Solar Technical Training Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Section 1
INTRODUCTION

GAS PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

GAS COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

GAS PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

TEMPERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

SPECIFIC GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

EXPANSION COOLING OF NATURAL GAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16

Section 2
CENTRIFUGAL GAS COMPRESSOR THEORY

CENTRIFUGAL GAS COMPRESSOR THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

WHAT IS A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

GAS FLOW THROUGH A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

PRESSURE RATIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

COMPRESSOR INLET FLOW CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7

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Table of Contents Solar Technical Training

Section 3
COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR HEAD/FLOW CHARACTERISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

MAP ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

DIMENSIONAL PERFORMANCE MAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
SEMI-DIMENSIONAL PERFORMANCE MAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7

HEAD VS. CAPACITY MAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

WAYS OF STOPPING SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
EFFECT OF CHANGES IN BASE CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15

DETERMINATION OF HEAD REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

EXAMPLE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

BASE CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

CHANGE IN T1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19

CHANGE IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20

CHANGE IN PRESSURE RATIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21

FACTORS DETERMINING COMPRESSOR HEAD CAPABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23

Section 4
SURGE AND CHOKE IN THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

SURGE AND CHOKE IN THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

CHOKE OR STONEWALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

CHOKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

STALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

SURGE SYMPTOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

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Section 4 (Continued)
EFFECT OF SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SURGE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5

COMPRESSOR YARD VALVE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

DRY SEAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
WET SEAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
DRY SEAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
WET SEAL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12

SURGE CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18

Section 5
COMPRESSOR RECYCLE VALVE

COMPRESSOR RECYCLE VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

SECTION OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

CONTROL VALVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES FOR ANTISURGE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

GLOBE VALVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
LOW NOISE BALL VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

FLOW CHARACTERISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

NOISE ATTEUATING TRIM FLOW CHARACTERISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

LINEAR FLOW CHARACTERISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5

EQUAL PERCENTAGE FLOW CHARACTERISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5

ACTUATOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
PISTON ACTUATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
VALVE ACTUATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
VALVE ACCESSORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8

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Section 6
COMPRESSOR FLOW MEASUREMENTS TECHNIQUES

COMPRESSOR FLOW MEASUREMENTS TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

DIFFERENTIAL FLOW METERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2

ORIFICE PLATES (SHARP EDGED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5

PRESSURE TAP LOCATIONS (ORIFICE PLATES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
VALVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
VENTURI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
ANNUBAR OR PITOT TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
Flow Parameter Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
HIGH PRESSURE AVERAGING (PH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
LOW PRESSURE AVERAGING (PL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19

INSTALLATION AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20

ALIGNMENT ERROR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
SIZING ERROR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21

FLOW DISTURBANCE UPSTREAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22

LEAKAGE OF INSTRUMENT LINES AND CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
FLOW PARAMETER CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
DIRT ACCUMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
GAS ENTRAPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-27
SUCTION-TO-IMPELLER EYE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28

OTHER FLOW METERING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29

ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29

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Section 7
FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS

FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

SECTION OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

THE CONTROL PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

MODES OF CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3

PROPORTIONAL CONTROL MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5

INTEGRAL CONTROL MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6

SOLAR PI FUNCTION PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8

QUICK REFERENCE FOR SETTING PI CONTROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9

PROPORTIONAL MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
INTEGRAL MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9

Section 8
SOLAR’S ANTISURGE CONTROL SYSTEM

SOLAR'S ANTISURGE CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

SURGE CONTROL FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

SYSTEM FEATURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6

SURGE CONTROL WITH SUCTION PRESSURE COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8

FLOW/∆-P WITH SUCTION TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10

GAS SPECIFIC GRAVITY EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14

SPECIAL SURGE CONTROL APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15

SOLAR'S SURGE CONTROL PARAMETER DESCRIPTION (K-VALUES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16

P+I ALGORITHM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19
P+I ANTI-RESET WINDUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19
P+I TUNING CONSTANTS FOR CONTROLLER ASYMMETRIC OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19
CONTROL LOOP TRANSMITTER CHECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
ANTISURGE CONTROL ENABLE SPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
COMPRESSOR SURGE MARGIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20

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Table of Contents Solar Technical Training

SURGE DETECTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21

AUTO/MANUAL FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21
SURGE AND PROCESS CONTROL INTERACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22

ANTISURGE CONTROL ALGORITHMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23

Section 9
(Provided by Instructor)

Section 10
SOLAR’S SURGE CONTROL APPLICATION

SOLAR'S SURGE CONTROL APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

SECTION OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

SOLAR'S ANTISURGE CONTROL UTILITY PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2

ANNUBAR SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3

ORIFICE SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-17

SUCTION TO IMPELLER EYE SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-19

FISHER VALVES AND NELES VALVE EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20

PRINT TO A FILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20

ALLEN-BRADLEY LADDER LOGIC PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-21

Section 11
ENGINE CONDITION EVALUATION

SURGE CONTROL FIELD TEST, CALIBRATION AND TUNE-UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

SECTION OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

ANTISURGE CONTROL TRANSMITTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

PROCEDURES FOR ZERO AND SPAN ADJUSTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2

LINEARITY ADJUSTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4

DAMPING ADJUSTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6

vi Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539

Solar Technical Training Table of Contents

TRANSMITTER TROUBLESHOOTING SYMPTOM: HIGH OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7

POTENTIAL SOURCE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Impulse Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
TRANSMITTER ELECTRONICS CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Transmitter Electronics Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Sensing Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7

Section 11 (Continued)
TRANSMITTER TROUBLESHOOTING SYMPTOM: LOW OUTPUT OR NO OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8
POTENTIAL SOURCE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8
Loop Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8
Impulse Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8
Transmitter Electronics Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8
Test Diode Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Transmitter Electronics Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Sensing Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9

SYMPTOM: ERRATIC OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9

POTENTIAL SOURCE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Loop Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Process Fluid Pulsation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Impulse Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Transmitter Electronics Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
Transmitter Electronics Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10

STATIC FACTORY TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COMPRESSOR SURGE

CONTROL WITH K-VALUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11

FIELD STATIC TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COMPRESSOR SURGE CONTROL

WITH SALES ORDER K-VALUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19

DYNAMIC FIELD TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SURGE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-29

SURGE CONTROLLER (P+I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-32

CLOSE LOOP TUNING USING STANDARD ZIEGLER-NICHOLS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-34

APPENDICES
ANTISURGE DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

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NOTES

viii Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

GAS PROPERTIES

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this lesson the student will be able to:

1. Name and define major properties which must be

considered in calculations related to the compression
process.

2. Given gas composition and a chart listing the specific

gravity of each component, determine SG for a gas
mixture.

3. Define the term "compressibility factor".

4. Given the appropriate chart and gas properties, find the

gas compressibility factor.

INTRODUCTION

As you work with centrifugal compressors, you may hear the

words "specific gravity", "ratio of specific heats", and
"compressibility". These terms are used to describe the
physical properties of the process gas. These properties have
a major effect on the performance and capabilities of the
centrifugal compressor, so it's important that you understand
them.

This lesson will give basic definitions of the physical

properties of natural gas which have the most direct effect on
the compression process.

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

GAS COMPOSITION

There is no single composition or mixture that can be

referred to as natural gas. Each gas stream produced has its
own composition, with varying percentages of differing
components. The hydrocarbon gas compounds normally
found in a natural gas mixture are methane, ethane, propane,
butanes, pentanes and small amounts of hexanes, heptanes,
octanes, and heavier gases. The impurities found in natural
gas might include carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen,
water vapor, and heavier hydrocarbons. Impurities are
typically removed in gas processing; what usually reaches the
transmission line for sale as natural gas is mostly a mixture
of methane and ethane with some small percentage of
propane.

The overall physical properties of a natural gas mixture are

indicators of the behavior of the gas and compressor
performance capabilities under various processing
conditions. In order to determine the overall properties of a
natural gas mixture, a laboratory analysis of the mixture must
be completed to determine the components present in the
mixture and the proportional amount of each. Then,
properties for the mixture as a whole can be determined
based on the known properties of each individual component.
The composition of natural gas is usually expressed in terms
of the mol fraction of each of its components.

The mol fraction of a component is the number of molecules

of that component divided by the total number of molecules
in the sample. For example, if natural gas is composed of
three hydrocarbon gases such as methane, ethane, and
propane there are three different kinds of molecules in the
mixture. The number of methane molecules divided by the
total number of methane, ethane, and, propane molecules
would represent the mol fraction of methane in that mixture.

The mol fraction of a component can be converted to mol

percent by multiplying it by 100. For all practical purposes,
the mol percent and volume percent are the same for gaseous
mixtures.

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

Typical analyses of three different natural gas mixtures with

the components listed by mol percent are shown in
Table 1-1.

Table 1-1. Typical Natural Gas Analyses

Component Mixture 1 Mixture 2 Mixture 3

Mol percent Mol Percent Mol Percent
Methane 27.52 71.01 91.25
Ethane 16.34 13.09 3.61
Propane 29.18 7.91 1.37
I-Butane 5.37 1.68 0.31
n-Butane 17.18 2.09 0.44
I-Pentane 2.18 1.17 0.16
n-Pentane 1.72 1.22 0.17
Hexane 0.47 1.02 0.27
Heptanes & 0.04 0.81 2.42
Heavier
Carbon 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dioxide
Hydrogen 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sulfide
Nitrogen 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

NOTE

Production from many wells will contain

small quantities of carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen.

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

Table 1-2. Hydrocarbon Compounds Typically Found in a National Gas Mixture

Component Molecul Specific Specific Heat at Ratio of Specific

ar Gravity 60NF & 14.696 Heats (cp/cv) at
Weight psia (Btu/lb, NF), 60NF & 14.696
Ideal Gas psia
Methane (CH4) 16.043 0.5539 cp 0.5266 1.308
cv 0.4027
Ethane (C2H6) 30.07 1.0382 cp 0.4097 1.192
cv 0.3436
Propane (C3H8) 44.097 1.5225 cp 0.3881 1.131
cv 0.3430
N-Butane (C4H10) 58.124 2.0068 cp 0.3867 1.097
cv 0.3525
Iso-Butane (C4H10) 58.124 2.0068 cp 0.3872 1.097
cv 0.3530
N-Pentane (C5H12) 72.151 2.4911 cp 0.3883 1.076
cv 0.3608
Iso-Pentane(C5H12 72.151 2.4911 cp 0.3827 1.078
cv 0.3552
N-Hexane (C6H14) 86.178 2.9753 cp 0.3864 1.063
cv 0.3633
N-Heptane (C7H16) 100.205 2.4596 cp 0.3875 1.054
cv 0.3677
N-Octane (C8H18) 114.232 3.9439 cp 0.3876 1.047
cv 0.3702
N-Nonane (C9H20) 128.259 4.4282 cp 0.3840 1.042
cv 0.3685
N-Decane (C10H22) 142.286 4.9125 cp 0.3835 1.038
cv 0.3695

GAS PROPERTIES

The physical properties of a gas which most directly affect

the operation and performance of a centrifugal compressor
are temperature, pressure, specific gravity, and the ratio of
specific heats. An explanation of each of these properties
follows.

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

TEMPERATURE

Process gas temperature is typically measured at both the

suction and discharge sides of the centrifugal compressor.
Suction temperature is designated as Tl ; discharge
temperature is T2. The temperature of gas is used in
computing the energy put into the gas by the compressor
(head), power requirements, and gas flow. For calculations
related to compressor performance, gas temperature must be
expressed as absolute temperature. Absolute temperature in
degrees Rankine (NR) is equal to degrees Fahrenheit plus
459.7. Absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (NK) is found
by adding 273 to the Centigrade measurement.

PRESSURE

Gas pressure is measured at both the suction and discharge

sides of the compressor. Suction pressure is designated Pl ;
discharge pressure is P2. Gas pressure measurements are
used in calculating the energy added to the gas by the
compressor, power requirements, and gas flow. For these
calculations, gas pressure must be expressed as absolute
pressure (gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure at the site)
in psia or kPaa.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity (SG) is a measure of the weight of a gas,

expressed as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to
the molecular weight of air. The specific gravity of a gas
mixture is used in calculating energy added to the gas by the
compressor, flow and power requirements.

The molecular weight of air is 28.964. From Table 1-2, you

can see that the molecular weight of methane is 16.043.
Therefore, the specific gravity of methane is

16 .043
, or .5539
28 .964

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

Table 1-2 lists the specific gravity for each of the

hydrocarbon compounds typically found in natural gas.

To find the molecular weight of a natural gas mixture,

multiply the mol fraction of each component by its molecular
weight. Total these products to find the molecular weight of
the mixture. Then, divide the mixture molecular weight by
28.964 to find the specific gravity of the mixture. This is
demonstrated in Table 1-3.

Table 1-3. Molecular Weight of a Gas Mixture

Constituent Mol. Frac. Mol. Wt.

Methane CH4 .834 X 16.043 = 13.380
Ethane C2H6 .113 X 30.070 = 3.398
Propane C3H8 .049 X 44.097 = 2.161
Butane C4H10 .004 X 58.124 = 0.232
Total Mixture Molecular Weight = 19.171

19 .171
MixtureSpecificGravity  0 .6619
28 .964

You can see that the specific gravity of natural gas will
change with changes in gas composition. Specific gravity is
not affected by changes in temperature and pressure, and will
remain constant throughout the compression process unless
gas composition changes.

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS

In order to define ratio of specific heats, the term specific

heat must be explained.

The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat

required to cause a unit increase in temperature in a unit of
mass. Expressed in BTU, specific heat is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of gas one
degree Fahrenheit.

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

The value for specific heat varies depending on whether

pressure or volume is held constant while the gas is heated.
If gas is heated in an expandable container that will allow
volume to increase with temperature while pressure remains
constant, it is called specific heat at constant pressure or cp.
If gas volume is held constant and pressure is allowed to
increase with temperature it is called specific heat at constant
volume or cv.

The ratio of specific heats (K) is the ratio of the specific heat
of a gas at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume:

cp
K
cv

From Table 1-2, we can see that cp for methane at standard

conditions of 60N Fahrenheit and 14.6796 psia is 0.5266. Cv
at the same conditions is 0.4027. If the ratio of specific heats
for methane at standard conditions is

cp
K 
cv

0 .5 2 6 6
or 1 .3 0 8
0 .4 0 2 7

It's important to note that the cp and cv values for a gas, and
therefore the ratio of specific heats, are dependent on the
temperature of the gas. As, gas temperature varies
throughout the compression process, so will the ratio of
specific heats. In calculations related to the compression
process a value representing the average ratio of specific
heats throughout the process must be used. The ratio of
specific heats is calculated at 50°F & 300°F. The ratio of
specific heats is also given on check points for suction and
discharge conditions (K-1 & K-2 ). The ratio of specific
heats can be calculated by interpolating K-1/ K between K-
50 and K-300.

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR

There are several basic, experimentally derived laws which

can be used to predict the behavior of "ideal" gases under
different conditions of pressure, volume and temperature.
An ideal gas is a fluid which is in an extremely rarefied
condition, with a very small number of molecules per unit of
volume. The ideal or perfect gas laws are satisfactory for
calculations of pressure-volume-temperature relationships
for most real gases at pressure and temperature conditions
close to atmospheric. At pressures above 50 psi, deviations
of real gases from the ideal gas laws are pronounced. At
moderate pressure, real gas tends to compress more (have
less volume) than predicted by the ideal gas laws. At high
pressures, the gas tends to compress less (have more volume)
than indicated by the ideal gas laws.

To correct for the difference between the actual volume of

real gas and the volume predicted by the ideal gas laws, a
compressibility factor (Z) is introduced into calculations of
pressure, volume, and temperature relationships of real gases.
The compressibility factor is defined as the ratio of the
volume actually occupied by a gas at given conditions of
pressure and temperature to the volume the gas would
occupy if assumed to behave like an ideal gas:

Actual volume of a quantity of gas at a certain

pressure and temperature
Z = Ideal (calculated) volume of the same quantity of
gas at the same pressure and temperature

The compressibility factor for a gas mixture is a function of

pressure, temperature and composition of the gas. Therefore,
Z will vary with pressure and temperature throughout the
compression process. In compression calculations, an
average compressibility factor of Z at suction (Zl) and Z at
discharge (Z2) should be used. This is found as follows:

Z1  Z2
Zavg 
2

1-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

There are many methods of determining Z for a given set of

conditions, including actual measurement of gas volume in a
lab environment, direct calculation, and reading Z from a
curve. Solar uses a computer program based on the AGA
modified Redlich-Kwong equation of state to determine Z
for known process conditions and gas composition.

The curve shown in Table 1-4 is a basic method of

estimating Z for preliminary field calculations. The
temperature lines on the curve are not high enough to find Z2
for most applications. This curve can be used to find Z1 and
Z1 can be substituted for Zavg in preliminary calculations
without substantial loss of accuracy. In situations where high
accuracy is essential, a more rigorous method of determining
Zavg should be used.

In the Table 1-4 example,

Suction 600
Pressure psia
Suction 60NF
Temperature
Specific 0.60
Gravity

To find Z1, enter the curve on the left side at 600 psia.
Proceed horizontally to the intersection of the 600 psia line
and the 60NF temperature line. From this point, proceed
vertically to the 0.60 specific gravity line. Last, go
horizontally to the right side of the chart to read the
compressibility factor (.913).

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 1-9
Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

When a discharge flow meter is used, a synthetic flow value

is calculated. In the flow diagram shown in Figure 1-1, input
values, flow, pressure, temperature, and compressibility,
SYNFLO_1, SYNFLO_P1, SYNFLO_T1, and SYNFLO_Z1
are given. An equivalent flow, SYNFLO_P2, is calculated
based on a second set of input pressure, temperature, and
compressibility parameters, SYNFLO_P2, SYNFLOW_T2,
and SYNFLO_Z2. Flow, DP, or differential pressure across
a. flow orifice is expressed in inches of water.

1-10 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

Figure 1-1. Synthetic Flow Calculation Flow Diagram

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

To support the synthetic flow calculation, a gas

compressibility factor, RK_Z, is calculated. Figure 1-2
develops the calculation using the Redlich-Kwong method.
For a given set of input parameters comprising gas pressure
in psi, RK_PRS, pseudo critical pressure in psia, RK_PSP,
and temperature in degrees F, RK_TMP, and pseudo critical
temperature in degrees Rankin, RK_PCT, the gas
compressibility factor, RK_Z, is calculated.

1-12 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

Figure 1-2. Synthetic Flow Calculation Flow Diagram

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

Figure 1-3. Compressibility Curve for Natural Gas

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

Figure 1-4. Hydrate Formation Temperatures

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 1-15
Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

EXPANSION COOLING OF NATURAL GAS

When a gas is expanded (when the pressure is reduced), such

as when natural gas is recycled from compressor discharge to
compressor suction, the temperature drops also. The amount
of temperature drop depends upon the initial pressure, the
final pressure, and the composition of the gas. Typical
temperature drops can be seen in Figure 1-5.

It is important to understand that when the surge control

recycles gas by throttling the recycle (or bypass) valve, the
temperature will drop.

If the temperature drops far enough, liquids could condense.

For this reason it is important that the recycle piping be
routed upstream of the suction scrubber, to remove any
liquids that may have condensed before they reach the gas
compressor.

If water vapor is present in the natural gas, and the

temperature drops significantly enough, hydrates could form.
The threshold temperature of hydrate formation is shown in
Figure 1-4.

