
 therefore amplitude = 10 and phase = 36.870

(4 3 − 3) cos(2t + 30 0 ) + (3 3 − 4) cos 2t + 60 0 )
= (4 3 − 3)120 0 + (3 3 − 4)150 0
b)
= 5126.87 0
= 5 sin( 2t + 126.87 0 )
therefore amplitude = 5 and phase = 126.870

Example 3. Four circuits A, B, C and D are connected in series across a 240V, 50Hz
supply. The voltage across three of the circuits and their phase angles relative to the
current through them are VA, 80V at 500 leading; VB, 120V at 650 lagging; VC, 135V
at 800 leading. If the supply voltage leads the current by 15 0, determine the voltage
VD.
Solution:
24015 = 8050 + 120 − 65 + 13580 + VD
VD = 108.78 − 12.4 0 V
Example 4. Find the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the sinusoid
v(t) = 12cos(50t + 100) V.
Solution:
The amplitude is Vm = 12 V.
The phase ∅ = 100.
The angular frequency (velocity) ω = 50 rad/sec.
ω 50
The frequency f = = = 7.96 Hz
2π 2π
Chapter Test
1. Which of the following does not describe an alternating current system?
a. The behavior of an AC wave depends largely on frequency.
b. In an alternating current, the polarity reverses again and again at regular
intervals.
c. Alternating current system can be expressed in terms of polarity (or
direction) and magnitude only.
d. The magnitude usually changes because of constant reversals of polarity.
2. A type of ac wave that is a function of magnitude versus time that repeats itself over
and over.
a. transversal
b. periodic
c. recursive
d. repetitive
3. The length of time between one repetitions of the pattern of a wave.
a. cycle
b. frequency
c. angular frequency
d. period
4. One cycle per second is equivalent to:
23
 a. 1 radian per second
b. 1 Hertz
c. 1 degree per second
d. All of the above
5. Electromagnetic radiation can attain frequencies at a trillion hertz. This
frequency is equivalent to:
a. 1 GigaHertz
b. 1 Megahertz
c. 1 ExaHertz
d. 1 TeraHertz
6. A frequency domain instrument, with a cathode ray display.
a. Oscilloscope
b. Digital Multimeter
c. Spectrum Analyzer
d. Television
7. One radian is equivalent to ____ degrees.
a. 2π
b. 3600
c. 57.30
d. 2π / 360
8. A 60 Hz frequency has ____ radian per second.
a. 1/60
b. 2π / 360
c. 2π
d. 376.99
9. If two ac waves have the same frequency and the same magnitude, but differ
in phase by 180 degrees then
a. the net will be twice the magnitude of a single ac wave
b. the resulting signal will just combine
c. the resulting frequency will be twice that of either signal alone
d. the net signal will be zero
10. If two ac waves have the same frequency but differ in magnitude and is out of
phase by 1800 then, which of the following is true about their net signal?
a. have the same frequency and a magnitude equal to the difference between
the two
b. have the same frequency and magnitude equal to the sum of the two
c. have different frequency and magnitude equal to the sum of the two
d. have different frequency and magnitude equal to the difference between
the two
11. For a perfect sine wave, the rms value is equal to
a. 0.707 times the peak value
b. 0.354 times the peak to peak value
c. Both a and b
d. 1.414 times the peak value
12. What type of wave does an rms value is the same as the peak value?
a. sawtooth
b. triangular

24
 c. rectangular
d. ramp
13. This is the voltage, current or power that a dc source would have to produce.
a. effective value
b. rms value
c. virtual value
d. all of the above
14. If the dc component exceeds the peak value of the ac wave, then _____ will
result.
a. zero dc
b. pulsating dc
c. root mean square value
d. square wave

