Nervous system

It is the major controlling, regulatory and communicating system in the body

It is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate, modulate and transmit
information between all the different parts of the human body
This property enables important many important functions of the nervous system such
regulation of vital body function (heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body
movements
It consists of 2 divisions
Central nervous system- consisting of brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system- represent the link between the cns and the body.
It is further subdivided into automatic nervous system and somatic nervous system
Functional parts within the PNS are
Sensory division
Motor division

Neurons
It is the basic fundamental unit of the nervous system
All neurons consist of a cell body and the processes i.e. one axon and many dendrites
neurons are commonly referred to as nerve cell
Neurones cannot divide and for survival they need a continuous supply of oxygen
and glucose. Unlike many other cells, neurones can synthesise chemical energy
(ATP) only from glucose
Properties of neurons
Irrtitability- ability to initiate nerve impulse in response to stimuli from

 Outside the body eg touch, light

 Inside the body eg changes in carbon dioxide concentration

Conductivity- ability to transmit an impulse

Structure of a nerve cell

cell body
Also known as a soma, the cell body is the core section of the neuron. The cell body
contains genetic information, maintains the neuron's structure, and provides energy to
drive activities
Cell bodies form the grey matter of the nervous system and are found at the
periphery of the brain and in the centre of the spinal cord. Groups of cell bodies
are called nuclei in the central nervous system and ganglia in the peripheral
nervous system.
Axons and dendrites
Axons and dendrites are extensions of cell bodies and form the white matter of the
nervous system

Axons

An axon is a long, tail-like structure. It joins the cell body at a specialized junction
called the axon hillock. Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called
myelin. Myelin helps axons to conduct an electrical signal.
Axons carry electrical impulses within the brain and the rest of the body

Each nerve cell has only one axon, carrying nerve impulses away from the cell
body

Dendrites

The dendrites are the many short processes that receive and carry incoming
impulses towards cell bodies. They have the same structure as axons but they are
usually shorter and branching. In motor neurones they form part of synapses and in
sensory neurones they form the sensory receptors that respond to stimuli.

Myelin sheath

Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the
brain and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and fatty substances. This myelin sheath
allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. If
myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down

Nodes of ranvier

periodic gap in the insulating sheath (myelin) on the axon of

certain neurons that serves to facilitate the rapid conduction
of nerve impulses
These gaps are rich in ion channels, which mediate the
exchange of certain ions, including sodium and chloride, that
are required to form an action potential—the reversal of
electrical polarization of the neuron membrane that initiates
or is part of a wave of excitation that travels along the axon

Oligodendrocyte
Found in the central nervous system and its function is to produce myelin sheath on
axons of nerve fibres

Axon terminal

refers to the axon endings that are somewhat enlarged and often club- or button-shaped.
Axon terminals are that part of a nerve cell that make synaptic connections with another
nerve cell or with an effector cell

types of nerves

sensory/ afferent nerves

Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your environment.
Sound, touch, heat, and light are physical inputs. Smell and taste are chemical inputs.

Sensory receptors

Specialised endings of sensory neurones respond to different stimuli (changes)

inside and outside the body.

Somatic, cutaneous or common senses- These originate in the skin. They are:
pain, touch, heat and cold. Sensory nerve endings in the skin are fine branching
filaments without myelin sheaths . When stimulated, an impulse is generated and
transmitted by the sensory nerves to the brain where the sensation is perceived.

Proprioceptor senses- These originate in muscles and joints and contribute to the
maintenance of balance and posture.

Special senses- These are sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste

Autonomic afferent nerves- These originate in inter- nal organs, glands and
tissues, e.g. baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and are associated with reflex regula-
tion of involuntary activity and visceral pain.

Motor or efferent nerves

Motor nerves originate in the brain, spinal cord and autonomic ganglia. They
transmit impulses to the effector organs: muscles and glands. There are two types:

• somatic nerves —involved in voluntary and reflex skeletal muscle contraction

• autonomic nerves (sympathetic and parasympathetic) — involved in cardiac and

smooth muscle contraction and glandular secretion.

Interneurons

Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and spinal cord. They’re
the most common type of neuron. They pass signals from sensory neurons and other
interneurons to motor neurons and other interneurons. Often, they form complex circuits
that help you to react to external stimuli.

Synapse and neurotransmitters

How do neurons work?

Neurons send signals using action potentials. An action potential is a shift in the neuron’s
potential electric energy caused by the flow of charged particles in and out of the
membrane of the neuron. When an action potential is generated, it’s carried along the
axon to a presynaptic ending.