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

Figure 1-5. Expansion Cooling of Natural Gas

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

NOTES

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

STUDENT ACTIVITY

1. State the definition of each of the following gas

properties.

a. suction temperature

b. suction pressure

c. specific gravity

d. ratio of specific heats

2. Define the term "compressibility factor".

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 1-19
Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

3. Using the curve provided in Figure 1-3, find the

compressibility factor for a gas with the following
characteristics.

Temperature = 110NF
Pressure = 800 psia
Specific Gravity = .68

Z=

4. A laboratory analysis has determined that a gas mixture

has the following composition:

Constituent Mol. Fraction

Methane 0.970
Ethane 0.023
Propane 0.007

Use the information provided in Table 1-2 to determine

the specific gravity of this mixture.

SG =

1-20 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

NOTES

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Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

NOTES

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Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

ANSWER KEY

1. a. Gas temperature at the suction side of the

compressor; expressed as absolute temperature
(degrees Rankine or Kelvin) for calculation
purposes.

b. Gas pressure at the suction side of the

compressor; expressed as absolute pressure for
calculation purposes.

c. A measure of the weight of gas, expressed as the

ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to the
molecular weight of air.

d. The ratio of the specific heat of a gas at constant

pressure (cp) to the specific heat of the gas at
constant volume (cv).

2. Compressor Factor: The ratio of the volume

actually occupied by a gas at given conditions of
pressure and temperature to the volume the gas
would occupy if assumed to behave like an ideal gas.

3. Z = .893

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 1-23
Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

4. Constituent (Mol. Frac.)x (Mol. Wt.)

Methane 0.970x 16.043=15.562

Ethane 0.023x 30.070= 0.692
Propane 0.007x 44.097= 0.309
Total Molecular Weight =16.563

1 6 .5 6 3
SG   .5 7 2
2 8 .9 6 4

1-24 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Gas Properties

NOTES

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 1-25
Gas Properties Solar Technical Training

NOTES

1-26 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

CENTRIFUGAL GAS
COMPRESSOR THEORY

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this section the student will be able to:

• Describe a centrifugal gas compressor.

• Identify the internal parts of a centrifugal gas

compressor.

• Describe the path of gas flow through the gas

compressor.

• Discuss the ways gas flow is referred to.

• Present formulas to calculate gas flow and

head.

The following section will briefly develop the theory and

physics of the Centrifugal Gas Compressor. First, we will
give the definition of what a centrifugal gas compressor is,
what parts are used and the gas properties that affect the gas
compression process.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-1
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

WHAT IS A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ?

The centrifugal compressor is a device that converts the input

torque energy to fluid energy through a dynamic process.
This process involves accelerating the fluid (in our case gas).
The acceleration takes place as the gas is drawn into the eye
of the rotating impeller it has to speed up to exit the larger
diameter tip. the final energy change occurs in the diffuser
as some of the velocity energy is converted into static
pressure.

Figure 2-1. Internal Centrifugal Compressor

Components

2-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

GAS FLOW THROUGH A CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR

Gas enters the inlet collector and is then directed into the
inlet guide vane (reference Figure 2-3).

The inlet guide vane guides the gas into the rotating impeller.
The guide vane angular relationship to compressor rotation is
selectable (reference Figure 2-4). This selection is made by
the application engineer, at the initial sale or at restage.

The gas enters the eye of the impeller and is accelerated as it

exits from the impeller tip.

The gas now enters the diffuser. The diffuser can be of the
vaneless type, as shown in Figure 2-2 or be of the vaned
types as is used in the 601 series compressor. The diffuser
slows down the gas some and directs it into the next inlet
guide vane. This action is repeated for how many stages are
installed in the compressor.

After leaving the last stage, the gas passes through the exit
guide vane, where the gas is directed into the outlet.

Figure 2-2. Gas Flow Through a Multi-Stage Compressor

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-3
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

Figure 2-3. Typical Gas Flow into Impeller

Figure 2-4. Guide Vane Flow Designation

2-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

PRESSURE RATIO

Compressor suction pressure is determined by process

conditions, and the higher compressor discharge pressure
results from the pressure added to the gas by the compressor.
This increase in gas pressure across the centrifugal
compressor is often described in terms of pressure ratio.

The pressure ratio is a proportional comparison of absolute

suction pressure (P1) to absolute discharge pressure (P2). It is
expressed as P2/P1 (See below for an explanation of
converting a gage reading to an absolute reading).

If P1 is 200 psia and P2 is 600 psia, the pressure ratio will be:

600 or 3.0
200

For every psia of suction pressure, there are three psia of

discharge pressure.

Absolute pressure measurements are based on a zero

reference point, the perfect vacuum. Measured from this
reference, the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is
approximately 14.7 psi; however, local pressures may deviate
from this standard value because of weather conditions and
distance above sea level. Figure 2-5 shows graphically the
relation of the various pressure terms.

Figure 2-5. Diagram Showing Relation of Pressure Terms

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-5
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

COMPRESSOR INLET FLOW CALCULATIONS

Imagine a compressor with a fixed amount of gas flowing

through it every minute. The amount of that flow can be
expressed in terms of either its mass (weight) or its volume.

Volumetric flow is expressed as a unit of volume per a unit

of time. Cubic feet per minute (cfm) is a common unit for
describing volumetric flow. Generally, when compressor
aerodynamic performance is being considered, flow is
described as cfm.

Visualize a cubic foot (reference Figure 2-6) measuring

1 ft. x 1 ft. x 1 ft. or 13 ft. (cubic foot).

Figure 2-6. One Cubic Foot

A cubic foot contains 1 ft. (12 inches) x 1 ft. (12 inches) x 1

ft. (12 inches) = 1728 cubic inches.

If this container was hollow and filled with gas, we would

have 1 cubic foot of gas, at some temperature and pressure.

If we had a series of these containers going by a rate counter

(numbers of container per minute) we could find out the
number of cubic feet per minute flowing throughout the
system. Aerodynamically, the column (cubic feet) per
time/(minute) = CFM. This is also known as inlet cubic
feet/minute (ICFM) or actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM).
The CFM is the characteristic of the gas that affects
compressor operation. We now know the rate of gas moving
through our system (e.g. so many CFM or ACFM or ICFM).

2-6 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

To convert our rectangular model to a "real world" (round

pipes instead of square containers). Use the following
example to determine how much space a cubic foot would
occupy in a pipe.

Inside diameter of pipe = 8.071"

Cross section area of a circle = 3.1416 x R2

R = 1/2 diameter

3.1416 x 4.03552 = 51.16 square inch

1728 (inches in cubic ft.) = 51.16 x X

X = 1728 = 33.78 inches

51.16

So a pipe 8.071" in diameter x 33.78 inches long would have

a volume of 1 cubic foot (Reference Figure 2-7).

Figure 2-7. Cylindrical Model of

One Cubic Foot

NOTE

At standard conditions of pressure (14.7

pounds per square inch) and
temperature (60NF), a physical cubic foot
would contain one standard cubic foot of
gas.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-7
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

Gas by definition is a flexible fluid. It expands indefinitely

(unless confined in a vessel).

For example let's take our one cubic foot model and double
the pressure (e.g. internal vessel pressure is now 29.4 pounds
per square inch absolute). Ignore, for now, any temperature
change.

Question: How many physical cubic feet do we have?

Answer: We still have only one physical cubic foot.

What changed? The internal vessel pressure

doubled changing the pressure base. We
now have two standard cubic feet in a one
cubic foot physical container.

Question: Would you sell a commodity by physical

volume when the physical container's
contents could change as a function of
pressure and/or temperature?

Answer: Probably not if you wanted to stay in

business.

The obvious choice for sales considerations is to reference

the volume of the gas at a standard temperature and pressure.

NOTE

Standards vary in different locations

(states, countries). The standard used
in this text if 60NF, 14.7 psia.

2-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

Use the following equations to convert from cubic feet

(ACFM) to standard cubic feet (normally given in millions of
standard cubic feet per day abbreviated MMSCFD). These
equations are:

NOTE

All temperatures must be in absolute

units Eg. - Rankine (American) or Kelvin
(metric). All pressures must be in
absolute units.

Compressor volumetric inlet flow at actual suction P1 and T1.

Table 1-1. Units and Constant

Parameter American SI Metric

Head Ft!lbf/lbm J/KGm M KG!f/KG!m

Qact CFM M3/sec M3/min
Qstd MMSCFD SM3/hr NM3/hr
(60NF/14.7 psia) 15NC/760mm) (0NC/760 mm)
P Psia Kpa (abs) Bar (abs)
T F C C
C1 53.35 287.04 29.269
C2 459.67 273.15 273.15
C3 19.631 97.259 x 10 -6 61.764 x 10 -6

C3 Qstd Z1 ( T1  C2 )
Qact
P1

Equation 1-1. Actual Inlet Flow

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-9
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

Compressor volumetric flow at 14.7 psia and 60NF.

1 P1
Qstd  Qact
C3 Z1( T1  C2)

Equation 1-2. Standard Inlet Flow

Compressor volumetric inlet flow at (0C and 760mm Hg)

1 P1
Qnormal  Qact
C3 Z1 x ( T1  C2)

Equation 1-3. Normal Inlet Flow

Since gases are compressible, the actual flow (Qact) at the

compressor exit is less than at the inlet due to the increase in
pressure. However, the standard or normal flow at the
compressor inlet and outlet is the same because it is
subjected to the same pressure and temperature conditions.

Standard flow is typically calculated from the differential

measure flowmeter equations. For example, if the flow
meter is an orifice plate then:

P1
std ( MMSCFD)  C x 2 4 x 1 0 6 hw x
( T1  C2)

Equation 1-4. Isentropic Head

where:

C = orifice constant
hw = orifice plate differential pressure
P1 = compressor suction pressure
T1 = compressor suction temperature

2-10 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

Field performance also requires that the compressor

predictive suction flow be determined by using operational
data to compute the isentropic head. With isentropic head
and compressor speed (power turbine speed times gear box
ratio if any), the inlet flow can easily be determined.

The isentropic head equation is as follows:

k1
C1 x ( T1  C2) x Zavg P2 k
Head  [( )  1]
(k  1 ) P1
x SG
k

Equation 1-5. Standard & Volumetric Flows

Example:

Given the following operational conditions, determine the

compressor predictive actual and standard volumetric inlet
flows.

P1 = 500 psia
P2 = 1190.5 psia
K = 1.255
T1 = 100NF
T2 = 244NF
NCOMP = 14100 rpm
Zavg = 0.927
SG = 0.70

Step 1

( Z1  Z2)
Zavg   .0 9 2 7
2

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-11
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

Step 2

From Equation 1-5:

1.2551
5 3 .3 5 x ( 1 0 0  4 5 9 .6 7 ) x 0 .9 2 7 1 1 9 0 .5 1.255
Head Isentropic  x [( )  1]
1 .2 5 5  1 500
x 0 .7 0
1 .2 5 5

Head isentropic = 37498.86 Ft•lbf/lbm

Step 3

With isentropic head (37,498.86 ft•lbf/lbm) and compressor speed

(14100 rpm) read actual suction flow from map shown in Figure 2-8.

Qact = 1350 CFM

Step 4

From Equation 1-2:

1 500
Qstd  x 1350 x x ( 1 0 0  4 5 9 .6 7 )
1 9 .6 3 1 0 .9 2 7

Qstd  6 6 .2 4 MMSCFD

2-12 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory

Figure 2-8. Example Head vs. Capacity Map

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 2-13
Centrifugal Gas Compressor Theory Solar Technical Training

NOTES

2-14 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this section, the student will be able to:

1. Explain the use of a compressor dimensional

performance map, and solve a basic problem using the
map.

2. Explain the use of a compressor semi-dimensional

performance map, and solve a basic problem using the
map.

3. Explain the use of a compressor head vs. capacity

(inlet volume flow) map, and solve a basic problem
using the map.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR HEAD/FLOW

CHARACTERISTIC

NOTE

Centrifugal compressor performance is

typically shown on a graph of head vs.
flow, with the head on the vertical scale
and flow on the horizontal scale. Lines
representing head and flow points for
constant compressor operating speeds
are plotted on the graph.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-1
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

Solar produces three types of performance maps for

centrifugal compressors: head vs. capacity (inlet volume
flow), dimensional, and semi-dimensional.

Each of these maps can be very useful in predicting

compressor capabilities and power requirements. This lesson
will explain the specific uses and limitations of each map.

It is important to remember that specific performance maps

are produced for each compressor size and staging
configuration for the particular process conditions under
which that compressor will be operating.

Performance maps are like the thumbprint of an individual

compressor. You cannot use them to predict the
performance of any compressor other than the compressor
for which they were drawn.

MAP ACCURACY

All Solar compressor performance maps are computer

predictions of performance for a particular compressor under
specific conditions of pressure, temperature and gas
composition (specific gravity and ratio of specific heats).
These base conditions are assumed to remain constant. If the
map is used to predict compressor performance when actual
site conditions are different than those on which the map is
based, some inaccuracy may occur. Therefore, on every
Solar compressor performance map the base operating
conditions used for computation of the map are clearly
printed in the heading area.

This prediction of performance is based on computed data

for each individual stage configuration, and computer data
for all of the stages operating together.

3-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

Due to machining tolerances for aerodynamic components,

actual compressor performance may vary somewhat from the
performance predicted by the map. Figure 3-1 shows the
results of testing seven identical compressors under identical
conditions, at two different speeds. Note that, while all
compressors fall within a reasonable margin of the
prediction, there is some variation.

Figure 3-1. Compressor Test Performance

DIMENSIONAL PERFORMANCE MAPS

An example dimensional performance map is shown in

Figure 3-2. Base conditions of suction pressure and
temperature, specific gravity, and ratio of specific heats are
shown in the upper left corner.

The compressor type, C3044, appears at the top of the map.

This indicates that the compressor is a C30, with a maximum
capability of four stages and four stages installed.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-3
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

The dimensional map shows, on coordinates of pressure and

standard volumetric flow, lines of constant speed (rpm)
horsepower lines, and a single line showing the surge limit
points for all compressor operating speeds.

If a dimensional map is based on a constant suction pressure,

as shown in Figure 3-2, the vertical scale will show a range
of discharge pressures. Dimensional maps can also be based
on a constant discharge pressure. In this case, the vertical
scale will show the range of suction pressures. In order to
have the vertical scale plotted in the customary ascending
order, the dimensional map appears to be upside down when
plotted for a constant base discharge pressure. This is shown
in Figure 3-3.

In English Engineering units, pressure is expressed in psia

and standard volumetric flow is expressed in mmscfd.

The dimensional map enables the user to predict what power

and speed will be needed if flow and pressure conditions are
known. If the maximum power available is known, the curve
also enables the user to predict maximum possible flow and
pressure.

In the example in Figure 3-2, flow is 65 mmscfd and

discharge pressure is 1200 psia. To read compressor speed
and power requirements, a line was drawn vertically from the
65 mmscfd point at the base of the map and horizontally
from the 1200 psia point at the left of the map. The
intersection of these two points represents the compressor
operating point.

Interpolating between the 3000 and 4000 horsepower lines,

we can see that required horsepower for this flow and
pressure is approximately 3750 hp.

3-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

Figure 3-2. Example Dimensional Performance Map

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-5
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

Figure 3-3. Example Dimensional Performance Map, Plotted for a Constant

Discharge Pressure

3-6 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

Interpolating between the 14,000 and 15,000 rpm lines,

compressor speed for this operating point can be read as
approximately 14,120 rpm.

If changes in site specific gravity, suction temperature, or

base pressure occur, relatively significant changes occur in
the dimensional map. This makes the use of the dimensional
map relatively inaccurate for site conditions more than just a
few percent different than the base conditions shown on the
map.

If base conditions have changed, either the semi-dimensional

or head vs. capacity map should be used as described in the
following pages.

SEMI-DIMENSIONAL PERFORMANCE MAP

An example semi-dimensional map for a C3044 compressor

is shown in Figure 3-4. This map is the same as the
dimensional map, except that all of the values for discharge
pressure, horsepower, and flow have been divided by the
map base pressure.

This map can be used when the actual base pressure at the
site is different than the base pressure for the dimensional
map. As stated previously, a variation in base pressure may
make the dimensional map inaccurate. If the base
temperature, specific gravity and ratio of specific heats
remain the same, the semi-dimensional map may be used
when base pressure has changed by simply multiplying the
operating point values for pressure, standard flow rate, and
power by the actual base pressure.

As an example, assume that you want to use the

semi-dimensional map in Figure 3-4 (based on a constant P1
of 500 psia) for an operating condition which actually has a
suction pressure of 600 psia. All other conditions remain the
same.

The desired P2 for this application is 1400 psia and the

maximum power available is 3500 hp. You need to
determine the maximum possible flow in mmscfd for this P2.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-7
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

Figure 3-4. Example Semi-Dimensional Performance Map

3-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

First, the 1400 psia/3500 hp point must be plotted on the

map. To do this, divide both the horsepower and P2 values
by the actual suction pressure of 600 psia.

hp = 3500 = 5.8
P1 600

P2 = 1400 = 2.3
P1 600

Now the P2/P1 value and the hp/P1 value can be plotted on the
map by drawing a horizontal line from 2.3 on the left side of
the map to 5.8 hp, between the 4.0 and 6.0 hp lines. Draw a
vertical line from this point to the base of the graph to read
mmscfd/P1: .098.

To determine the actual numerical value for mmscfd,

multiply 0.098 by the actual suction pressure of 600 psia.

mmsdfd x P1 = mmscfd
P1

0.098 x 600 = 58.8 mmscfd

Thus, the maximum available flow for a P2 of 1400 and the

hp of 3500 at a suction pressure of 600 is 58.5 mmscfd.

In summary, this map may be used when temperature, ratio

of specific heats, and specific gravity are the same as those
listed on the map but base pressure has changed. If
conditions other than pressure have changed, this map may
no longer be accurate. In this case, the head vs. capacity
(inlet volume flow) map should be used.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-9
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

HEAD VS. CAPACITY MAP

An example head versus capacity map (for C3044

compressor) is shown in Figure 3-5.

The base operating conditions are printed in the upper left

corner of the map.

The performance map shows, on coordinates of head and

inlet flow, lines of constant speed (rpm), lines of constant
adiabatic efficiency (%), and a single line showing the surge
limit points for all compressor operating speeds. In English
Engineering units, head is expressed in ft!lbf/lbm and inlet
flow is expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm).

This type of map is most often used to depict compressor

performance because it is virtually unchanged by changes in
the base conditions of pressure, temperature, and gas
composition.

If any two values of the compressor operating points are

known, the other two values may be determined from the
map. In the example in Figure 3-5, cfm is known to be 1350
and compressor speed is 14,150 rpm.

To determine head and efficiency for those operating point,

the point must be plotted on the map. To do this, start by
entering the base of the map at 1350 cfm. Draw a vertical
line to 14,150 rpm. (Since 14,150 rpm is not represented by
a specific speed line, it is necessary to interpolate between
the 14,000 and 15,000 rpm lines). This point represents the
compressor operating point of 1350 cfm and 14,150 rpm.
You can now read head and efficiency.

To read head, draw a horizontal line from the operating point

to the left of the graph. Head for this point is approximately
37,500 ft!lbf/lbm. To read efficiency, see where the point
lies in comparison to the efficiency line on the map. This
point is almost directly on the 75% efficiency line. If the
point were to fall between two lines, it would be necessary to
interpolate.