15. The ac voltage that a generator can develop does not depend on
a. strength of the magnet
b. number of turns of the wire coil
c. cross sectional area of the wire
d. speed at which the magnet or coil rotates
16. If a 30V dc battery is connected in series with the 230V utility mains, the
possible peak voltages will be:
a. 355.267 V and -295.27 V
b. 260 V and -200 V
c. Both are 230 V
d. 192.63 V and -132.63 V
17. In problem number 16, the peak to peak voltage will be:
a. 710.54 V
b. 680.54 V
c. 230 V
d. 650.54 V
18. Which of the following is / are general characteristics of an ac wave?
I The wave shape is homogenous for each cycle.
II There is a periodic reversal of polarity.
III There is a specific frequency.
a. I and II only
b. II and III only
c. II only
d. I, II and III
e. I and III only
19. A phase difference of 300 degrees in the circular model represents:
a. ¾ revolution
b. 1/12 revolution
c. 3/5 revolution
d. ¼ revolution
20. Number of degrees of phase that can be added or subtracted from a certain
wave that will have a resultant wave similar to the original wave.
a. π / 2
25
 b. π
c. 3π / 2
d. 2π
21. Number of degrees of phase that can be added or subtracted from a certain
wave that will have a resultant wave that is the inverted form of the original
wave.
a. π / 2
b. π
c. 3π / 2
d. 2π
22. A wave has a frequency of 200 kHz. One complete cycle takes:
a. 1/200 second
b. 5 milliseconds
c. 1/2000 second
d. 5 microseconds

23. If a wave has a frequency of 60 Hz, how long does it take for 20 degrees of
phase?
a. 0.3 second
b. 1.85 milliseconds
c. 0.926 milliseconds
d. 1/3 second
24. Shifting the phase of an AC sine wave by 300 is similar to:
a. moving it to the right or left by a full cycle
b. moving it to the right or left by 1/12 of a cycle
c. leaving it alone
d. inverting the wave
25. A phase difference of 900 degrees would more often be spoken of as:
a. An offset of more than three cycle
b. Out of phase by 1800
c. 60 Hz
d. Out of phase by 900
26. The difference between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) is
a. AC varies in value and DC is constant
b. AC changes direction and DC is constant
c. both a and b
d. none of the above
27. During each cycle, a sine wave reaches a maximum value.
a. once
b. twice
c. four times
d. it is frequency dependent
28. A sine wave with a frequency of 14kHz is changing at a faster rate than a sine
wave with a frequency of
a. 18 kHz
b. 16,000 Hz
c. 9, 000 Hz
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 d. 1.2 MHz
29. A sine wave with a period of 2ms is changing at a faster rate than sine wave
with a period of
a. 0.5ms
b. 0.00225s
c. 1.25ms
d. 1500ms
30. When a sine wave has frequency of 50Hz in 5s it goes through
a. 10 cycles
b. 5 cycles
c. 0.1 cycle
d. 250 cycles
31. If a peak value of a sine wave is 5 2 V the peak – to – peak value is
a. 5V
b. 10√2 V
c. 50V
d. None of the above

32. If the peak value of a sine wave is 10V, the RMS value is
a. 7.07V
b. 14.14V
c. 5V
d. 6.37V
33. The average value of a 5V peak sine wave over one complete cycle is
a. 0V
b. 1.59V
c. 15.71V
d. 3.183V
34. The average half – cycle value of a sine wave with a 10V peak is
a. 0V
b. 3.183V
c. 6.37V
d. 7.071V
35. One sine wave has a positive – going zero crossing at 150 and another sine
wave has a positive – going zero crossing at 550. The phase angle between
the two waveform is
a. 700
b. 400
c. 200
d. None of the above
36. The instantaneous value of a 12A peak sine wave at a point π/4 r from its
positive – going zero crossing is
a. 8.49A
b. 6A
c. 9.42A
d. 7.64A

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 37. If the rms current through a 5kΩ resistor is 2.5mA the rms voltage drop across
the resistor is
a. 17.68V
b. 1.77V
c. 0.125V
d. 12.5V
38. Two series resistors are connected to an ac source. if there are 7.2V RMS
across one resistor and 4V RMS across the other, the peak source voltage is
a. 11.2V
b. 31.68V
c. 15.84V
d. 4.53V
39. A 12 kHz pulse waveform consists of pulses that are 5µs wide. Its duty cycle
is
a. 94%
b. 6%
c. 60%
d. Cannot be determined
40. The duty cycle of a square wave
a. changes with the frequency
b. changes with the pulse width
c. both a and b
d. is 50%
Posttest: Solve the following exercise problems.