Action potentials can trigger both chemical and electrical synapses.

Synapses
They are locations where neurons can pass these electrical and chemical messages
between them. Synapses are made up of a presynaptic ending, a synaptic cleft, and a
postsynaptic ending.

Chemical synapses
In a chemical synapse, the neuron releases of chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters. These molecules cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the
postsynaptic ending of a dendrite.

Electrical synapses

Electrical synapses can only excite. These synapses form when two neurons are
connected by a gap junction. This gap is much smaller than a chemical synapse and is
made up of ion channels that help transmit a positive electrical signal.

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord

Neuroglia
The neurones of the central nervous system are supported by four types of non-
excitable glial cells that make up a quarter to a half of the volume of brain tissue.
Unlike nerve cells these continue to replicate throughout life. They are astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia and ependymal cells.

Membranes covering brain and spinal cord

Membranes covering the brain and the spinal cord are known as the meninges, lying
between the skull and the brain
They include
Dura mater-
consists of a dense fibrous tissue. It provides a protective covering for the brain

Arachnoid mater-

This delicate serous membrane lies between the dura and pia maters. It is
separated from the dura mater by the sub- dural space, and from the pia mater by
the subarachnoid space, containing cerebrospinal fluid.

Pia mater

This is a fine connective tissue containing many minute blood vessels. It adheres
to the brain, completely cover- ing the convolutions and dipping into each fissure.
It continues downwards surrounding the spinal cord.

Ventricles of the brain and the cerebrospinal fluid

Within the brain there are four irregular-shaped cavities, or ventricles, containing
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). They are:

• right and left lateral ventricles

• third ventricle

• fourth ventricle.

cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted into each ventricle of the brain by choroid plexuses.

CSF is a clear, slightly alkaline fluid consisting of: water, mineral salts, glucose,
plasma proteins, creatinine, urea (small amounts), a few leucocytes

Functions of cerebrospinal fluid

• It supports and protects the brain and spinal cord.

• It maintains a uniform pressure around these delicate structures.

• It acts as a cushion and shock absorber between the brain and the cranial
bones.

• It keeps the brain and spinal cord moist and there may be interchange of
substances between CSF and nerve cells, such as nutrients and waste
products.

Brain

It constitutes about one fifth of the body weight and lies in the cranial cavity

Parts of the brain are

cerebrum

midbrain

brain stem

medulla oblongata

cerebellum.

Cerebrum

It is the largest part of the brain

The cerebrum is divided into lobes which take the names of bones of the cranium under
which they lie ie frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital
 parts of the central nervous system

Functions of cerebrum
• mental activities involved in memory, intelligence, sense of responsibility,
thinking, reasoning, moral sense and learning are attributed to the higher
centres

• sensory perception, including the perception of pain, temperature, touch,

sight, hearing, taste and smell
• initiation and control of skeletal (voluntary) muscle contraction.
read and make short notes on the functional areas of the cerebrum
Other areas of the cerebrum
basal nuclei- lies deep in the cerebral hemispheres and is thought to be involved in
intiating muscle tone in slow and coordinated activities
thalamaus- Sensory input from the skin, viscera and special sense organs is transmitted
to the thalamus before redistribution to the cerebrum.

Hypothalamus- composed of a group of nerve cells. It controls the output of hormones

from both lobes of the gland
Brain stem
Composed of the pons, mid brain and medulla oblongata
Midbrain
The midbrain is the area of the brain situated around the cerebral aqueduct
between the cerebrum above and the pons below.The cell bodies act as relay
stations for the ascending and descending nerve fibres

Pons
It consists mainly of nerve fibres which form a bridge between the two
hemispheres of the cerebellum, and of fibres passing between the higher levels of
the brain and the spinal cord. There are groups of cells within the pons which act
as relay stations and some of these are associated with the cranial nerves.

Medulla oblongata
It is about 2.5 cm long and it lies just within the cranium above the foramen
magnum.

The vital centers consisting of group of cells associated with autonomic reflex activities
such as
Cardiac centre
Respiratory centre
Vasomotor centre
Reflex centre of vomiting, coughing, sneezing and swallowing
Cerebellum
is situated behind the pons and immediately below the posterior portion of the
cerebrum occupying the posterior cranial fossa.

Functions
The cerebellum is concerned with the coordination of voluntary muscular
movement, posture and balance. Cerebellar activities are not under voluntary
control

It coordinates activities associated with the maintenance of the balance and

equilibrium of the body.