3-10 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

Figure 3-5. Head vs Capacity Map

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-11
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

As seen in Figure 3-6 in the surge region, the head-flow

characteristic of the compressor actually reversed slope,
developing a negative-resistance characteristic. As
illustrated in Figure 3-7, if flow is reduced below point "C",
discharge pressure falls, causing the flow and pressure to be
further reduced due to point "D" where a momentary flow
reversal occurs, and the downstream process pressure starts
to fall. This creates a demand for more flow and the
compressor operating point moves to point "E. This cycle
will continue until control action is applied to force the
compressor out of the surge region, or damage develops.

If no control action is taken, surge will seriously damage the

compressor. It may result in bent shafts, cracked or ruptured
casings, and damaged bearings and impellers. The costs
involved in compressor repair and lost production associated
with surge are very high, therefore, any attempt to protect the
compressor in the most efficient way is well justified.

Figure 3-6. Typical Head-Flow Curve

3-12 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

Figure 3-7. Typical Discharge Pressure vs. Flow Curve

Some conditions that reduce the flow through the compressor

or increase the head requirement making the compressor
more susceptible to surge are:

• Clogged inlet screens; this increases the

ratio while reducing the suction throughput.

• Downstream flow conditions reduce system usage

causing the discharge pressure to rise.

• Inadequate or clogged bypass valve.

• Internal (interstage) flow leakage.

• Clogged impeller passages.

• Different gas specific gravity.

Examples of reduced flow sources include:

Operator, or automatic process controller, reduces engine

power.

• Bypass valve and or piping is undersized.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-13
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

• Bypass line injection opposes process gas thereby

reducing process gas flow.

• Interstage seals worn allowing interstage gas

recirculation.

• Foreign object adheres to the impeller passages

reducing flow area.

• Failed or improperly installed check valve(s) in

series/parallel compressors.

WAYS OF STOPPING SURGE

A variety of surge control schemes are available, but all of

them have one goal in common, they attempt to maintain a
minimal flow through the compressor at extreme conditions,
degrading the compressor throughput from optimum.

Several things can be done to prevent surge in centrifugal or

axial compressors, but in general, they fall to one of the
following two approaches:

1. Reducing the resistance of the outlet stream (reducing

the compression ratio P2/P1), or

2. Increasing the flow through the compressor.

3. Increase horepower if more is available.

Venting gas at the discharge of the compressor can be used

to increase flow, but is often objectionable. This approach is
suitable for gas turbine axial compressors. When the gas
being compressed can not be vented (economical reasons,
pollution regulations, etc.), a recycle line is normally used to
obtain gas by recirculation of the cooled gas from the
discharge to the compressor suction as shown in Figure 3-8

3-14 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

Figure 3-8. Schematic of Compressor Recycle Line

EFFECT OF CHANGES IN BASE CONDITIONS

The equation for adiabatic head shows that all of the gas
properties have an effect on the amount of head required for
a compressor application. A change in suction or discharge
pressure, inlet temperature, or a change in gas composition
with a resulting change in specific gravity will change head
requirements. A change in ratio of specific heats or
compressibility will also affect the required head, but the
influence of changes in these properties is secondary to that
of pressure, temperature and specific gravity.

It's essential that the user of a centrifugal compressor be

aware of changes in gas properties and head requirements.
Greatly increased head requirements may drive the
compressor into unstable operation, while significantly
reduced head requirements may cause the compressor to
operate at low efficiency.

In addition, changes in head requirements may affect the

amount of gas that will flow through the compressor in a
given time frame.

Remember that head is a measure of the energy that must be

added to one pound-mass of gas to make the pressure ratio.
The head required to compress one pound-mass of a certain
gas to a specific pressure will be the same whether the
compressor is processing 100 pounds-mass of gas per minute
or 500 pounds-mass of gas per minute. The total head

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-15
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

available to compress gas is, however, related to the amount

of gas processed.

The effects on head requirements of changes in pressure

ratio, specific gravity, and suction temperature are
summarized in Figure 3-9. If you would like to study these
effects in more detail, read the following example problem.

Figure 3-9. Effects of Gas Property Changes

3-16 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

DETERMINATION OF HEAD REQUIREMENTS

The amount of head the compressor will have to produce to

make a certain pressure ratio for a compressor application is
a function of the following:

• Suction pressure.

• Required discharge pressure.

• Suction temperature.

• Ratio of specific heats.

• Compressibility factor.

• Specific gravity.

If all of the above are known, a preliminary determination of

the head required for the process conditions can be made
using the following equation. A Solar compressor
application engineer will use a computer program for a more
accurate final calculation.

T1 x Zavg 5 3 .3 x K P2 k k 1
Had  [( )  1]
( SG) (K  1 ) P1

Had = adiabatic head

T1 = absolute suction temperature (NF + 460)
Zavg = average compressibility
SG = gas specific gravity
K = gas ratio of specific heats
P2 = absolute discharge pressure
P1 = absolute suction pressure
53.3 = constant (for English Engineering units)

It's important to remember that the 53.3 constant in the above

equation is valid only when T1 is expressed in degrees
Rankine. If other units were to be used, the constant would
change.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-17
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

The following example will show how changes in suction

temperature, pressure ratio, and specific gravity affect
required head. If you have a calculator that can do
exponentials, you can practice using the equation for head by
completing the calculations in the example.

BASE CONDITIONS

Assume that a compressor is operating with the following

gas properties.

P1 = 165psia

P2 = 330 psia

T1 = 110F (570NR)

SG = .650

K = 1.28

Z = .98

Using the equation for head, we can determine the amount of

head the compressor will have to produce to achieve the
desired pressure ratio for this gas: 34,341 ft!lbf/lbm.

.28
( 5 7 0 ) ( .9 8 ) ( 5 3 .3 ) ( 1 .2 8 ) 3 3 0 1.28
Had  [( )  1]
( .6 5 0 ) ( .2 8 ) 165

Had  ( 8 5 9 .3 8 ) ( 2 4 3 .6 6 ) ( .1 6 4 )

Had  3 4 ,3 4 1 ft(lbf/ lbm

3-18 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

CHANGE IN T1

Now let's assume that conditions at the site change slightly.

T1 increases from 110NF to 120NF, or 580NR. All other
conditions remain the same. Using the equation for head, we
are able to calculate the head required for the process with
the same pressure ratio but higher T1 = 34,944 ft!lbf/lbm

.28
( 5 8 0 ) ( .9 8 ) ( 5 3 .3 ) ( 1 .2 8 ) 3 3 0 1.28
Had  [( )  1
( .6 5 0 ) ( .2 8 ) 165

Had  ( 8 7 4 .4 6 ) ( 2 4 3 .6 6 ) ( .1 6 4 )

Had  3 4 ,9 4 4 ft(lbf/ lbm

The higher suction temperature results in a higher head

requirement for the same pressure ratio. A lower suction
temperature would result in a lower head requirement for the
same pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining
constant.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-19
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

CHANGE IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Assume that this same compressor has been running at the

same conditions as those listed previously under Example
Base Conditions. Gradually, how- ever, the gas composition
starts to change with a resulting change in specific gravity
from .650 to .620. The process gas is now lighter, but all
other conditions remain the same. Using the equation for
head, we can determine that the head required for the process
with the same pressure ratio but a lower specific gravity is
36,003 ft!lbf/lbm.

.28
( 5 7 0 ) ( .9 8 ) ( 5 3 .3 ) ( 1 .2 8 ) 3 3 0 1.28
Had  [( )  1
( .6 2 0 ) ( .2 8 ) 165

Had  ( 9 0 0 .9 7 ) ( 2 4 3 .6 6 ) ( .1 6 4 )

H1ad  3 6 ,0 0 3 .4 6 ft(lbf/ lbm

The lighter gas results in a higher head requirement for the

same pressure ratio. A heavier gas (higher SG) would result
in a lower head requirement for the same pressure ratio, with
all other conditions remaining constant.

3-20 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

CHANGE IN PRESSURE RATIO

Again, assume that the compressor is operating at the

example base conditions. Then, downstream resistance in
the discharge line is reduced with a resulting decrease in
discharge pressure to 300 psia. The result is a lower pressure
ratio. Using the formula for head, we can see that the lower
pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining constant,
will result in a head requirement of 29,316 ft!lbf/lbm.

.28
( 5 7 0 ) ( .9 8 ) ( 5 3 .3 ) ( 1 .2 8 ) 3 0 0 1.28
Had   1
( .6 5 0 ) ( .2 8 ) 165

Had  ( 8 5 9 .3 8 ) ( 2 4 3 .6 6 ) ( 0 .1 4 0 )

Had  2 9 ,3 1 6 ft(lbf/ lbm

The lower pressure ratio results in a lower head requirement.

A higher pressure ratio, with all other conditions remaining
constant, would result in a higher head requirement.
Remember that a change in pressure ratio, P2/P1, can occur as
a result of changes in either suction or discharge pressure, or
both.

Figure 3-10 shows graphically the effect of changing gravity

on the surge line.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-21
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

Figure 3-10. Volume Flow, CFM

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Performance

FACTORS DETERMINING COMPRESSOR HEAD

CAPABILITY

The amount of head which a compressor is capable of

delivering is determined by several factors.

For a single centrifugal compressor stage, head produced will

be proportional to the impeller diameter. Solar manufactures
several families of impellers, each designed for use in a
specific compressor. These impellers range from 7 inches in
diameter (maximum head per stage 8,000 ft!lbf/lbm) to 24
inches in diameter (maximum head per stage 20,000
ft!lbf/lbm).

Figure 3-11. Range of Impeller Sizes

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 3-23
Compressor Performance Solar Technical Training

For a specific impeller size, head produced will be

proportional to the square of the speed at which the impeller
is rotating. A 12 inch diameter impeller rotating at 15,500
rpm will produce more head than a 12 inch impeller rotating
at 14,000 rpm with all other conditions the same. Maximum
operating speeds for Solar compressors range from 9,500
rpm for compressors with 24 inch impellers to 22,300 rpm
for compressors with 7 inch impellers.

In addition to the speed and diameter of the individual

impellers, the head capability of the compressor is
determined by the number of stages in the compressor. Solar
manufactures a variety of compressors which can house from
one to ten stages, depending on the amount of head required
in the process.

3-24 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

SURGE AND CHOKE IN THE

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this lesson the student will be able to:

1. Define the term "choke" or "stonewall".

2. Define surge in the centrifugal compressor.

3. Explain how surge is avoided using a typical

conventional surge control system.

INTRODUCTION

In previous lessons you learned that the compressor has a

minimum flow point called the surge limit, and that any
operation to the left of that point on the compressor
performance map will result in unstable operation. This
unstable operation is called surge. This lesson will define
surge and its causes, and will explain how surge can be
avoided.

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Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

CHOKE OR STONEWALL

The surge point represents the low flow limit of compressor

operation. The high flow - low efficiency area of compressor
operation is referred to as "choke" or "stonewall".

These terms are commonly used to describe a maximum flow

condition for a Centrifugal compressor. It is a condition in
which a flow passage in the compressor is too small to allow
more gas to flow regardless of the amount of the reduction of
the discharge pressure. Compressors are normally staged so
that they don't operate in this region. Some of the design
operating points will, however, occasionally fall into this part
of the curve.

CHOKE

Choke is the maximum flow that the compressor can handle

at a given speed. At that point, the machine is unable to
produce any net overall pressure ratio and all the energy
supplied to the compressor is dissipated in losses. Choke,
also called “stonewall”, is not detrimental to the compressor;
it simply limits the maximum flow.

Choking may occur either in the inlet region of the impeller

or in the vaned diffuser. Choking occurs because of two
reasons: a) Sonic velocity, or b) negative stalling incidence.

SURGE

Surge is a symptom of compressor stall. Subsequently the

compressor is referred to as surging. This is technically
incorrect. Surge is the reaction of the gas in the system to
compressor stall.

STALL

All things that employ airfoils adhere to the same basic

principals. Examples of things that employ airfoils are
airplanes and dynamic compressors. Dynamic compressors
come in axial flow and radial flow.

The angle of attack is the relative angle of the airfoil to the

gas flow. As the angle of attack is increased, lift (differential
pressure) increases, to a point. The angle of attack can be
changed by movement of the airfoil through the gas stream
(airplane, climb) or a change in the resistance to the gas

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

flowing through a compressor decrease suction pressure or

increase discharge pressure). The point where continued
increase in the angle of attack does not produce an increase
in lift (differential pressure) is called the stall limit.
Continued increases in the angle of attack actually produce a
decrease in lift.

In an airplane, as the stall limit is approached, airspeed goes

down and lift increases. When the stall limit is reached
airspeed goes down but lift does not increase. When the stall
limit is exceeded airspeed continues to go down, lift
decreases and control of the aircraft may be lost.

In a compressor, as the stall limit is approached, flow goes

down and the differential pressure increases. When the stall
limit is reached flow goes down but the differential pressure
does not increase. When the stall limit is exceeded flow
continues to go down, differential pressure decreases and
flow may reverse (Surge).

Figure 4-1. Surge Limit Line

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-3
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

Figure 4-2. System Surge

SURGE SYMPTOMS

A surge condition may be characterized by loud clattering

noise from the compressor, successive slamming of the
discharge check valve, great increase in discharge
temperature, rapid pulsation of flow and discharge pressure,
and eventual shutdown of the machine either by the
operator's hand or automatically from vibration or high
temperature.

EFFECT OF SURGE

Surge can be mild and almost undetectable except for

decreased performance efficiency and the associated increase
in discharge temperature, or it can be violent producing high
frequency reversals in the axial thrust on the compressor
shaft. Surge can become severe enough to damage the
internal parts of the compressor. Operation in surge should
always be avoided.

Power delivered to the compressor is reflected as thrust,

normally opposite in direction to the gas flow through the
compressor. This thrust is imparted on the thrust bearing and
the balance piston. When the airfoils stall thrust is lost or
reversed, subsequently the rotor assembly moves axially.
When the compressor recovers from stall the rotor assembly

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

moves in the opposite direction. This pounds the thrust

bearings and scrubs the labyrinth seals.

All the power delivered to the compressor is reflected as

heat. Surging (the same gas flowing back & forth in the
compressor) causes the heat to build up in the compressor
rather than being carried away with the discharge flow. This
will cause overheating of the compressor and subsequently a
shutdown.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SURGE CONTROL

By looking at a head/cfm curve, we can see that the

compressor can be brought out of surge by lowering the head
and/or increasing the flow through the machine (Figure 4-3).

Figure 4-3. Bringing the Compressor Out of Surge

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-5
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

To understand how the flow through the compressor can be

increased without increasing the system flow rate, look at the
typical compressor valve arrangement shown in Figure 4-4.
Although there are many different valve arrangements in
which compressors are operating, this is the most common.

If the suction and discharge pressures and the flow that will
be accepted by the system piping dictate a surge condition,
the bypass valve can be opened slightly to allow some
amount of gas to be recycled from the discharge back to the
suction of the compressor, thus increasing the flow through
the compressor without increasing the flow in the system.

In case of sudden changes in the system, such as accidental

closure of the suction valve or loss of power, the bypass
valve must be opened at least as quickly as the system
change. However, it should not open too much or too
quickly so that it upsets the system. The idea is to open the
bypass valve just enough to be able to continue operating the
compressor but not recycle any more gas than is necessary.

Figure 4-4. Typical Compressor Valve Arrangement

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

There are other means of avoiding surge. If more than one

compressor is operating in parallel, shutting down one
compressor will increase the flow through the remaining
compressors, and move them away from surge.

The primary means of avoiding surge is to increase the flow

through the compressor. The easiest and most common way
to do this is to open a bypass or recycle valve. A surge
control system automatically anticipates that the compressor
is nearing operation in surge, and opens a recycle valve just
enough to keep the machine from going into surge.

COMPRESSOR YARD VALVE SYSTEM

A surge control system is generally built into the compressor

yard valve system. It's helpful to understand the yard valve
arrangement and operation when discussing a surge control
system. The following pages illustrate a typical yard valve
start-up sequence.

NOTE

On some installations a dry Seal System

is used. This eliminates the Seal Oil
System. The sequences described in
the following yard valve description
covers both systems. The following
illustrations represent only one
possibility, there exist other variations of
yard valve sequences depending on
process and environmental constraints.
If no particular seal system is specified
the yard valve action is not affected by
the type of seal system.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-7
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

Figure 4-5. Prestart Valve Positions

When the engine is not operating, the vent and bypass valves
are open. The suction, discharge, and loading valves are
closed.

4-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

Figure 4-6. Start Switch Pressed

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Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

DRY SEAL SYSTEM

If the seal gas is externally supplied, the buffer air and seal
gas is turned on. If the seal gas is internally supplied, the
buffer air is turned on.

WET SEAL SYSTEM

When the start switch is pressed, the bypass valve closes.

The pre/post lube pump is activated. When prelube pressure
reaches 6 psig, the prelube pressure switch transfers. The
auxiliary seal oil pump is activated. In dry seal systems
buffer air/gas is admitted to the seal system

4-10 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

Figure 4-7. Purge Cycle

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Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

DRY SEAL SYSTEM

If the seal gas is externally supplied the supply pressure is

checked at a timed interval after the start command. If
acceptable, the start continues, if the seal gas ∆psi is
unacceptable, the unit is shut down.

WET SEAL SYSTEM

When seal oil pressure reaches a predetermined level, the

seal oil pressure switch transfers. The loading valve opens.
Gas flows into the system, purging the compressor and
adjacent piping of air through the vent valve. This is
normally a 30 second cycle.

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

Figure 4-8. Compressor Pressurizes

At the end of the purge cycle, the vent valve closes. The
compressor begins to pressurize with the suction gas entering
the system through the loading valve.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-13
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

When the differential pressure across the suction valve

reduces to the case differential pressure switch setting,
normally 50 psid, the switch transfers. This provides the
signal to open the suction, bypass, and discharge valves.
After the suction valve is fully open, the loading valve
closes. When the engine prelube cycle is completed, the
engine crank cycle is initiated.

Figure 4-9. Case Differential Pressure Switch Transfers

4-14 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

Shortly after ignition, the power turbine and boost

compressor begin to rotate. At this point the discharge check
valve is still closed, preventing the compressor discharge gas
from exiting the system through the discharge valve. Instead,
the gas discharged from the compressor flows back through
the open bypass valve to recycle through the compressor.
This recycling of compressed gas keeps the boost compressor
from surging and allows the engine to accelerate rapidly at
low load.

This pattern continues until the accelerating engine reaches

the minimum operating power level, normally 90% gas
producer speed.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-15
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

Figure 4-10. Engine Reaches 90% Speed

At 90% speed, the speed control signals the bypass/antisurge

valve to begin closing. As the valve closes, compressor
discharge pressure increases.

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

If the compressor has dry seals and the seal gas is internally
supplied, after a time interval the ∆ pressure (P2 - P1) is
checked. If the ∆psi is acceptable, the run is continued. If
the ∆psi is unacceptable, the unit is shut down.

Gas is no longer recycling through the bypass loop; pressure

is building in the discharge line.

In a package with no surge control system, the bypass valve

closes. When the compressor set is supplied with a surge
control system, the position of the bypass valve will be
determined by the surge controller.

When compressor discharge pressure exceeds the pressure in

the main gas line, the check valve opens. The compressor is
now on stream.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-17
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

SURGE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Though there are many different types of surge control

systems, they all operate on basically the same principle.