1. The maximum value of the alternating voltage and current are 400V and 20A
respectively in a circuit connected to 60Hz supply, sinusoidal in nature. The
instantaneous values of voltage and current are 346.4 V and 14.14 A respectively at
t=0 both increasing positively. Write down the expression for the voltage and current
at time t.
2. An alternating voltage of frequency 60Hz has a maximum value of 120A.
Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and is becoming positive.
Determine the time taken to reach 100 A for the first time.
3. Determine the phase difference between the two voltages v1=12 sin(1000t + 600)
V and v2 = -6 cos(1000t + 300) V. Graph and label the two voltages. Consider the
statement v1 leads v2 by exactly  degrees for the answer in phase difference. Take
note that  must be positive.
4. Determine the amplitude and phase of the following sinusoids referred to sine
function 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t V
5. Three branch currents in a network are known to be:
i1 ( t ) = 2 sin(377 t + 45 0 ) A
i 2 ( t ) = 0.5 cos(377 t + 50 ) A
i 3 ( t ) = −0.25 sin(377 t + 60 0 ) A
(a) Draw the phasor diagram and determine the phase angle by which i1(t) leads i2(t).
Ans. -500
(b) Draw the phasor diagram and determine the phase angle by which i1(t) leads i3(t).

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 Ans. 1650
6. Three currents in amperes respectively,
i1 = 10 sin t A
i 2 = 15 sin( t − 450 ) A

i 3 = 20 cos(t + ) A
6
Draw the phasor diagram. Find also the expression for the resultant current.
7. Calculate the phase angle between e1 = -10cos (ωt + 500) V and e2 = 12sin(ωt - 100)V.
State which sinusoid is leading.
8. Find the phase angle between i1 = -4sin (377t +250) A and i2 = 5cos (377t – 400) A. State
which sinusoid is leading.
9. The maximum values of the alternating voltage and current are 400V and 20A
respectively in a circuit connected to 50Hz supply and these quantities are
sinusoidal. The instantaneous values of the voltage and current are 283V and 10A
respectively at t=0, both increasing positively. Write down the expression for voltage
and current at time t. determine its phase difference. Indicate which quantity leads or
lags the other.
10. An emf e1 = 100sin(2π50t – 750) V is in series with an emf e2 = 120sin (2π50t – 1050)V.
Determine (a) their resultant e3; (b) angle between e2 and e3; (d) RMS of e3.
11. Two currents i1 = 12sin2π60t A and i2 = 9cos2π60t A flow in a wire. Determine (a)
equation of resultant current i3 and angle between i1 and i3; (b) rms value of i3.
12. Two emfs e1 = 35.35 sin 2π25t V and e2 = 40cos2π25t V are connected in series.
Determine the equation of resultant voltage e3 and angle between e1 and e3.
13. Two 50 cycle currents i1 = 2.5 sin (ωt – 150) A and i2 = 3.5 sin (ωt – 750) A flow into a
common wire. Determine trigonometrically their resultant current i3.
14. An emf e1 = 100 sin (2π50t – 750) V is in series with an emf
e2 = 120 sin (2π50t – 1050) V. Determine (a)trigonometrically their resultant voltage e3;
(b) angle between e1 and e3 .
15. Three sinusoidal alternating currents of RMS 5, 7.5, and 10 amperes are having same
frequency of 50 Hz with phase angles 300, -700, and 450. (a) Find their average value; (b)
Write equations for their instantaneous values; (c) Find their instantaneous values at
100msec from the original reference.
References:
Alejandria, Reynaldo (2012), Alternating Current Circuits Theory and Concepts
Bird, John (2003), Electrical Circuit and Technology (2nd ed.). Newnes OxFord, Amsterdam
Sadiku, Musa and Alexander, Applied Circuit Analysis

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