Spinal cord
The spinal cord is the elongated, almost cylindrical partof the central nervous
system, which is suspended in thevertebral canal surrounded by the meninges
and cerebrospinal fluid

the spinal cord is the nervous tissue link between the brain and the rest of the
body

Nerves conveying impulses from the brain to the various organs and tissues
descend through the spinal cord.

Spinal refexes

Some activities of the spinal cord are independent of the brain, i.e. spinal reflexes.

Spinal reflexes are rapid, involuntary, and predictable responses to specific

stimuli that are mediated by the spinal cord without requiring input from the

To facilitate these there are extensive neurone connections between sensory and
motor neurones at the same or different levels in the cord.
In the simplest reflex arc there is only one of each. A reflex action is an immediate
motor response to a sensory stimulus. Many connector and motor neurones may be
stimulated by afferent impulses from a small area of skin, e.g. the pain impulses
initiated by touching a very hot surface with the finger are transmitted to the spinal
cord by sensory nerves.

These stimulate many connector and lower motor neurones in the cord which
results in the contraction of many skeletal muscles of the hand, arm and shoulder,
and the removal of the finger.

Peripheral nervous system

Most of the nerves of the peripheral nervous system are composed of sensory
nerve fibres conveying afferent impulses from sensory end organs to the brain, and
motor nerve fibres conveying efferent impulses from the brain through the spinal
cord to the effector organs, e.g. skelatal muscles, smooth muscle and glands.

It consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves

12 pairs of cranial nerves

autonomic part of the nervous system

Spinal nerves

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that leave the vertebral canal by passing
through the intervertebral foramina formed by adjacent vertebrae. They are named
and grouped according to the vertebrae with which they are associated

• 8 cervical
• 12 thoracic

• 5 lumbar
• 5 sacral

• 1 coccygeal
There are five large plexuses of mixed nerves formed on each side of the vertebral
column. They are the:

• cervical plexuses

• brachial plexuses

• lumbar plexuses

• sacral plexuses

• coccygeal plexuses.

presentation 1- cranial nerves and functions

Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic or involuntary part of the nervous system controls the functions of
the body carried out 'automatically', i.e. initiated in the brain below the level of the
cerebrum. Although stimulation does not occur voluntarily the individual may be
conscious of its effects, e.g. an increase in the heart rate.

The effects of autonomic control are rapid and essential for homeostasis.

The effector organs are:

smooth muscle

cardiac muscle

glands
Effects of autonomic stimulation include:

Changes in rate and force of the heartbeat

Stimulation or depression of secretion of glands

Vasoconstriction or vasodilatation

Bronchoconstriction or bronchodilation

Changes in size of the pupils of the eyes

The autonomic nervous system is divided into two divisions:

• sympathetic (thoracolumbar outflow)

• parasympathetic (craniosacral outflow).

the sympathethic and parasympathetic system work in an opposing manner

Sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system is a network of nerves that helps your body

activate its “fight-or-flight” response. This system's activity increases when
you're stressed, in danger or physically active

Effects of sympathetic system

Eyes- enlarge pupils to let more ligh and improve vision
Heart- increases your heart rate to improve the delivery of oxygen to other parts
od the body
Lungs- relax your airway muscles to improve oxygen ddelivery to the lungs
Digestive tract- slow down digestion so that energy is diverted to other areas of
the body
Kidney- urine secretion is decreased
Sex organs and genitalia- vasoconstriction

Parasympathetic nervous system

It predominates in quiet rest and digest conditions

Effects of parasympathetic system

 Eyes: It constricts your pupils to limit how much light enters your eyes. It also
makes changes that can help improve your close-up vision, and causes tear
production in your eyes.
 Nose and mouth: It makes glands in your mouth produce saliva, and glands in
your nose produce mucus. This can be helpful with digestion and breathing during
times of rest.
 Lungs: It tightens airway muscles and ultimately reduces the amount of work
your lungs do during times of rest.
 Heart: It lowers your heart rate and the pumping force of your heart.

 Digestive tract: It increases your rate of digestion and diverts energy to help you
digest food. It also tells your pancreas to make and release insulin, helping your
body break down sugars into a form your cells can use.
 Waste removal: It relaxes the muscles that help you control when you pee
(urinate) or poop (defecate).
 Reproductive system: It manages some of your body’s sexual functions,
including feeling aroused (erections in people with a penis and secreting fluids
that provide lubrication during sex in people with a vagina).