As explained previously, the surge control system is

normally integrated into the compressor yard valve system
and uses a bypass loop to allow, some gas to flow from
discharge back to suction. The system, shown in Figure
4-11, consists of a surge control valve, surge controller, flow
measurement device and pressure sensors at compressor
suction and discharge.

Figure 4-11. Surge Control System

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

The controller senses the pressure differential across the

compressor and the flow through the compressor. It
compares these measurements with a pre-set surge control
line. The pre-set surge control line is a line next to the surge
line and is located 10-15% in flow to the right of the surge
line (Figure 4-12).

Figure 4-12. Surge Control Line

When the pressure and flow measurement indicate that the

compressor operating point is on or to the left of the surge
control line, the surge control valve is signaled to begin
opening. Gas flows through the surge control valve and
combines with the gas supply from the process (pipeline,
well, etc). When the combined gas flow is sufficient to move
the operating point to the surge valve control line, the surge
control valve setting is maintained until a further upset in
supply gas flow requires more or less makeup gas from
compressor discharge. Sometimes the startup and shutdown
bypass valve is used for surge control. Often a separate
parallel loop of smaller size is used exclusively for surge
control. The choice of either system is generally dictated by
the degree of control required from the surge control system.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-19
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

A surge detection system is also available. This system is

not for control but for shutdown. It senses the pressure
fluctuations at the compressor discharge associated with
surge. Upon sensing three pressure pulses in a 5 to 10
second interval, the system will send a shutdown signal to
the package control.

4-20 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

STUDENT ACTIVITY

1. Define compressor surge.

2. Define the term "choke" as it applies to the centrifugal

compressor.

3. Name the five valves in a typical compressor yard

valve system.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

4. What is the primary means of avoiding boost

compressor surge?

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-21
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

NOTES

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Solar Technical Training Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor

ANSWER KEY

1. Surge is an area of unstable compressor operation,

where the compressor impellers are not able to
produce enough head to overcome the required
pressure ratio.

2. Choke describes the high flow-low efficiency area of

compressor operation.

3. a. suction
b. bypass
c. loading
d. discharge
e. vent

4. The primary means of avoiding boost compressor

surge is to open the bypass or surge control valve,
thereby increasing flow through the compressor.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 4-23
Surge and Choke in the Centrifugal Compressor Solar Technical Training

NOTES

4-24 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Recycle Valve

COMPRESSOR RECYCLE VALVE

SECTION OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this section are as follows:

• Familiarize the students with the different types of

recycle valves being used in antisurge control loops.

• Explain the basic criteria for sizing a recycle valve for

centrifugal compressors.

• Explain the basic criteria for the recycle valve actuator

selection.

• Familiarize the students with the different valve

accessories.

INTRODUCTION

There are different control valve types and designs being

used for antisurge control. There are also different opinions
or criterions used for sizing recycle valves. This section will
try to explain the Solar philosophy on selecting the
appropriate recycle valve for a given compressor staging and
customer operating conditions. Before going into any
details, let's have a brief discussion about control valves in
general.

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Compressor Recycle Valve Solar Technical Training

CONTROL VALVES

A control valve is the final control element in many control

loops. The control valve body regulates the rate of fluid flow
as the position of the valve plug (for globe type valves) or
valve "ball" (for ball type valves) is changed by force from
the actuator. Many styles and types of control valve bodies
and internals have been developed through the years. For
antisurge control applications, the most widely used valve
type is the globe style. However, with the latest
improvements in ball valve range ability and low noise
design, there has been an increase in the use of this type of
valve for surge control.

TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES FOR ANTISURGE

CONTROL

As indicated above, there are two types of valves used in

antisurge control applications Globe and Low Noise Ball
valves.

GLOBE VALVES

The Globe valve used for compressor recycle is the

Balanced-plug cage-style. The advantages of this valve
when compared with a Low Noise Ball valve are as follows:

• Balance valve plug. Downstream pressure acts on both

the top and the bottom sides of the valve plug, thereby
nullifying most of the static unbalance force. Reduced
unbalance permits operation of the valve with smaller
actuators. Pneumatic diaphragm type actuator (spring
return) can easily be used which will guarantee the
valve fail-safe operation.

• Interchangeability of trim permits choice of several

flow characteristics, valve flow capacity or noise
attenuation components.

• Due to the sliding piston-cage design, minimum

leakage is expected (as low as 0.15 ml/min).

5-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Recycle Valve

LOW NOISE BALL VALVE

These types of valves are gaining popularity in the world of

compressor antisurge control applications. The Ball valve
most commonly use for antisurge control is the Q-BALL
from Neles-Jamesbury. This unique rotary control valve has
the following advantages:

• Low noise and erosion.

• High capacity and range ability.

• Self-cleaning, non-clogging.

FLOW CHARACTERISTIC

The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship

between the flow rate through the valve, and the valve travel
as the travel is varied from 0 to 100%. There are two other
terms that refer to the same subject, "inherent" and "installed
flow characteristics". "Inherent flow characteristic" refers to
the characteristic observed with a constant pressure drop
across the valve. "Installed flow characteristic" means the
flow response obtained in service where the pressure drop
varies with flow and other changes in the process.

Figure 5-1 illustrates the three typical flow characteristic

curves. These three flow characteristics can be found in the
globe type valve, however, with the Ball valve only an equal
percentage flow characteristic is available.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 5-3
Compressor Recycle Valve Solar Technical Training

Figure 5-1. Valves Inherent Flow Characteristic Curves for Fischer Design ET

NOISE ATTEUATING TRIM FLOW CHARACTERISTIC

The whisper Trim flow characteristic is similar to the linear

characteristic except that it tends to flatten at the end of the
valve trawel producing almost no change in flow rates. This
plug type valve provides a low noise output which is useful
in some applications where noise levels are one of the
selection criteria.

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Recycle Valve

CAUTION !

Lowering of the noise level is

achieved by altering the flow. This
alteration can be blocked with foreign
material leaving the gas compressor
unprotected. The user is ultimately
responsible for maintaining system
cleanliness.

LINEAR FLOW CHARACTERISTIC

For this type of valve, the flow rate is directly proportional to

the valve travel. This proportional relationship produces a
characteristic with a constant slope so that with constant
pressure drop, the valve gain will be the same at all flows.
This characteristic is the most desirable for antisurge control
applications because of its fast response, good range ability
and linearity.

EQUAL PERCENTAGE FLOW CHARACTERISTIC

For these valves, equal increments of valve travel produce

equal percentage changes in the existing flow. The change in
flow rate is always proportional to the flow rate just before
the change in valve plug or ball position is made. Valves
with an equal percentage flow characteristic are generally
used on pressure control applications, and on other
applications (like antisurge control) where a large percentage
of the pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system
itself, with only a relatively small percentage available at the
control valve.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 5-5
Compressor Recycle Valve Solar Technical Training

ACTUATOR TYPES

Pneumatically operated control valve actuators are the most

popular type in use, but electric actuators can some times be
found in antisurge control loops. Three different types of
actuators can be discussed for surge control applications:

• Diaphragm actuator (spring return)

• Piston actuator (spring return)

DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR

The spring-and-diaphragm pneumatic actuator is the one

most commonly specified due to its dependability (fail-safe
operation) and simplicity of design. This is the preferred
actuator for recycle valve operation (commonly use in globe
type valves). Some of the characteristics of this type of
actuator include:

• Pneumatically operated, using low-pressure air supply

(3-15 or 6-30 psi) from positioner or I/P.

• Various styles are available in order to guarantee the

valve fail-safe mode. For antisurge control
applications only the direct acting (increasing air
pressure pushes down diaphragm and extends actuator
stem) should be specified (air-to-close).

• Net output force is the difference between diaphragm

force and opposing spring force.

• Size is dictated by output thrust required for the

maximum shutoff differential pressure.

• Simple dependable and economical.

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Recycle Valve

PISTON ACTUATORS

Pneumatically operated piston actuators provide integral

positioner capability and high stem force output for
demanding service conditions. This actuator is most
typically used with ball valves. Some of this actuator
characteristics include:

• Pneumatically operated using high pressure plant air

(100 - 150 psig).

• Furnish maximum thrust output and fast response.

• Easily reversible by changing action of the integral

valve positioner.

• Best designs are double-acting to give maximum force

in both directions.

• Various accessories can be incorporated to position the

spring actuator piston in the event of supply pressure
failure. These include volume tank, release solenoid,
etc.

• More complicated and expensive than diaphragm

actuator.

VALVE ACTUATOR

The valve actuator for the recycle valve should be FAIL

SAFE, which means that the valve should open in case of
electrical or pneumatic (air or gas) power failure. In the case
of Fisher valves, Solar has selected a pneumatic diaphragm
type actuator model 657, which is an AIR-TO-CLOSE type
actuator.

In the case of Neles-Jamesbury valves, Solar has selected a

pneumatic piston & springtype actuator with a volume tank
in order to provide a fail-safe mode.

In the case of Fisher valves, use the table shown in

attachment "G" to select the actuator size and the following
procedure:

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 5-7
Compressor Recycle Valve Solar Technical Training

VALVE ACCESSORIES

For all valves, the recommended recycle valve accessories

are as follows:

a. ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC POSITIONER PMV

EP5. The function of this device is to convert the
analog output signal (4-20 ma) from the PLC into a
valve position.

b. POSITION TRANSMITTER (PNV F5) . The

function of this device is to provide an analog signal
(4-20 ma) to the PLC, proportional to the valve
position in percentage closed. This device also
provides two (2) discrete signals (24 VDC) to the PLC,
equivalent to valve full open (FO) and valve full close
(FC) limits.

c. THREE-WAY 24 VDC SOLENOID VALVE

ASCO P/N 8302B42 (Cv=1.0). The purpose of this
valve is for PLC back-up. When the surge control
system is enabled, this solenoid is energized, allowing
the control signal to modulate the valve position as
required. In case of PLC failure this solenoid is
de-energized and the valve actuator air or gas is vented,
opening the valve 100 percent.

d. EXHAUST BOOSTER (Fisher 289RC) 1" NPT (Cv

= 21). The booster provides amplification of the
positioner pneumatic signal to quickly reduce the
actuator pressure. This results in very quick opening of
the surge control valve (less than 100ms/ inch of port
size).

e. PRESSURE REGULATOR (FISHER 67AFR OR

EQUIVALENT. This device will regulate the
instrument air or gas supply pressure to the
electro-pneumatic positioner.

f. NEEDLE VALVE (DELTROL). The needle valve is

corrected between the positioner input and the actuator
connection of the exhaust booster. It adjusts the
sensitivity of the exhaust booster.

5-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

COMPRESSOR FLOW
MEASUREMENTS TECHNIQUES

OBJECTIVE

Upon completion of these section of this section the student

will be able to describe the basic concepts and techniques
used on gas flow metering.

DIFFERENTIAL FLOW METERING

Differential pressure (∆ P) flow meters are the most

frequently used of all flow measuring devices. They
represent a good combination of simplicity, flexibility, ease
of installation and reliability.

Differential pressure flow meters operate on the principle

that there is no flow without a change in energy, and that
measuring the energy changes will provide a measurement of
flow.

Energy may be expressed in many different terms, but in a

continuous flow system we are concerned specifically with:

1. Kinetic energy: ½ x mass x (velocity)2.

2. Potential Energy: force x distance

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. In flow it is

sometimes known as velocity head.

Potential energy is stored energy - the energy of elevation or

pressure. In flow it is sometimes called elevation head and
pressure head.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-1
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Figure 6-1. Kinetic/ Static Energy

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM

When fluid flows in a pipe, the total energy it possesses at

any one point is exactly equal to its total energy at any other
point, neglecting frictional losses.

Total energy at 1. or 2. = elevation head + pressure head +

velocity head.

With the valve closed: there is elevation head and pressure

head at 1. and 2., but no velocity head. Pressures measured
at 1. and 2. are equal.

With the valve opened: now there are also velocity heads at
1. and 2. Since the fluid must be passing 1. and 2. at the
same volumetric rate, and the diameter of the pipe at 2. is
smaller than at 1., the velocity of the fluid at 2. must be
greater than at 1 and the velocity head (kinetic energy) at 2.
must be greater than at 1.

In order for the total energy level to be the same at 1. and 2.,
some loss in potential energy had to have taken place, and
this will show up as a pressure loss.

6-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

A well known relationship in physics relates this pressure

loss to the velocity:

V  2 gh

Formula 6-1.

where V = fluid velocity, through the restricted section

h = the pressure loss between 1. and 2.

and g = gravitational constant (32.2 ft/sec/sec).

This same relationship exists if a restriction is placed in a

flow line, increasing the velocity of the fluid as it passes
through the restriction. A drop in pressure will be measured
at the restriction as shown below:

Figure 6-2. Flow vs. Pressure through Orifice Plate

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-3
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Since flow, Q = velocity of fluid (V) x cross sectional

area (A),

that is, Q  V x A,

then
Q  A x 2 x g x h

Formula 6-2

In reality, a coefficient, C, must be introduced to determine

the actual flow from the theoretical flow. This coefficient is
obtained experimentally by test, and is a function of pipe
size, type of orifice tap connections and Reynolds number:

then
Q  C x A x 2 x g x h

Formula 6-3

For any given installation, all elements of the above equation

except h are constants. Combining them all into a
coefficient, K, we derive the "basic flow equation", which
relates the differential pressure measured across a particular
flow restriction to the amount of flow through the restriction:

Q  k h

Formula 6-4

The following is an explanation of the different differential

flow metering devices available in the industry today.

6-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

ORIFICE PLATES (SHARP EDGED)

Thin plates 1/16 inch thick up to 3 inches diameter: 1/8 inch

thick, beveled, above 3 inches diameter.

Figure 6-3. Views of an Orifice Plate Installed

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-5
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Concentric - orifice concentric to outside diameter.

• Most common type in use (reference

Figure 6-4).

Eccentric - prevents damming of liquid in gas or vapor in

liquid (reference Figure 6-4).

Segmental - same as eccentric, plus useful with low flows in

large pipe (reference Figure 6-4).

Tab with data should point up to assure correct positioning of

possible auxiliary hole, and should face upstream to assure
correct positioning of bevel, if any.

Figure 6-4. Type of Orifice Plates

PRESSURE TAP LOCATIONS (ORIFICE PLATES)

Flange Taps - located in flanges on either side of and 1 inch

from the orifice plate (reference Figure 6-5).

• Most common taps used.

• Much data available.

• Most recent differential pressure meter bodies can be

close coupled.

Vena Contract Taps - located one pipe diameter upstream

and about one half pipe diameter downstream, but this latter
value varies (reference Figure 6-5).

6-6 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

• Provides greatest differential pressure.

Pipe Taps - Located two and a half pipe diameters upstream

and 8 pipe diameters downstream (reference Figure 6-5).

• Measures permanent pressure loss.

• Provides smallest differential pressure.

Corner Taps - located directly next to the orifice plate

Connecting Piping - is important, because although the

pressure in the line may be hundreds of psi, the meter body
must accurately respond to changes of a small fraction of an
inch of water.

The maximum recommended length of the connecting piping

from the primary element to the meter body is:

• 50 ft. for gases.

• 100 ft. for liquids or steam.

• Keep it as short and direct as possible.

Vertical runs are preferred to horizontal. Where horizontal

runs are necessary, they should be sloped at least 1 inch to
the foot in such a manner that:

• If liquid flow, gas or vapor can vent back into flow

line.

• If gas flow, liquid can drain back into flow line.

Connecting piping must contain a continuous uninterrupted

column of the fluid being measured.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-7
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Figure 6-5. Pressure Tap Locations

For measuring gas flow - locate flow meter body above the
flow line (self draining)(reference Figure 6-?).

For measuring steam flow - locate flow meter body below

the flow line.

Never pipe from the bottom of the flow line.

Do not use smaller than ½ inch pipe.

Figures 6-6 through 6-10 give the installation criterion for

the length of pipe preceding and following the orifice plate.

6-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

NOTE

B (Beta)= Measured ID of Orifice Plate

Measured ID of Meter Tube (pipe)

NOTE

Illustrations 6-6 through 6-10 are used

by permission of the copyright holder,
American Gas Association.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-9
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Figure 6-6. Partly Closed Valve Upstream of Meter Tube

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Figure 6-7. Two Ells Not in Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-11
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Figure 6-8. Less than Ten Pipe Diameters (D) Between Two Ells in Same Plane
Upstream of Meter Tube

6-12 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Figure 6-9. Greater Than Ten Pipe Diameters (D) Between Two Ells in the Same
Plane Upstream of Meter Tube

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-13
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Figure 6-10. Reducer or Expander Upstream of Meter Tube

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

VALVES

• Isolating valves; near process flow line.

• Blow-down piping.

• Three valve manifold incorporates meter block valves

and equalizing valve in one body. Costs less to install
than separate valves and puts the valves right at the
meter, which is particularly convenient when the meter
body is installed at ground level, remote from the
orifice plate.

Condensate Pots - installed in saturated and superheated

steam lines.

• Maintains a constant condensate level during

fluctuating flow.

• Condensate in connecting piping protects the meter

body from high steam temperatures.

Purges - provides a small flow of an inert fluid outward from

the meter body to the process line.

• Protects the meter body by preventing corrosive or

contaminating fluid from entering the meter body and
connecting piping.

Seal Pots - protect the meter body from corrosive or

contaminating fluid by filling the meter body and connecting
piping with an inert sealing fluid, heavier than the process
fluid and immiscible with it.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-15
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

Figure 6-11. Piping for Gas Flow (left) Horizontal Pipe (right) Vertical Pipe

Figure 6-12. Three Valve Manifold

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

VENTURI

Gradually reduces and then increases cross sectional area

(reference Figure 6-13).

Advantages:

• Good for flows with entrained solids.

• Has low permanent pressure loss.

• Passes about 60% greater flow than orifice plate for the
same ∆-P.

Disadvantages:

• Heavy, troublesome to install.

• Inflexible to range changes.

• Costly.

Figure 6-13. Cross Section, Venturi Tube

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-17
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

ANNUBAR OR PITOT TUBE (REFERENCE

FIGURE 6-14)

This device consists of two taps; one senses velocity head,

the other senses static head.

Advantages:

• Flow turn down greater than 10:1.

• Low permanent pressure losses.
• Energy saving.
• Accuracy of + 1%.
• Easy and low cost installation.

Disadvantages

• Some designs are easy to plug

• Low signal levels at the surge control line.

Flow Parameter Limitations

The Annubar will function in a wide variety of fluid flow

situations. There are two specific situations in which the
Annubar should not be used. The first is in flows where the
viscosity approaches or exceeds 50 centipoise. The second is
in a situation with two phase flow. This is true of liquid/gas,
liquid/solid and gas/solid situations. Examples would be
quality steam, slurries and foam. If there is doubt about any
applications, consult the factory.

Figure 6-14. View of Annubar

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Annubar produces a DP signal proportional to the square of

the flow rate in accordance with Bernoullis theorem. This
signal has two components: the high pressure (PH) and the
low pressure (PL).

PH - PL = DP

HIGH PRESSURE AVERAGING (PH)

The high pressure is produced by impact of the velocity

profile on the sensor. The velocity profile results in a
corresponding impact pressure profile. Multiple sensing
ports, located on the front of the sensor, sense the impact
pressure profile.

Inside the high pressure chamber, the average velocity

pressure is maintained by the proportionality of the sensing
port diameters to the chamber cross-sectional area.

LOW PRESSURE AVERAGING (PL)

The velocity profile continues around the sensor and creates

a low pressure profile. The low pressure profile is sensed by
ports, located downstream and opposite the high pressure
ports. Working on the same principle as the high pressure
side, an average low pressure is maintained in the low
pressure chamber.

Figure 6-15. Annubar Pressure Profile

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-19
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

INSTALLATION AND OPERATIONAL

CONSIDERATION

The Annubar flow sensor is designed to provide an accurate

measurement of fluid flow over a wide range of flow rates.
In all cases, the Annubar must be sized, specified and
ordered according to the catalog. Finally, the Annubar must
be installed correctly following the instructions provided
with each unit. As with all things, there is a possibility of
having problems. This chapter is presented to provide a
better understanding of the effects of improper installation
and application of Annubar primary flow elements, and to
thereby emphasize the need for care in selection, installation
and use.

ALIGNMENT ERROR

The Annubar probe senses a total pressure (impact and static

pressure) through the velocity ports and a low pressure
through the downstream port. The impact pressure and the
downstream low pressure are affected by the alignment of the
sensing ports. A deviation from perpendicular to the axis of
the pipe in any direction will affect either or both of the
sensed pressures. The published Flow Coefficients were
determined experimentally with a carefully aligned Annubar.
Changes within the limits indicated in Figure 6-16 will have
insignificant effects on the pressures and consequently on the
Flow Coefficients. Further changes will cause a shift in the
Flow Coefficient. If, for some reason, an Annubar is not or
cannot be installed within the limits, it may be necessary to
do an in-line calibration. The Annubar output signal will be
repeatable and stable but will be shifted by some unknown
amount. After determining a new Flow Coefficient, the
Annubar will perform within its normal accuracy tolerances.

6-20 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Figure 6-16. Permissible Misalignment of Annubar

SIZING ERROR

For accurate measurement, the design of the Annubar probe

requires that the flow sensing ports be located at specific
points in the flow stream. When the Annubar is
manufactured, the location of the ports is based on the inside
diameter and wall thickness of the pipe. When the Annubar
is installed in the line using the proper fittings, the sensing
ports end up at the proper locations. If an Annubar is used in
a line which has a different inside diameter or wall thickness
than for which it was manufactured, the ports will not be
properly located. Using the wrong mounting fittings may
also cause location errors.

The result of having the sensing ports improperly located

could be an incorrect flow measurement. The reading may
be either high or low depending on the individual
application.

An Annubar that is installed in an incorrect line size will

give a repeatable signal. A calibration factor will have to be
determined to make accurate flow measurements. Once this
is done, the Annubar may be used normally.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-21
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

FLOW DISTURBANCE UPSTREAM

The Annubar flow sensor is an averaging head type device.

The location of the sensing ports have been mathematically
determined using fully developed turbulent flow
characteristics. This implies that the flow velocity profile is
symmetrical across the pipe in all directions. The averaging
functions of the Annubar will not take place if the flow
profile is not symmetrical. This will cause a change in the
Flow Coefficient from the published information.

The flow profile can be influenced by any upstream device

which disturbs the flow. Examples would be valves, elbows,
diameter changes, etc. Insufficient lengths of straight run of
pipe upstream of the Annubar will allow the turbulent flow
profile to develop. A flow straightener or straightening
vanes may be used to reduce the length of straight run
required. These are available in several configurations from
piping supply houses. Table 6-1 shows minimum straight
run requirements with and without the use of flow
straighteners.
The Annubar will produce a repeatable signal even if the
straight run requirements have not been met. In many
control situations, it is necessary to monitor changes in flow
rather than to measure flow rate. Here it would not be
necessary to have the full amount of straight run. Where flow
measurement is necessary without sufficient straight run, an
in-line calibration may be necessary to determine the correct
Flow Coefficient.

6-22 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Table 6-1. Annubar Location Recommendations

This Table Provided Courtesy

of Dieterich Standard

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-23
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

LEAKAGE OF INSTRUMENT LINES AND

CONNECTIONS

Flow measurement using an Annubar or any other type of

head device depends on comparing two pressures generated
by the flow past the device. This difference is called a
differential pressure or D.P. The magnitude of this D.P. is
small and quite often less than one (1) psi. Any leaks in the
instrument lines or connections will change the D.P. output
of the Annubar. If a leak occurs in the high pressure (impact)
lines a low D.P. will be seen by the secondary
instrumentation. Any leak in the low pressure (downstream)
lines will result in a high D.P. With the low D.P.'s involved,
even a small leak can cause very large flow measurement
error.

FLOW PARAMETER CHANGES

The Annubar flow sensor will function over an extremely

wide range of flow conditions. Measuring flow with an
Annubar requires care in determining the flowing conditions
so that the secondary instrumentation is providing usable
readings.

A precise flow calculation is done as part of the application

of an Annubar and secondary instrumentation. If any of the
flowing parameters change, the flow calculation is no longer
valid. Significant changes in fluid temperature, density,
specific gravity, velocity and pressure are some of the
parameters that will cause errors in flow measurement unless
a new flow calculation is done. The new flow calculation
will then provide necessary information for calibrating the
secondary instrumentation.

DIRT ACCUMULATION

One inherent advantage of an Annubar over devices such as an

orifice plate, is its ability to function in flows carrying dirt and
grease. The shape of the Annubar causes most foreign material
to flow around the probe rather than accumulate on it.

The material that does impact on the probe does not

significantly affect the performance. Under extreme cases
some, of the sensing ports are completely obstructed or the
outside shape is drastically changed by buildup.

6-24 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Figure 6-17. Annubar Flow Pattern

There are two methods of cleaning the Annubar to restore

performance. Mechanical cleaning is the most certain
method, but does require removal of the Annubar. Purging
the Annubar is effective if the accumulation covers the
sensing ports or blocks the internal passages of the Annubar.

In flow where there is a large amount of foreign material, it

may be necessary to perform a routine preventative
maintenance removal of the Annubar for cleaning. The outer
surfaces should be cleaned with a soft wire brush. The
internal passages are cleaned by using a soft wire and
compressed air, and if necessary, a solvent for dissolving the
material. As a precaution where the flow is extremely dirty,
the Annubar may be ordered with clean out ports. These
ports are located in the Annubar head directly in line with the
internal tubes so that rodding out the tubes is possible.

Purging the Annubar with an external fluid source under a

higher pressure is an effective means of maintaining clear
pressure pathways in the Annubar.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-25
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

The following precautions should be taken:

1. The purging fluid must be compatible with the process

fluid and shouldn't cause other problems such as
contamination.

2. The purging fluid should be preheated or precooled if

the temperature difference of the purge fluid and the
process exceeds 150NF (66NC).

3. The differential pressure transmitter or meter should be

isolated from the purge fluid to prevent over-ranging.

The length of time between purges, or the cycle time as well

as the length of purging must be determined experimentally.
There is no guideline as conditions, fluids, and systems affect
the specific function of a purge system.

Figure 6-18. Annubar Purging

6-26 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

Purging may be done in several ways. One is to provide an

external source of fluid pressure which can be valved into the
instrument lines. If the Annubar is ordered with cleanout
ports, the purge fluid connections may be made through them
by removing the plugs.

Blow-down of the Annubar is a method of purging. This

method uses process line pressure to clean the Annubar.
Some means of opening the instrument lines, purge ports or
the opposite end purge connection to a drain is required. The
fluid then flows out carrying the debris with it.

Care must be taken to protect the secondary instrumentation

for high pressures when purging an Annubar. Some means
must be provided for valving off the lines to the secondary
instrumentation when the purging is taking place.

GAS ENTRAPMENT

Flow measurement with an Annubar or any head type device

involves measuring and comparing pressures of very low
magnitude or very little differences. Problems caused by
leaks and liquid legs have been previously mentioned.
Problems may also be caused by gas entrapment while
measuring flow in a liquid line. The effect of having air
entrapped in an instrument line is that of building in a shock
absorber. In all flow situations, the Annubar signal is a
fluctuating pressure because of flow turbulence. The
entrapped gas being compressible absorbs a portion of the
signal at the secondary instrumentation. A liquid filled line
would not have any tendency to absorb part of the signal. It
is important to follow the installation recommendations for
placement of the Annubar and instrumentation to minimize
gas entrapment. Periodic bleeding of the secondary
instrumentation and lines may be necessary.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-27
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

SUCTION-TO-IMPELLER EYE

The static pressure differential between suction flange and

impeller eye provides an inexpensive approach to measure
the compressor inlet volume flow.

Advantages:

• High ∆ P signal

• Low cost (only the cost of a transmitter)

• No permanent pressure losses.

OTHER FLOW METERING TECHNIQUES

ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER

The ultrasonic flowmeter operates on the principle that the

velocity of sound in a fluid in motion is the resultant of the
sound in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity of the
fluid itself.

• Two different methods of using this principle:

• Beam deflection method, where the deflection of an

acoustic beam transmitted across the flow is measured,
and

• Travel time difference method, where sound waves are

transmitted in opposite directions relative to the flow
and the difference in travel time is measured.

• The Doppler effect method is also used, where sound

waves are projected along the flow path, and the
frequency shift in the signal returned is measured.

• The time difference method is favored in terms of basic

capabilities, range of applicability, and state of
development.

6-28 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

NOTES

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Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

NOTES

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

STUDENT ACTIVITY

1. On what principle do differential flow meters operate?

2. When using an orifice plate the connecting piping must

contain a ______________________ column of the
fluid being measured.

3. State the advantages and disadvantages of the

following:

a) Venturi
b) Annubar
c) Suction to impeller eye

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-31
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

NOTES

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Solar Technical Training Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques

ANSWER KEY

1. Differential flow meters operate on the principle

that there is no flow without a change in energy,
and that measuring the energy changes will provide
a measurement of flow.

2. continuous uninterrupted

3. A. Advantages
- Good for flows with entrained solids
- has low permanent pressure loss

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 6-33
Compressor Flow Measurements Techniques Solar Technical Training

NOTES

6-34 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers

FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC
CONTROLLERS

SECTION OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this section the student will be able to:

1. Understand the basics of automatic controllers applied

to the Solar antisurge control algorithm.

2. Understand the difference between proportional and

integral actions.

INTRODUCTION

Automatic controllers in one form or another have been

around process industries for a number of years. The
controller is the one element in the control loop that allows
any measure of operating flexibility. This section is not
intended to delve deeply into the theory or practice of
automatic process control but merely to introduce or present
enough fundamentals to define the task of microprocessor
control system in this duty.

THE CONTROL PROBLEM

The task of the controller is to maintain a stable and safe

process by means of adjusting one or several of the variables
or parameters that have some effect over the process. In
order to accomplish this the process variable (PV) or control
variable must conform to a particular constant or calculated
value called the setpoint (SP). The difference between them

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 7-1
Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers Solar Technical Training

is known as the error ("e"). For Solar antisurge controller

function, error is defined as:

e = SP - PV

where:

SP = Kc x hw + Bias (theoretical ∆-P to recycle).

PV = ∆-Pcpsr(compressor differential pressure, Psid).

Kc = Recycle or control line slope.

Bias = control line offset.

hw = compressor suction flow, Inches of H2O.

Equation 7-1.

For Solar's antisurge control system, the "SP" represents the

theoretical (calculated function of suction flow) compressor
differential pressure to go into recycle while the "PV" is the
actual compressor differential pressure.

The objective of a normal control system is always to

maintain the controller PV at the SP as stable as possible.
However, the antisurge control system behaves differently
from those standard control systems because during normal
operation the controller SP will be larger than the PV
producing a positive error ("e") which is the reason that the
recycle valve is kept shut. This material will be discussed
later in this chapter.

The controller function in the PLC acts on the error and

through the help of yet another component, the final control
element (in our case the recycle valve), in order to bring the
process in the desired direction (toward the SP) reducing the
error. The relationship between the controller, process, final
control element and measured variables is shown in the block
diagram in Figure 7-1.

7-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers

Figure 7-1. Solar Antisurge Control System Block Diagram

MODES OF CONTROL

The control loop in Figure 7-1 is the main object of attention.

The setpoint (SP) is compared to the value of the Process
Variable (PV), as the result of this comparison, and error
signal ("e") is generated. This error along with the
controllers various modes, controller output 0 is generated.
The controller output acts over the final control element
(recycle valve) which output is combined with a Disturbance
Signal ("g") before being applied to the process. In most
processes there are several disturbances each of which can
offset the process differently. The response to a change in
the disturbance signal is different from the response to the
same change in the setpoint.

Since the process dynamics varies from application to

application, various types of controllers or control modes
have been developed. The various types of controls are
called "modes".

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 7-3
Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers Solar Technical Training

Most standard stand alone controllers or PLC controller

functions have three common modes of operation.

1. Proportional mode.

Proportional (gain) determines the amount of actuator

travel to an error when the reference is changed. Too
much gain will result in sustained oscillations int he
valve output. Too little gain will result in poor control
performance.

2. Reset or integral mode.

Integral (reset) compensates for lags in the control

loop. It prevents slow hunting at steady state and
controls the time rate at which the output error returns
to zero after a setpoint change. Too much integral will
result in large low frequency oscillations in the output.
Too little integral will result in an underdamped
condition or a slow return time.

3. Rate or derivative mode.

These three modes can operate individually or in various

combinations. The Solar antisurge controller function
combines only the proportional plus integral control modes
and it is call P+I or PI controller. The controller function
used in the Solar antisurge control loop is as follows:

θ(k) = θ(k-1) + e(k) (KP +KI T/2) + e(k-1) (KI T/2 - KP)

where:

θ(k), θ(k-1): Surge controller output at times k and k-1.

e(k), e(k-1): Error (SP-PV) at samples k and k-1.

KP: Controller proportional gain.

KI: Controller integral gain.

T: PLC scan time.

Equation 7-2.

7-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers

PROPORTIONAL CONTROL MODE

The simplest proportional controller is the proportional only

controller. the output of this controller is proportional to the
error signal (see Figure 7-2). The standard proportional
controller function is described by:

θ(t) = θ + Kp e(t)

where:

θ: constant value setting at e = 0

Equation 7-3.

The coefficient, Kp, in the proportional controller is called

the proportional gain or proportional sensitivity.

Figure 7-2 demonstrates the action of the proportional

controller in time. A sudden change in the controller setpoint
(SP) makes the error jump quickly and the output to the
valve will move instantaneously by a proportional amount in
the direction required to correct the error (in the antisurge
control to make the error signal zero or positive). If the error
is kept constant, the new valve position will stay the same (as
per Equation 7-3). the disadvantage of the proportional only
mode is that error becomes zero for only on load condition
that is stabilized by the value of "θ" (manual reset). To
eliminate the constant error when load changes occurs, the
value of "θ" must be manually reset.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 7-5
Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers Solar Technical Training

Figure 7-2. Proportional Only Controller Response

As can be seen for processes with frequent load changes, it is

necessary to automate the reset function (θ).

INTEGRAL CONTROL MODE

For most systems, proportional control would be usable,

except that it leads to a steady state error whenever the load
exceeds that initial set by the value of Θ (Equation 7-3); this
value must be reset if the error is to be reduced to zero.
Whereas the output of the proportional mode is based on the
error, the output of the reset mode is based on the integral of
the error.

Although integral control only mode will eventually remove

the error, the process response is slow. This is why
proportional control is normally provided in addition to
integral control. The standard PI controller is described by
the following equation:

θ(t) = θ + Kp e(t) + 1/ti m e(t) dt

7-6 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers

where:

ti = Integral or reset time.

KI = KP (integral gain).
ti

Equation 7-4.

A PI controller output will rise almost instantly by the

amount of KP x e(t) as a result of the proportional term (see
Equation 7-4). But since the error persists (smaller than
original error), the integral term continues to move the valve
at a constant rate (Figure 7-3) until the error becomes zero.
After the time "ti" called integral or reset time, the valve
movement due to the slope of the integral gain becomes
equal to the original proportional contribution KP e(t).

Figure 7-3. Open Loop Response to PI Control

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 7-7
Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers Solar Technical Training

SOLAR PI FUNCTION PROPORTIONAL AND

INTEGRAL TERMS

As can be seen when comparing Equations 7-2 and 7-4, the

PI algorithm used by Solar on the antisurge control system is
very different from that found in standard controllers.

The proportional term on the Solar algorithm can be yielded

(from Equation 7-2) making the integral gain equal to zero
(KI=0) as follows:

θ(k) = θ(k-1) + KP e(k) - e(k-1)

Equation 7-5.

Note that on the first pass θ(k-1) = 0 and e(k-1) = 0. When the
control loop is equal, a proportional contribution will be
added to θ(k-1) producing θ(k) different from zero.

On the second pass, the proportional term will only

contribute if there is a difference on the previous and new
error, but as explained before, if the error ("e") stays
constant, then the proportional term is zero.

The integral term of Solar algorithm can be yielded from

Equation 7-2 by making KP = 0. The result is as follows:

θ(k) = θ(k-1) + KI T/2 e(k) + e(k-1)

Equation 7-6.

As can be seen as long as there is an error, the integral term

will keep adding to the controller output function. This term
will always produce either an overshoot or undershoot of the
size of KIT/2 e(k), which is insignificant when the PLC scan
time is taking into account (about 70 msec, T= 70/1000
seconds).

7-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers

QUICK REFERENCE FOR SETTING PI CONTROLLERS

When we are trying to adjust a PI controller, it is very

important to understand the effect of each mode over the
function output. the following generalities or rules of thumb
explain the effects of adjustments in each mode.

PROPORTIONAL MODE

Increasing the proportional gain (KP) increases the decay

ratio of an oscillating response thus making the system less
stable. the frequency of the response is also increased which
is usually desirable. Decreasing the proportional gain will
have the opposite effect.

INTEGRAL MODE

When the Integral gain (KI) increases, the decay ratio is

increased thus making the loop more unstable.
Simultaneously decreasing KI will have the opposite effect.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 7-9
Fundamentals of Automatic Controllers Solar Technical Training

NOTES

7-10 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

SOLAR'S ANTISURGE CONTROL

SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this section, the student will be able to:

1. Understand Solar's basic surge control approach.

2. Understand the standard features of the Solar Surge

Control system.

3. Describe the different Solar antisurge control

algorithms.

4. State the purpose of each one of the Surge Control

K-values.

5. Understand every parameter displayed on the Surge

Control screen.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-1
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

SURGE CONTROL FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Solar's antisurge control system design prior to June of 1998

was based on the FLOW/DELTA-P (∆P) scheme. This
control approach uses the following equation for control
purposes:

∆P = Kc x h + Bias

Equation 8-1.

where:

∆P = Differential pressure across the

compressor, Psid
h = Differential pressure across the
flowmeter, Inches Water Column
KSL = Antisurge control line slope
SLB = Antisurge control line offset

This equation is the basis for the majority of the applications,

however, some applications require more parameters (P1 or
T1) to be monitored in order to compensate for their effect
over the actual compressor surge line position.

The control loop setpoint (SP) is the right term of equation

8-1 while the control loop process variable (PV) is the actual
compressor differential pressure. The SP represents the
theoretical compressor differential pressure to start recycling
with a 5-10% margin from the actual or predictive surge line.

Equation 8-1 contains two parameters that must be

calculated, "Kc" and "Bias". These two parameters are a
function of the gas characteristics and the compressor
configuration. In order to get the values of these parameters,
a Head vs. Flow (ACFM) compressor performance map, like
the one shown in Figure 8-1, must be provided.

8-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

Figure 8-1. Head vs. ACFM Performance Map

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-3
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

From the Compressor Performance Map (Figure 8-1), Head

vs. ACFM at the surge line is read and then processed to
transform it into ∆ P and "h" respectively. The values of "h"
are plotted against ∆ P. It will then produce the surge line as
shown in Figure 8-2. The control line is set at some
percentage of flow from the surge line. Typically, this
protection zone is 5% to 10% of the flow, or 10.25% to 21%
in inches of water respectively.

Figure 8-2. Differential Pressure Across the Compressor vs. Inch of

Water Drop Across the Flowmeter

The slope of the control line represents the value of "Kc" and
the "Bias" is the offset. Since Equation 8-1 is the Antisurge
Control Algorithm, two transmitters should be installed:
One reading the differential pressure across the compressor
and the other reading the pressure drop across the flowmeter
device (orifice plate, venturi, etc.).

Referring to Equation 8-1, the differential pressure across the

compressor (∆ P = P2 - P1) will act as the controller process
variable (PV), while the term to the right of equation 8-1,
(Kch + Bias) represents the controller setpoint (SP) as shown
in Figure 8-3.

8-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

Figure 8-3. Basic Antisurge Control Scheme

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-5
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

SYSTEM FEATURES

Solar's antisurge control software has been designed with

enough flexibility to be easily configured either in the factory
or in the field. The control loop includes the following
features:

• Special P+I algorithm for fast response.

• The controller P+I function includes anti-reset windup.

• Adaptive P+I tuning constants for Asymmetric output.

• Control loop transmitter failure detection logic.

• Adjustable surge control loop enable speed.

• Compressor surge margin real time calculation.

• "SURGE DETECTOR" circuit as a function of the

compressor suction flow rate-of-change.

• Auto/manual control with bumpless transfer.

• Automatic interaction with the process control loop

(optional).

• Automatic manual mode override when the compressor

operating condition is approaching the surge control
line.

• The operator interface screen for a surge control

provides the following information to the user (Figure
8-12).

a. X-Y display of compressor ∆ P (Psid) vs. Flow ("H2O)

showing surge control and deadband lines along with
the actual compressor operating point (Figure 8-12).

8-6 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

b. Compressor ∆ P (Psid).

c. Compressor suction flow ("H2O).

d. Control loop setpoint.

e. Control loop output to valve.

f. Valve position feedback.

g. Gas producer and power turbine speed.

h. Compressor surge margin (%).

i. Compressor mass flow in MMSCFD (optional).

Figure 8-4 shows the block diagram for this algorithm.

Figure 8-4. Basic Standard Flow ∆ P Control Scheme (SCA-1)

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-7
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

SURGE CONTROL WITH SUCTION PRESSURE

COMPENSATION

The main effect of changes on the compressor suction

pressure are over the surge line offset bias, although there is
an effect over the slope of the surge line (Equation 8-1) it is
almost insignificant when compared with the offset (Bias).

Suction pressure compensation option should be considered

when the expected suction pressure changes are greater than
300 Psia.

Figure 8-5. Surge Control Display

8-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

Figure 8-6. Flow DP Antisurge Control Scheme with Suction Pressure

Compensation (SCA-2)

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-9
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

FLOW/∆-P WITH SUCTION TEMPERATURE

COMPENSATION

The thermodynamic analysis, used to obtain Equation 8-1,

assumes that the compressor suction gas temperature and
specific gravity are constant. This assumption is true in a
majority of the centrifugal compressor applications,
therefore, under this condition the previous algorithm
(SCA-1) can be used. Since this is not true in some
applications, it is necessary to determine the effect of these
variables over the surge line.

Figure 8-7 shows the effect of suction temperature over the

surge line.

Figure 8-7. Effect of Suction Temperature Over the Surge Line

8-10 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

This effect means that when the inlet temperature increases,

this causes the surge line to swing down to the right,
therefore, the compressor is more likely to go into surge. In
order to maintain a constant protection margin, the "Kc"
value for the control line must be a function of the suction
temperature as indicated in Equation 8-4.

∆ P = Kc(T1) h + Bias

Equation 8-4.

where:

Kc(T1) = a + b(T1) + c(T1)2

Equation 8-5.

T1: Suction temperature, NR (degrees rankine)

a, b, c = Constants (obtain from compressor performance

analysis at different suction temperatures (T1)).

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-11
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

Figure 8-8. Flow/ ∆ P Antisurge Control Scheme with Suction Temperature

Compensation (SCA-3)

8-12 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

Figure 8-9. Flow /∆ P Antisurge Control Scheme with Suction Pressure and
Temperature Compensation (SCA-4)

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-13
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

GAS SPECIFIC GRAVITY EFFECT

Specific gravity changes at the compressor suction has an

effect similar to that of suction temperature changes. If the
specific gravity at the inlet stream decreases, it causes the
surge line to swing to the right as shown in Figure 8-10,
making the compressor more susceptible to surge.

Figure 8-10. Effect of Gas Specific Gravity (SG) Over the

Surge Line

In order to maintain a constant protection margin, the "kc" for

the control line must be a function of the gas specific gravity
changes as indicated by Equation 8-6.

∆ P = Kc (S.G.) h + Bias

Equation 8-6.

where:

Kc(S.G.) = Kc x S.G. actual

S.G. nominal

If large changes in specific gravity (greater than 0.2) are

expected, special provisions should be taken.

8-14 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

SPECIAL SURGE CONTROL APPLICATIONS

a. Flow/∆ P flowmeter on compressor discharge side.

b. Flow/∆ P for a variable IGV compressor

c. Flow/∆ P scheme for a compressor with side stream

line (eg. York compressors).

d. Flow/∆ P for series/parallel compressors.

e. Flow (CFM)/compressor speed (Q/N) scheme.

The following figures describe some of the above referenced

schemes.

Figure 8-11. Special Flow ∆P Antisurge Control with Flow Meter Installed
on Discharge Side.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-15
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

SOLAR'S SURGE CONTROL PARAMETER

DESCRIPTION (K-VALUES)

As described previously, the antisurge control software has

been designed for easy configuration either at the factory or
the field. The variables that can be configured through the
K-values screen are the following:

PLC-5 DESCRIPTION
SYMBOL
PGAIN_FAST Proportional gain for "fast" controller action (valve
opening).
IGAIN_FAST Integral gain for "fast" controller action.
PGAIN_SLOW Proportional gain for "slow" controller action
(valve closing).
IGAIN_SLOW Integral gain for "slow" controller action.
KSL Slope of the surge line (PSID/"H2O").
SL_BIAS Surge line bias (PSID).
CONLINFACT Control line factor. The surge line slope (KSL)
divided by this factor yields the control line slope,
KCL. Note that the compressor flow is
proportional to the square of the inches of water
column. For example, of a 10% margin in flow is
desired for the slope of the control line, then
CONLINFACT = 1.21 (=1.12)
DBLINFACT Dead band line factor. The control line slope
(KCL) divided by this factor yields the deadband
line slope (KDB). The above logic applies to this
factor as well.
BPLSTRGAIN Bumpless transfer gain. This gain controls the
rate at which the surge control valve closes when
going from manual mode to auto mode.
MANRMPGAIN Manual ramp gain controls the rate at which the
surge control valve is manually opened or closed.
P_XMTR_MAX The ∆-P transmitter calibrated upper range is
stored in this location.
H_XMTR_MAX The flow transmitter calibrated upper range is
stored in this location.
SC_EN_NGP Surge control enable speed. The speed at which
the surge control program becomes active is
stored at this location as % of Ngp.

8-16 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

Figure 8-12. Surge Control Screen

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-17
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

Figure 8-13. Solar's Antisurge Control Block Diagram

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

P+I ALGORITHM

Solar's antisurge control P+I algorithm is based on the

following equation:

T T
t
 θt1  et ( KP  KI )  et1 ( KI  K P)
2 2

Equation 8-2.

where:

θt = surge controller output at time "t"

θt-1 = surge controller output at time :t-1"
et = Error (SP-PV) at time t
et-1 = Error (Sp-PV) at time t-1
KP = Proportional gain
KI = Integral gain
T = Scan time in seconds

This algorithm will produce a fast response of the anti-surge

control loop when sudden load changes move the compressor
operating point toward the control line.

P+I ANTI-RESET WINDUP

This function stops the P+I controller output from changing

when it reaches the maximum or the minimum limits (4 or
20 ma). This will provide a fast response of the required
control action and eliminate the possibility of overshoots or
undershoots. The anti-windup function acts mainly over the
integral portion of the P+I control stopping the integration of
the "Error" when a limit has been reached.

P+I TUNING CONSTANTS FOR CONTROLLER

ASYMMETRIC OUTPUT

This function allows the control loop to open the recycle

valve quickly and close it slowly. This asymmetric response
is achieved by detecting the direction of the compressor
operating point (toward or away from surge). If the
compressor is approaching surge, the P+I controller is set
with fast tuning constants (high gain). If the compressor
operating point is going away from the control line, then the
P+I controller is set with the low tuning constants (low gain).

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-19
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

CONTROL LOOP TRANSMITTER CHECK

The antisurge control software will verify that the

compressor suction flow, and differential pressure
transmitters are working within range. If any one of the
transmitters is out-of-range, (less than 4 ma, typically 2 to 3
ma setting), the engine will be shutdown (cooldown stop in
Centaurs and Mars) and the message "ANTISURGE
CONTROL TRANSMITTER FAILURE" will be displayed
on the alarm log screen.

ANTISURGE CONTROL ENABLE SPEED

The antisurge control loop is enabled when engine speed is

greater than a preset value (typically 85% Ngp). Below this
preset value, the recycle valve will be 100% open. When
engine speed is greater than the preset value, the antisurge
controller will open or close the valve as required by the
process. The enable speed can be entered using the K-value
screen.

COMPRESSOR SURGE MARGIN

The Solar surge control software computes on real-time basis

(one per scan about 70 ms) the proximity of the compressor
operating point to the surge line. The output value of this
calculation is shown as percent of flow. This parameter can
be used in some applications as the process variable to
control a station recycle valve or to trigger a remote alarm,
etc. The equation that computes surge margin is as follows:

hw
SM  [  1] x 100
hs

Equation 8-3.

8-20 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

where:

SM: Surge margin in % of flow

hw: Actual flow meter signal, Inches H2O

hs = ∆ P-B: Flowmeter head at the surge line

KSL under the actual compressor
∆ P; In H2O

∆ P: Compressor differential pressure, Psid

KSL: Surge line ratio, Psid

In. H2O

B: Surge line offset, Psid

SURGE DETECTOR

Solar's antisurge control system is furnished with a "SURGE

DETECTOR" function. This function will compute the
compressor suction flow rate-of-change and compare it with
a previous value. (Typically 15 to 25%/sec.). If the
computed value is greater or equal to the preset value, then
one pulse is counted, the P+I controller output is overridden,
reducing the output by 10-15%, so the valve will open
10-15% more regardless what the P+I controller tells the
output to do (Figure 8-13).

If five (5) of these pulses are detected in less than 10

seconds, then the engine is shut down and the message
"COMPRESSOR IN SURGE" is displayed on the operator
interface.

AUTO/MANUAL FUNCTION

The auto/manual function enables the operator to place the

antisurge control loop in manual mode and operate the
recycle valve. However, if the control loop is in "manual"
mode and the compressor is approaching the antisurge
control line and eventually hits the control line
DEADBAND, then the loop is automatically set back to auto
and the message "MANUAL MODE INHIBIT" is displayed
on the surge control screen.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-21
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

In order to provide bumpless transfer when going from

auto-to-manual, the manual output tracks the P+I (auto)
output while the loop is in AUTO mode. From
manual-to-auto mode, the valve position is changed (closed)
at a rate of above 7%/second until the valve output matches
this P+I controller output.

SURGE AND PROCESS CONTROL INTERACTION

These two control loops tend to operate stably with little

interaction. However, a greater degree of interaction
between capacity (pressure) and antisurge control may be
expected with high static loads (reducing the slope of the
load line) or steep speed lines. In such a case, the recycle
valve may have more effect on pressure, and speed may
influence the surge calculation to a greater degree. To avoid
this interaction, Solar's antisurge control/process control
system provides "decoupling" of the two loops by telling the
process control P+I controller not to change engine speed
when the compressor operating point is between the surge
control line and its deadband line.

This decoupling function between the antisurge and process

control guarantees compressor and process stability.

8-22 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Antisurge Control System

ANTISURGE CONTROL ALGORITHMS

Solar has developed a series of antisurge control algorithms

for the microprocessor-based control system. These
algorithms are designed to accommodate the majority of
applications, although there will be cases in which the
standard schemes will require modification in order to
accommodate process transients. The available algorithms
are:

a. Flow/∆ P basic scheme (SCA-1).

Flowmeter at the compressor suction.

b. Flow/∆ P with P1 compensation (SCA-2).

Flowmeter at the compressor suction.

c. Flow/∆ P with T1 compensation (SCA-3).

Flowmeter at the compressor suction.

d. Flow/∆ P with P1 and T1 compensation (SCA-4).

Flowmeter at the compressor suction.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 8-23
Solar’s Antisurge Control System Solar Technical Training

NOTES

8-24 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training

Section 9 - Solar’s Anti-Surge Control Computer Aided Development Tools

(Materials for this section will be provided by the instructor)

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 9-1
 Solar Technical Training

9-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

SOLAR'S SURGE CONTROL

APPLICATION

SECTION OBJECTIVES

The Objectives of this section are to:

• Familiarize the student with the use of the antisurge

control utility programs.

• Review the Ladder Logic in order to identify the

required file for each application.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 10-1
Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

SOLAR'S ANTISURGE CONTROL UTILITY

PROGRAMS

In order to bring the main menu to the screen from your

computer under the proper subdirectory (typically "Surge")
type "Menu" and then press the "Enter" Key. The program
will automatically check what type of monitor card your
computer has (CGA, EGA or VGA) and then execute the
proper menu program. The main menu has the following
options:
!
ANNUBAR SURGE
!
ORIFICE SURGE
!
SUCTION TO IMPELLER EYE SURGE
!
FISHER VALVE EVALUATION
!
NELES VALVE EVALUATION
!
PRINT TO A FILE
!
EXIT TO DOS

To select one of the above options you can either move the
highlighted option using the arrow keys or by entering the
first letter of each option followed by the "Enter" key.

Figure 10-1. Annubar Surge Screen

10-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

ANNUBAR SURGE

Select this program when your flow measurement element is

an annubar or when the flow element flow equation is as
follows.

hw x Pf
Qs  C 
Tf

Where:

C'' : Annubar constant without the Ftf factor (flowing

temperature factor)

Equation 5-1

C'' = C'/Ftf

Equation 5-2

C' =Ann ubar constant as shown in standard

report (Figure 5-13).

hw = Annubar differential pressure in inches

of water at 68NF.

Pf = Flowing pressure in Psig.

Tf = Flowing temperature in degrees Rankine.

Qs = Standard volumetric flow in SCFH.

1
Ftf 
Tf

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 10-3
Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

Figure 10-2. Flowmeter Data

Answer "Y" if the equation matches the flowmeter equation

that you are using.

10-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-3. Flowmeter Data

Input the data as requested. If you make a mistake, hit the

enter key until the computer prompts you "Is the above data
correct?". If you answer "N" you must enter the data again
from the beginning. If the answer is "Y" the data is accepted
and the program continues to the next screen.

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

Figure 10-4. Flowmeter Data

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-5. Suction Gas Data

All of the above requested data is obtained from the

Compressor Performance Checkpoint. At the end, the
program will prompt "Check if the above data is correct". If
the answer is "N" then the program starts from the top of this
page (constant P1 = 1, constant P2 = 2?). If the answer is "Y"
then the data is accepted and the program continues.

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

Figure 10-6. Suction Gas Data

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-7. Flow vs. Head Data

Select the number of data points based on the number of

speed lines shown on the compressor map or the number of
data points shown on the surge data run from the
performance analysis group.

The safety margin input should be entered in percent of flow

(e.g. 10, 8, etc.).

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

Figure 10-8. Flow vs. Head Data

Figure 10-9. Input and Computed Data

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

The program preselects some ranges for you. Typically the

∆-P transmitter range selected is not a rounded number. If
you do not agree with the preselected ranges then answer "N"
to the "Do you agree with these ranges?" prompt. The
program will then ask for the ∆-P range. You must enter this
as "0, UPPER RANGE" then press the "Enter" key. The
program will then ask for the flow transmitter range.

CAUTION !

The upper range selected for both

transmitters should be greater than
the maximum value of those
parameters according to the above
table. (For example, for the above
data, the δ-p transmitter should be
greater than 323.10 psid and the flow
transmitter upper range must be
greater than 46.01 inches w.c.
otherwise the program will abort.

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

Figure 10-10. Flow vs. ∆-P Data

After selecting the transmitter's range, the program plots the

surge line and control line points on a Flow vs. ∆-P diagram.
The points marked with a "+" are the surge line points. The
points marked with a "*" are the control line points. On this
screen the program requests two points to define the surge
and control lines.

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-11. Calibration Report

On this screen the program shows the results for the critical
parameters, surge and control ratios and bias as well as the
selected transmitter ranges.

If you want a report answer "Y" to the prompt.

If you want to perform other calculations, then answer "Y" to

the "Do you want more?" prompt. An "N" will exit the
program and return you to the main menu.

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

Figure 10-12. Options Screen

Options available for the above figure are as follows:

• Options 1 through 3 are chosen when the user wants to

evaluate the effect of a different specific gravity,
suction pressure, or suction temperature.

• Option 4 reinitializes all registers and starts from the

beginning.

• Option 5 requests new control line points.

• Option 6 requests new transmitter ranges.

• Option 7 terminates the program and returns to the

main menu.

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-13. Annubar Flow Calculation

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

ORIFICE SURGE

This program should be selected when the flowmeter

element is an orifice plate. The flowmeter equation is shown
in Equation 5-3.

Tof
Qs  C  hw x Pf x
Tf

Where:

C': Orifice Constant

P f:Flowing Pressure, Psia
hw: Orifice differential pressure, Index W.C.
Tof:Orifice design flowing temperature, Degrees Rankine.
(NR)
Tf: Flowing Temperature, Degrees Rankine (NR)
Qs: Standard Volumetric flow, SCFH

Equation 5-3

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-14. Antisurge Control Program Screen

Figure 10-15. Flowmeter Data

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

SUCTION TO IMPELLER EYE SURGE

This option should only be selected when the compressor

suction to impeller eye differential pressure is used as the
primary flow measurement element. This option only
applies to C60 compressors.

Figure 10-16. Antisurge Control Program Screen

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

Figure 10-17. Suction-to-Eye Data

FISHER VALVES AND NELES VALVE EVALUATION

These options should be selected in order to evaluate the

recycle valve size selected. The PROGRAMS use of these
programs will be discussed in Section 6.

PRINT TO A FILE

This option will allow you to redirect the printer output to all
ASCII files. If you do not have a printer in the field, save
your report to a file and then print that file on an available
printer at another location.

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

ALLEN-BRADLEY LADDER LOGIC PROGRAM

The A-B program contains the following files that are related
to surge control.

FILE # DESCRIPTION

241 This file does the recycle valve sequence during start-up,
scales the differential pressure and flow transmitter to
engineering units, computes the control line, deadband
setpoints and surge margin. This file also checks the rate of
change in the flow.

242 This file computes the PI controller output and checks if the
deadband line has been reached. This file also sets the Fast
and Slow timing constant base on the direction of the
compressor operating point (approaching or leaving the
control line). The Manual/Auto with manual mode override
is done in this file as well.

243 This file is only required when the application requires

suction pressure compensation.

244 This file is only required when the application requires

suction temperature compensation.

250 This file generates the surge valve output signal and should
be selected when a 4-20mA OFE card is being used.

251 This file generates the surge valve output signal and should
be selected when a 0-50mA OFE card is being used.

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

NOTES

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Solar’s Surge Control Application Solar Technical Training

NOTES

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Solar Technical Training Solar’s Surge Control Application

SECTION 11
Surge Control Field Test. Calibration and Tune-up

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

SURGE CONTROL FIELD TEST,

CALIBRATION AND TUNE-UP
SECTION OBJECTIVES

This section describes the test instructions for the Solar

Surge Control system. At the end of this section the student
should:

1. Be able to perform the static test of the surge control

system at the manufacturing plant and at the customer
site.

2. Be able to perform the surge control system dynamic

test at the customer site including loop tune-up.

3. Understand the basics of two wire transmitter

calibration and troubleshooting.

ANTISURGE CONTROL TRANSMITTER

The standard Solar antisurge control system uses two

transmitters to perform its function. These transmitters are:

• Compressor differential pressure (PSID)

• Compressor suction flow ("H2O).

These two transmitters are both differential pressure

transmitters manufactured by Rosemount. The model that
we used for surge control is the 1151DP (4-20 mA output).

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PROCEDURES FOR ZERO AND SPAN ADJUSTMENT

The zero and span adjustment potentiometers are accessible

externally and are located behind the nameplate on the side
of the electronic housing as shown in Figure 11-1. The
output of the transmitter increases with clockwise rotation of
the adjustment potentiometers.

Figure 11-1. Zero and Span Adjustment Potentiometer Screws

A degree of mechanical backlash is present in the zero and

span adjustment potentiometers. Because of the backlash,
the simplest procedure to follow when a desired setting is
overshot is to further overshoot the desired setting by a large
margin before reversing the direction of the adjustment.

Changes in the zero adjustment potentiometer have very little

effect on the span. However, changes in the span
potentiometer do affect the zero adjustment. Therefore, it is
best to first calibrate the transmitter from zero to the desired
span and finish the calibration by adjusting the zero
potentiometer to the desired 4 mA setting. The normal
calibration procedure is as follows:

Step 1

Adjust zero to eliminate any error from zero (4 mA). This is

done by releasing or venting both sides (flanges) of the
transmitter ("θ" θ-P).

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Step 2

Connect the hydraulic pump (for compressor differential

pressure transmitter, Psid) or a manometer (for compressor
suction flow transmitter, IN. H2O) to the transmitter high
pressure port (the low pressure port should be open to the
atmosphere).

Step 3

Pump the desired pressure level for the transmitter upper

range. Verify the mA output at the transmitter test points
(Figure 11-2).

Figure 11-2. Transmitter Test Point Location

If the milliamp output signal is not 20 mA, adjust the span

potentiometer until you read 20 mA.

Step 4

Release the pressure on the high pressure port until the

differential pressure is zero. Read the milliamp output if the
output is different from 4 mA. Adjust the zero potentiometer
until you read four (4) milliamps and repeat Step 3 until the
zero and span are adjusted.

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

Step 5

Pump half of the transmitter span to check transmitter

midpoint for linearity verification. For this signal, the
milliamp output should be at 12 mA. If the midpoint is not
12 mA ± .1, then follow the linearity adjustment procedure.

LINEARITY ADJUSTMENT

In addition to the span and zero adjustments, a linearity

adjustment control is located on the solder side of the
amplifier board (Figure 11-3). This is a factory calibration
adjusted for optimum performance over the calibrated range
of the instrument and is not normally adjusted in the field.

Figure 11-3. Linearity Adjustment Control

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

The user may, however, maximize linearity over a particular

range with the following procedure:

Step 1

Apply mid-range pressure and note the error between

theoretical and actual output signal.

Step 2

Apply full-scale pressure. Multiply the error noted in Step 1

times six and then that product times the range down factor,
which is calculated as shown below.

range down factor = maximum allowable span

calibrated span

Add the result to the full scale output for negative errors, or
subtract the result from the full-scale output for positive
errors, by turning the control marked "linearity." See Figure
11-3. Example: At 4 to 1 range down the midscale point is
low by 0.05 mA. Therefore, turn the linearity control until
full-scale output increased by (0.05 mA X 6 X 4)) = 1.2 mA.

Step 3

Readjust zero and span.

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

DAMPING ADJUSTMENT

The E output (4-20 mA) amplifier board is designed to

permit damping of rapid pulsations in the pressure source by
adjusting the control marked "Damping" located on the
solder side of the amplifier board. (Figure 11-3). The
settings available provide time constant values between 0.2
seconds and 1.66 seconds. The instrument is calibrated and
shipped with this control set at the counterclockwise stop
(0.2 second time constant. It is recommended that the
shortest possible time constant setting be selected. Since the
transmitter calibration is not influenced by the time constant
setting, the damping may be adjusted with the transmitter
connected to the process. Turn the damping control
clockwise until the desired damping is obtained.

CAUTION !

The damping control has positive

stops at both ends. Forcing it
beyond the stops may cause
permanent damage.

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

TRANSMITTER TROUBLESHOOTING SYMPTOM:

HIGH OUTPUT

POTENTIAL SOURCE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION

Impulse Piping

• Check for leaks or blockage.

• Check for liquid in dry lines.

• Check for sediment in transmitter process flanges.

TRANSMITTER ELECTRONICS CONNECTIONS

• Make sure bayonet connectors are clean and check the

sensor connections.

• Check that the bayonet pin #8 is properly grounded to

the case.

Transmitter Electronics Failure

• Determine faulty circuit board by trying spare boards.

• Replace faulty circuit board.

Sensing Element

• See sensing Element Checkout Section.

Power Supply

• Check output of power supply.

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

TRANSMITTER TROUBLESHOOTING SYMPTOM: LOW

OUTPUT OR NO OUTPUT

POTENTIAL SOURCE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION

Loop Wiring

• Check for shorts and multiple grounds.

• Check polarity of connections.

• Check loop impedance.

• Check that pressure connection is correct.

NOTE

Do not use over 100 volts to check the

loop.

Impulse Piping

• Check that pressure connection is correct.

• Check for leaks or blockage.

• Check for entrapped gas in liquid lines.

• Check for sediment in transmitter process flanges.

Transmitter Electronics
Connections

• Check for shorts in sensor lead.

• Make sure bayonet connectors are clean and check the

sensor connections.

• Check that bayonet pin #8 is properly grounded to the

case.

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Test Diode Failure

• Replace test diode or jumper test terminals.

Transmitter Electronics Failure

• Determine faulty circuit board by trying spare boards.

• Replace faulty circuit board.

Sensing Element

• See Sensing Element Checkout Section.

SYMPTOM: ERRATIC OUTPUT

POTENTIAL SOURCE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION

Loop Wiring

• Check for intermittent shorts, open circuits and

multiple grounds.

NOTE

Do not use over 100 volts to check the

loop.

Process Fluid Pulsation

• Adjust electronic damping pot (4-20 mA dc only).

Impulse Piping

• Check for entrapped gas in liquid lines and for liquid in

dry lines.

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

Transmitter Electronics
Connections

• Check for intermittent shorts or open circuits.

• Make sure bayonet connectors are clean and check the

sensor connections.

• Check that bayonet pin #8 is properly grounded to the

case.

Transmitter Electronics Failure

• Determine faulty circuit board by trying spare boards.

• Replace faulty circuit board.

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

STATIC FACTORY TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE

COMPRESSOR SURGE CONTROL WITH K-VALUES.

Examine the file to determine if Compressor Surge Control

are composite or sales order Table 11-1 below is
COMPOSITE K-VALUES a list of COMPOSITE values. If
the file and Table 11-1 match, continue on to 2. Otherwise,
go to Static or Field Static Test Instructions for the
Compressor Surge Control with Sales Order K-Values.

Table 11-1. Composite Values

PGAIN FAST 5.0

IGAIN FAST 2.0
PGAIN SLOW 1.0
IGAIN SLOW 0.05
KSL 45.0
SL BIAS 50.0
CONLINFACT 10.0
DBLINFACT 2.0
SCVMANOP 10.0
SCVMANCL 10.0
DELP XMTR 1000.0
FLOW XMTR 50.0
SC EN NGP 90.0

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

In the steps listed below, use of the following conversion

factors may be necessary:

1. kPa = 4.018647 "H2O = 0.1450382 PSID

2. 4-20 mA sources are needed to verify the

COMPRESSOR SUCTION FLOW, COMPRESSOR
DP, and SURGE/BYPASS VALVE POSITION
readings on the Surge Control Page. Call up the Surge
Control Page on the T35. To the right of the three
readings mentioned above is a dynamic xy-plot of the
COMPRESSOR SUCTION FLOW and
COMPRESSOR DP. Using the appropriate current
source, verify Table 11-2 (Figure 11-4 for test
hardware set up).

Table 11-2. XY-Plot of Compressor Suction Flow Meter and Compressor DP

mA Input Compressor Suction Flow Surge/Bypass

Source DP (PSID) y-axis Meter ("H2O) x-axis Valve Position

4.0 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0% Closed

7.2 200.0 20% 10.0 20% 20% Closed
15.2 700.0 70% 35.0 70% 70% Closed
20.0 1000.0 100% 50.0 100% 100% Closed

Figure 11-4. Static Loop Test Hardware Setup

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

NOTE

Consult individual product definition

schematic/wiring diagram for test set-up
wiring information.

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

3. Adjust the current sources to position the cursor to the

right of the deadband line. Verify that the CONTROL
LINE SP value on the display matches the CL SP value
in File 241 of the PLC-5 program. (Use the Data
Monitor function to find CL SP). Check two or three
different points by adjusting the SUCTION FLOW
METER DP current source. Note that if CL SP is
greater than 1000 PSID, then 1000 PSID is displayed
for CONTROL LINE SP.

a. Erroneous readings - note discrepancies and

continue.

4. Verify that the SURGE MARGIN value on the display

matches the SURGMARGIN value in File 241 of the
PLC-5 program. (Use the Data Monitor function to
find SURGMARGIN). Check two or three different
points by adjusting the SUCTION FLOW METER DP
current source. Note that if SURGMARGIN is greater
than 100%, then 100% is displayed for the SURGE
MARGIN value on the screen.

a. Erroneous readings - note discrepancies and

continue.

5. Adjust the current sources to place the cursor to the

right of the deadband line. If not already done, simulate
the START RUN sequence and then simulate NGP to
be above 90%. Both of these conditions must be met to
activate the surge control program. At this point, verify
that the ST RN CLDN, ONLOADNGP, AND
SCAUTOMODE bits in the PLC-5 program are on. If
one or more of these bits are not on, discontinue testing.

a. No Surge Control Screen - discontinue test.

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

b. Erroneous Readings.

Verify that files 241, 242, 243, 244, and 250 OR

251 are in the PLC-5 program, and that the
necessary JSR instructions are in file 2. Add JSR
instructions to file 2 if needed.

If not already done, configure the program input

channels for COMP FLOW and COMP DELP to
both be 0-5 Vdc/0-20 mA in the IFE module.

Verify that the block transfers for COMP FLOW,

COMP DELP, and SRGVALPOS are present in
file 4. If the block transfers are not present,
discontinue testing.

Verify that the following rungs exist in file

11. Add them if necessary.

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

6. The SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE push button on

the console should be back lit and the word AUTO
should be displayed on the screen.

a. AUTO does not appear on screen and/or push

button not back lit - note discrepancies and
continue test.

7. During this step and subsequent steps keep the cursor to

the right of the deadband line and slowly adjust the
current source for SUCTION FLOW METER DP. If a
greater than 25% change per second occurs 5 times in
10 seconds, an FSL COMP SURG alarm is activated.
If this happens, simulate the START RUN sequence
and then simulate NGP to be above 90%. Continue
testing.

8. STATIC SETUP KP fast. Set KI fast to zero, Set D-P

to Mid-Scale, Set SLB to 8% S.M. (10%- 2%). Adjust
KP fast so that valcve output = 12ma ( valve ½ open).

9. Set KP fast to zero, Set D-P to mid scale, Set SLB to

8% S.M. (10%- 2%). Adjust KI fast so that valve
opens in one second.

10. Set KP fast to setting in step one.

11. Set KP slow & KI slow to one order of magnetude

(1/10) less than the corresponding fast Nalwes.

12. Adjust the current sources to move the cursor well off
to the right of the deadband line. Depress the SURGE
CONTROL MANUAL MODE push button on the
console. This button will become back lit, the SURGE
CONTROL AUTO MODE push button will be
deactivated, and the word MANUAL will be displayed
on the screen. At this point, verify in the PLC-5
program that the SCAUTOMODE bit is off and the
MANUALMODE bit is on.

a. SCAUTOMODE bit on and MANUALMODE bit

off - discontinue test.

b. MANUAL does not appear on screen and/or push

button not back lit - note discrepancies and
continue test.

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

13. Verify that depressing the SURGE CONTROL OPEN

or SURGE CONTROL CLOSE buttons have the
correct effect on the SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND reading.

a. Push buttons have no effect on the reading - note

discrepancies, skip next step, and continue testing.

14. Press the open button to get a valve command of about

10%. Press the SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE
button. When the SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND reading steadily increases to 80-90%,
press the SURGE
CONTROL MANUAL MODE button. Discontinue the
test if the reading jumps to 100% Closed immediately
after the SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE button is
pushed.

15. Using the SUCTION FLOW METER DP current

source, slowly move the cursor on top of the deadband
line. At or slightly to the left of the deadband line the
MANUAL MODE INHIBIT flashing message should
appear above the MODE AUTO text on the T35 screen,
and the SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE button
should become back lit. If this does not happen,
discontinue the test.

16. Move the cursor to the right of the deadband line and
observe a 100% Closed reading for SURGE/BYPASS
VALVE COMMAND. Using the SUCTION FLOW
METER DP current source, generate a greater than
+/-25% per second change. (Quickly turn the knob on
the pot enough to cause a 25% increase in SUCTION
FLOW METER DP.) The SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND will quickly decrease to 85% and start
ramping up from this point. Generate five more of
these pulses within a ten second period. (Quickly turn
the knob on the pot enough to cause a 25% change in
SUCTION FLOW METER DP. Wait one second and
turn it back the other way, causing a 25% change in the
other direction. Repeat a total of five times within ten
seconds.) Note that during the pulsing, the
SURGE/BYPASS VALVE COMMAND will decrease
in steps. At the end of the pulsing, observe the FSL
COMP SURG ALARM at the top of the screen and the
0% Closed reading for SURGE/BYPASS VALVE

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

COMMAND. If any of the above does not occur, note

the discrepancy and continue. Acknowledge and reset
the alarm.

17. Simulate the START RUN sequence and set NGP

above 90%. Disconnect either the COMPRESSOR DP
or SUCTION FLOW METER DP current source.
Verify the CS NL SMTR FAIL alarm at the top of the
screen. Observe that none of the Surge Control console
push buttons are back lit. Simulate a compressor restart
to an On Load condition with NGP above 90%. The
SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE push button will be
back lit at this point. If there are any discrepancies,
note them and continue the test.

18. Put the PLC-5 in program mode. Using the Data

monitor screen in the PLC-5 programming software,
zero the .ACC value for the SURGDETCTR counter.

19. Repeat this entire procedure if there is a second surge

control program. If needed, Appendix A lists the
corresponding PLC-5 symbols for the second program.

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Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

FIELD STATIC TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE

COMPRESSOR SURGE CONTROL WITH SALES
ORDER K-VALUES

1. Examine the Compressor Surge Control sales order

K-values. Write down the K-value identifiers and their
sales order values for reference during this test. Table
11-3 below is a list of the K-value numbers and
identifiers (symbols).

Table 11-3. K-value Numbers and Identifiers

KVAL IDENTIFIER
197 PGAIN_FAST
198 IGAIN_FAST
199 PGAIN_SLOW
200 IGAIN_SLOW
230 KSL
231 SL_BIAS
232 CONLINFACT
233 DBLINFACT
234 SCVMANOP
235 SCVMANCL
236 DELP_XMTR
237 FLOW_XMTR
238 SC_EN_NGP

In the following steps, use of the following conversion

factors may be necessary:

1. kPa = 4.018647 "H2O = 0.1450382 PSID

2. 4-20 mA sources are needed to verify the

COMPRESSOR SUCTION FLOW, COMPRESSOR
DP, AND SURGE/BYPASS VALVE POSITION
readings on the Surge Control Page. Call up the Surge
Control Page on the T35. To the right of the three
readings mentioned above is a dynamic xy-plot of the
COMPRESSOR SUCTION FLOW and
COMPRESSOR DP. Using the appropriate current
source, verify Table 11-4. (Figure 11-4).

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Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

Table 11-4. Compressor Suction Flow Meter and Compressor DP

mA Input Compressor DP Suction Flow Meter Surge/Bypass

Source (PSID) ("H2O Valve Position

4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Closed

8.0 1/4DELP_XMTR 1/4FLOW_XMTR 25% Closed
12.0 1/2DELP_XMTR 1/2FLOW_XMTR 50% Closed
16.0 3/4DELP_XMTR 3/4FLOW_XMTR 75% Closed

a. No Surge Control Screen - discontinue test.

b. Erroneous Readings.

Verify that files 241, 242, 243, 244, and 250 or 251 are
in the PLC-5 program, and that the necessary JSR
instructions are in file 2. Add JSR instructions to file 2
if needed.

If not already done, configure the program input

channels for COMP FLOW and COMP DELP to both
be 0-5 Vdc/0-20 mA in the IFE module.

Verify that the block transfers for COMP FLOW,

COMP DELP, and SRGVALPOS are present in file 4.
If the block transfers are not present, discontinue
testing.

11-20 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Verify that the following rungs exist in file 11.

Add them if necessary.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-21
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

3. Adjust the current sources to position the cursor to the

right of the deadband line. Verify that the CONTROL
LINE SP value on the display matches the CL SP value
in File 241 of the PLC-5 program. (Use the Data
Monitor function to find CL SP). check two or three
different points by adjusting the SUCTION FLOW
METER DP current source. Note that if the control on
the T35 screen does not appear above the cursor, then
CONTROL LINE SP and CL SP will not be the same.

a. Erroneous Readings.

Note discrepancies and continue.

11-22 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

4. Verify that the SURGE MARGIN value on the display

matches the SURGMARGIN value in File 241 of the
PLC-5 program. (Use the Data Monitor function to
find SURGMARGIN). Check two or three different
points by adjusting the SUCTION FLOW METER DP
current source. Note that if SURGE MARGIN is
greater than 100%, then 100% is displayed for the
SURGE MARGIN value on the screen.

a. Erroneous Readings.

Note discrepancies and continue.

5. Adjust the current sources to place the cursor to the

right of the deadband line.

a. For in house testing:

Simulate the START RUN sequence and then

simulate NGP to be above 90%. Both of these
conditions must be met to activate the surge
control program. At this point, verify that the ST
RN CLDN, ONLOADNGP, and SCAUTOMODE
bits in the PLC-5 program are on. If one or more
of these bits are not on, discontinue testing.

b. For testing at customer site:

In the PLC-5 program, add jumpers (show as

dotted lines below) to the following two rungs in
the HPSRGDET file in order to simulate the
operating conditions needed to activate the
program.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-23
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

6. The SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE push button on

the console should be back lit and the word AUTO
should be display on the screen.

a. AUTO does not appear on screen and/or push

button not back lit - note discrepancies and
continue test.

7. During this step and subsequent steps keep the cursor to

the right of the deadband line and slowly adjust the
current source for SUCT FLOW METER DP. If a
greater than 25% change per second occurs 5 times in
10 seconds, and FSL COMP SURG alarm is activated.
If this happens, simulate the START RUN sequence
and then simulate NGP to be above 90%. Continue
testing.

11-24 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

8. Move the cursor between the surge and control lines.

The SURGE/BYPASS VALVE COMMAND will
eventually decrease to 0%. Move the cursor slightly to
the right of the deadband. the SURGE/BYPASS
VALVE COMMAND will eventually increase to
100%.

a. Erroneous Readings.

In the PLC-5 program, find SRGVALCOM using

the Data Monitor function. Repeat the test above,
observing SRGVALCOM instead of the T35
screen. If SRGVALCOM reacts as expected, note
the discrepancy with the T35 reading and continue
testing. If SURGVALCOM does not react as
expected, discontinue testing.

9. Move the cursor between the surge and control lines

again. Wait for the SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND to reach 0%. Move the cursor slightly to
the right of the deadband. When the SURGE/BYPASS
VALVE COMMAND starts to increase, move the
cursor between the surge and control lines. Verify that
the SURGE/BYPASS VALVE COMMAND value now
holds a constant level. If the above does not happen,
discontinue the test.

10. Adjust the current sources to move the cursor well off
to the right of the deadband line. Depress the SURGE
CONTROL MANUAL MODE push button on the
console. This button will become back lit, the SURGE
CONTROL AUTO MODE push button will be
deactivated, and the word MANUAL will be displayed
on the screen. At this point, verify in the PLC-5
program that the SCAUTOMODE bit is off and the
MANUALMODE bit is on.

a. If the SCAUTOMODE bit is on and

MANUALMODE bit is off - discontinue test.

b. MANUAL does not appear on screen and/or push

button not back lit - note discrepancies and
continue test.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-25
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

11. Verify that depressing the SURGE CONTROL OPEN

or SURGE CONTROL CLOSE buttons have the
correct effect on the SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND reading.

a. Push buttons have no effect on the reading - note

discrepancies, skip next step, and continue testing.

12. Press the open button to get valve command of about

10%. Press the SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE
button. When the SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND reading steadily increases to 80-90%,
press the SURGE CONTROL MANUAL MODE
button. Discontinue the test if the reading jumps to
100% Closed immediately after the SURGE
CONTROL AUTO MODE button is pushed.

13. Using the SUCTION FLOW METER DP current

source, slowly move the cursor on top of the deadband
line. At or slightly to the left of the deadband line the
MANUAL MODE INHIBIT flashing message should
appear above the MODE AUTO text on the T35 screen,
and the SURGE CONTROL AUTO MODE button
should become back lit. If this does not happen,
discontinue the test.

14. Move the cursor to the right of the deadband line and
observe a 100% Closed reading for SURGE/BYPASS
VALVE COMMAND. Using the SUCTION FLOW
METER DP current source, generate a greater than
+/-25% per second change. (Quickly turn the knob on
the pot enough to cause a 25% increase in SUCTION
FLOW METER DP). The SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND will quickly decrease to 85% and start
ramping up from this point. Generate five more of
these pulses within a ten second period. (Quickly turn
the knob on the pot enough to cause a 25% change in
SUCTION FLOW METER DP. Wait one second and
turn it back the other way, causing a 25% change in the
other direction. Repeat a total of five times within ten
seconds). Note that during the pulsing, the
SURGE/BYPASS VALVE COMMAND will decrease
in steps. At the end of the pulsing, observe the FSL
COMP SURG alarm at the top of the screen and the 0%
Closed reading for SURGE/BYPASS VALVE
COMMAND. If any of the above does not occur, note

11-26 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

the discrepancy and continue. Acknowledge and reset

the alarm.

15. For in house testing:

Simulate the START RUN sequence and set NGP

above 90%. Disconnect either the COMPRESSOR DP
or SUCTION FLOW METER DP current source.
Verify the CS NL XMTRFAIL alarm at the top of the
screen. Bring NGP below 90% and acknowledge and
reset the alarm. Observe that none of the console push
buttons are back lit. Simulate a compressor restart to an
On Load condition with NGP above 90%. The SURGE
CONTROL AUTO MODE push button will be back lit
at this point. If there are any discrepancies, note them
and continue the test.

For testing at customer site:

Disconnect either the CMPRESSOR DP or SUCTION

FLOW METER DP current source. Verify the CS NL
XMTR FAIL alarm at the top of the screen.
Acknowledge and reset the alarm. If there are any
discrepancies, note them and continue the test.

16. Put the PLC-5 in program mode. Using the Data

Monitor screen in the PLC-5 programming software,
zero the .ACC value for the SURGDETCTR counter.

17. Repeat this entire procedure if there is a second surge

control program. If needed, Appendix A lists the
corresponding PLC-5 symbols for the second program.

18. Put the PLC-5 in program mode. Using the Data

Monitor screen in the PLC-5 programming software,
zero the .ACC values for the SURGDETCTR counter.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-27
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

19. Repeat this entire procedure if there is a second surge

control program. This program is in files 242 and 243.
In the Appendix there is a cross reference of selected
PLC-5 symbols needed to test the second program.

NOTE

Remember to remove the jumpers that

were used to set the b3/17 and b3/22
bits.

HP COMPRESSOR SURGE LP COMPRESSOR SURGE

CONTROL PROGRAM CONTROL PROGRAM
PGAIN_FAST PGAINFAST2
IGAIN_FAST IGAINFAST2
PGAIN-SLOW PGAINSLOW2
IGAIN-SLOW IGAINSLOW2
KSL KSL2
SL_BIAS SL_BIAS2
CONLINFACT CONLNFACT2
DBLINFACT DBLINFACT2
SCVMANOP SCVMANOP2
SCVMANCL SCVMANCL2
DELP_XMTR DELP_XMTR2
FLOW_XMTR FLOW_XMTR2
SC_EN_NGP SC_EN_NGP2
CP_FLOW CP_FLOW2
CP_DELP CP_DELP2
SURGDETCTR SRGDETCTR2
SURGE_HIST SURG_HIST2
ONESECTIME ONESECTIM2
TENSECTIME TENSECTIM2

11-28 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

DYNAMIC FIELD TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE

SURGE CONTROL

After the field static tests have been done and the jumpers
removed, then normalize the transmitter inputs and verify
that they are properly connected at the terminal block. When
the package is ready for the load test, use the following
procedure to check the dynamic response of the surge
control.

Step 1

Start engine and bring the gas producer speed above the set
loading speed (typically 90% NGP). Wait at least 15
minutes and check for leakages in the package and verify that
the compressor delta-P and suction flow signals are being
read properly.

Step 2

When the operation is in a steady state condition, display the

surge control screen and record the following parameters:

• Compressor ∆ P (Psid)

• Suction orifice (In. H2O)

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-29
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

Step 3

Compute the new surge line "Bias" parameter to force the

compressor operating point to fall into the surge line,
therefore, the recycle valve is forced to open in order to reach
a new steady state condition at the control line.

The equation to compute this new Bias (temporary for

dynamic test purposes only) is as follows:

Bias = ∆-P - KSL x hw

Where:

∆-P: Compressor differential pressure in Psid

hw: Compressor suction flow in In. H2O

KSL: Surge line slope.

Step 4

Record the existing (Bias) value and then input the one
calculated in Step 3, using the field programming unit to
change the PLC program constants in file.

NOTE

Some sales orders below revision B have

a narrower window range for max. and
min. bias value. In these cases this
procedure is invalid. To accomplish the
test goals, new KSL must also be
computed.

11-30 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Figure 11-5. Dynamic Loop Test

Step 5

From the strip chart selection menu, select the following

variables:

• Surge control output.

• Surge valve position.

• Compressor suction flow.

Step 6

Observe the stability of the surge control output signal. If the

output is oscillating (sine wave shape) then follow the tune
up procedure explained in Surge Controller (P+I) Tune Up.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-31
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

Step 7

If the loop is stable (small fluctuations are allowable ± 2% of

the maximum output), then reenter the design surge line bias
parameter.

SURGE CONTROLLER (P+I)

The Solar antisurge control scheme is furnished with two sets

of tuning constants (proportional and integral gains). These
two sets of tuning constants are:

IDENTIFIER FACTORY VALUE

PGAIN-FAST 5.0
IGAIN_FAST 2.0
PGAIN_SLOW 1.0
IGAIN_SLOW 0.05

The FAST GAINS are loaded into the P+I function when the
compressor operating point is approaching the surge control
valve, so that the loop is set for fast valve opening.
However, when the compressor operating point is leaving the
critical operating area near the control line (to the right of the
deadband line) then, the slow tuning constant are set and the
recycle valve is closed slowly. (Typically 45 seconds from
full open to full closed). This asymmetric output feature
improves the process overall stability and slow recovery after
a transient condition.

If the controller output is found unstable in step 6, then

follow the standard Ziegler-Nichols method for
CLOSE-LOOP TUNING.

11-32 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Step 1

When the loop is dynamically stable, then shut down the

engine and check the valve response with the new tuning
values, modulating flow and θ-P signals as described in
Static or Field Static Test Instructions for the Compressor
Surge Control with Sales Order K-Values. The valve
response should be as follows:

VALVE
TEST CRITERIA RESPONSE
TIME (SECONDS)
Valve full closed. Compressor 2 refer to valve
operating point (simulated) to spec.
the right of deadband line.
Change the flow signal in order
to place the operative point at
the surge line and time the
valve travel.
Valve full open. Compressor Closing time
(operating point to the right of should be about 45
deadband line) and time the seconds or
valve travel. whatever the
customer wants.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-33
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

CLOSE LOOP TUNING USING STANDARD

ZIEGLER-NICHOLS METHOD

The Ziegler-Nichols close loop method requires finding the

gain of a proportional only controller that will cause the loop
to cycle indefinitely with a constant amplitude. This gain is
the upper limit or critical gain for which the loop is stable.
The main objective of this method is to obtain a response
with a greater decay ratio as shown in Figure 11-6.

Figure 11-6. Quarter-Decay-Ratio Response

To perform the standard Ziegler-Nichols closed loop method

follow the following steps:

Step 2

Remove all reset (integral) action KI fast and KI slow = 0.

Remove Deadband, make ‘KP slow = KP fast’

11-34 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Step 3

Surge Control Valve Functional Test

CAUTION !

Valve opens very quickly and may tip

over if not installed or clamped down.

1. Connect instrument air, a 24 Volt source, and a mA supply.

2. Apply instrument air. Valve should remain open.

3. Provide 20 mA to Positioner. Valve should remain open.

4. Supply 24 Volts to the solenoid valve. Valve should close

over several seconds.

5. Quickly reduce 20 mA control signal to 12 mA. Vale should

open half way in a fraction of a second. Quick Exhaust or
Exhaust Booster should open. Valve can be expected to
overshoot the half open position slightly and then recover.

6. Quickly reduce 12 mA control signal to 4 mA. Valve should

completely open in a fraction of a second. Quick Exhaust or
Exhaust Booster should open.

7. Provide 20 mA to Positioner. Valve should close over

several seconds.

8. Remove 24 Volts from the solenoid valve. Valve should

open very quickly. Quick Exhaust or Exhaust Booster
should open.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-35
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

Step 4

If the loop gives a response with a slightly increasing

amplitude, then decrease the PGAIN until the amplitude is
constant. If the output is stable the critical gain can be found,
by increasing the PGAIN until the output starts oscillating at
constant amplitude (Figure 11-7). Record the PGAIN value
as Ku and read the wave period as shown in Figure 11-7.

Figure 11-7. Determining Critical or Ultimate Gain and Period

Step 5

Determine the settings from the following equations:

PGAIN FAST = 0.45 Ku

IGAIN FAST = 0.0125 x Ku x Pu

T
PGAIN SLOW = 0.09 Ku

IGAIN SLOW = 0.0025 x Ku x Pu

T

Where:

Ku: Critical or ultimate proportional gain.

Pu: Critical or ultimate period, seconds.

T: PLC scan time, seconds.

11-36 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up

Step 6

Input these new tuning values to the PLC and observe the
process response, do minor adjustment until stability is
achieved.

The tuning of a controller is not an easy business, but

remember that the main objective of the surge control is to
protect the compressor from surge. Stability at the control
line is secondary. Experience will provide the person
calibrating the controller with his own subjective taste of
what is the best tuning parameter for a particular application.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 11-37
Surge Control Field Test, Calibration and Tune-Up Solar Technical Training

NOTES

11-38 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Glossary

GLOSSARY
Definitions

ADIABATIC PROCESS (See process).

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE is the arithmetic sum of gauge and atmospheric

pressures. It must be used in all calculations involving
the basic gas laws.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE is the temperature of a body referred to the absolute

zero, at which point the volume of an ideal gas
theoretically becomes zero. On the Fahrenheit scale
this is minus 459.67ºF; on the Celsius seek it is minus
273.15ºC. Engineering values of minus 460ºF ans
minus 273ºC are used herein.

AFTERCOOLING involves cooling of gas in a heat exchanger following

the completion of compression to (1) reduce the
temperature and (2) to liquefy condensable vapors.

CAPACITY of any compressor is the quantity of gas actually

delivered when operating between specified inlet and
discharge pressures. For ejectors, capacity is measured
in lb/hr. For all other compressor types, capacity is a
volume measured at the conditions of pressure,
temperature, gas composition, and moisture content
existing at the compressor inlet flange.

COMPRESSIBILITY is that property of a gas or a gas mixture that causes it

to differ in volume from that of a perfect gas when
each is under the same pressure and temperature
conditions. Occasionally it is called deviation. It must
be experimentally determined.

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. B-1
Glossary Solar Technical Training

COMPRESSIBILITY
FACTOR (Z) is the ratio of the actual volume of the gas to the
volume determined according to the perfect gas law.
As shown in the charts herein, it is a multiplier of
perfect gas volume.

SUPER-COMPRESSIBILITY is a term used with various meanings, most frequently

the same as compressibility, although this is not as-
sured. A current ASME Power Test Code uses it as a
ratio of gas densities rather than volumes. Therefore it
is 1/Z in this case. Super compressibility should never
be used unless its meaning is clarified completely.
Compressibility is much to be preferred and is used
herein.

COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY is the ratio of the theoretical work requirement (using

a stated process) to the actual work required to be done
on the gas for compression and delivery. Expressed as
a percentage, compression efficiency accounts for
leakage and fluid friction losses, and thermodynamic
variations from the theoretical process.

COMPRESSION RATIO is the ratio of the absolute discharge to the absolute

intake pressure. It usually applies to a single stage of
compression, but may be applied to a complete
multistage compressor as well.

CORROSIVE GAS is one that attacks normal materials of construction.

Water vapor when mixed with most gases does not
make them corrosive within the sense of the above
definition. In other gases, CO2, for example, it makes
them corrosive.

NOTE

The words "corrosive" and

"noncorrosive" are of the relative
type. They do not define with
exactness and there are differences
of degree in the application of these
terms. Specifications must make
clear what is meant by these terms if
they are used.

B-2 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Glossary

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE is the highest temperature at which a gas can be

liquefied.

CRITICAL PRESSURE is the saturation pressure at the critical temperature. It

is the highest vapor pressure that the liquid can exert.

DISCHARGE PRESSURE is the total gas pressure (static plus velocity) at the
discharge flange of the compressor. Velocity pressure
usually is considered only with dynamic compressors.

NOTE

Pressure maybe expressed as gauge

or absolute pressures. PsiG plus
atmospheric pressure equals psiA.

NOTE

That psiG does not define a pressure

unless the barometric pressure
(atmospheric) is also stated.

DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE is the temperature existing at the discharge flange of

the compressor.

NOTE

In a multistage compressor, the

various stages will have differing
discharge pressures and
temperatures.

INLET PRESSURE is the total pressure (static plus velocity) at the inlet
flange of the compressor. Velocity pressure is usually
considered only with dynamic compressors. (See note
under Discharge Pressure).

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. B-3
Glossary Solar Technical Training

INLET TEMPERATURE is the temperature at the inlet flange of the compressor.

NOTE

In a multistage compressor, the

various stages may have differing
inlet temperatures.

POLYTROPIC PROCESS (See Process).

POLYTROPIC HEAD is an expression used for dynamic compressors to

denote the f oot-pounds of work required per pound of
gas.

A PROCESS occurs whenever the system undergoes either a change

in state or an energy transfer at a steady state (See
State).

A REVERSIBLE PROCESS is an ideal process that may be stopped and made to

retrace its steps and restore to the system or
surroundings all work and heat previously removed. It
is frictionless.

AN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS is one in which a portion of the original system energy

is dissipated and cannot be returned to the system
through its own operation. The system and/or
surroundings cannot be returned to their original state.

ADIABATIC PROCESS is one during which there is no heat added to or

removed from the system.

ISENTROPIC PROCESS is one wherein the entropy remains constant.

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS is one in which there is no change in temperature.

POLYTROPIC PROCESS is one in which changes in gas character istics during

compression are considered.

PSEUDO CRITICAL
PRESSURE (See Critical Pressure)

PSEUDO CRITICAL
TEMPERATURE (See Critical Temperature).

B-4 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Glossary

PSYCHROMIETRY has to do with the properties of air-water vapor

mixtures in the atmosphere.

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to
the specific heat constant volume. It may vary con-
siderably with pressure and temperature.

REDUCED PRESSURE is the ratio of, the actual absolute gas pressure to the
absolute critical pressure.

REDUCED TEMPERATURE is the ratio in absolute units of the actual gas

temperature to the critical temperature.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the ratio of the density of a given gas to the density
of dry air, both measured at the same specified
conditions of tem perature and pressure, usually 14.696
psiA and 60ºF. It should also take into account any
compressibility deviation from a perfect gas.

NOTE

On pages 33-6 and 7, this

compressibility deviation has been
allowed for, or alternatively, a
statement is made that the three
properties above are based on
perfect gas laws. Deviation is not
accurately known for all gases,
particularly certain hydrocarbons.

SPECIFIC HEAT (Heat Capacity) is the rate of change in Enthalpy with

temperature. It is commonly measured at constant
pressure or at constant volume. The values are
different and are known as cp and cv, respectively.

STANDARD PRESSURE AND

TEMPERATURE (SPT) in this book is 14.696 psiA and 60ºF unless specifically
stated otherwise.

SUCTION PRESSURE is the absolute static pressure prevailing at the suction

of the ejector.

SUPER COMPRESSIBILITY (See Compressibility).

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. B-5
Glossary Solar Technical Training

SURGE is the reversal of flow within a dynamic compressor

that takes place when the capacity being handled is
reduced to a point where insufficient pressure is being
generated to maintain flow.

B-6 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539
Solar Technical Training Glossary

NOTES

223539 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. B-7
Glossary Solar Technical Training

NOTES

B-8 Copyright © 2000 by Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved. 223539