Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

Definition of a Machine:

A machine may be defined as a device or a contrivance that receives energy in some

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available form and uses it for doing a useful work. For example, an IC engine converts the
energy provided by gasoline (petrol / diesel) into motion of translation. A machine does not work
by itself. Only when energy is supplied to it, it does some useful work. The six basic simple
machines are:

(i) Lever (ii) Pulley (iii) Inclined Plane

(iv) Screw (v) Wedge (vi) Wheel and Axle

The vast variety of machines that has been created or developed since time of our primitive
ancestors are made up of one or more of these six simple machines.

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Lifting Machine: The machines which are used to lift heavy loads are called lifting
machines. These machines can lift loads by applying a small effort in a convenient direction.
Pulleys used to lift water from a well and screw jacks used to lift motor cars during repair are the
common examples of lifting machines.

Some Basic Definitions:

 Load (W): Any object having some weight and which is lifted by a lifting machine.

 Effort (P): The force required to lift or displace a load.

 Mechanical Advantage (MA): The ratio of weight lifted to effort applied.

Mathematically, Prepared by Ranbir Kalita
𝑾 Load lifted
𝑴𝑨 = =
𝑷 Effort applied

For a lifting machine, effort applied is generally smaller than the load lifted and as such
MA is generally greater than 1.

 Velocity Ratio (VR): The ratio of distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by
the load. Mathematically,

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 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

𝒚 Distance moved by Effort

𝑽𝑹 = =
𝒙 Distance moved by Load

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 Input (Py): It is the work done on a machine, which is equal to the product of effort
applied and distance moved by the effort. Mathematically,

Input = Effort × Distance moved by the effort = P y

 Output (Wx): It is the useful work done by the machine, which is equal to the product of
load lifted and distance moved by the load. Mathematically,

Output = Load × Distance moved by the load = W x

 Efficiency (η): It is the ratio of useful work done by the machine to the work done on the
machine. Mathematically,

useful work done by the machine Output 𝑊𝑥

𝜂= = =

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work done on the machine Input 𝑃𝑦

𝑊 1 1 𝑴𝑨
⇒𝜂= × 𝑦 = 𝑀𝐴 × ⇒ 𝜼=
𝑃 𝑥 𝑉𝑅 𝑽𝑹

Ideal Machine: Any machine having efficiency equal to 1, i.e. η = 1 or 100% is called an
ideal machine. Therefore, for an ideal machine,

𝑊𝑥
𝜂=1⇒ = 1 ⇒ 𝑊𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 ⇒ Output = Input
𝑃𝑦

This is only possible when friction losses are zero in the machine. Therefore, the definition
of an ideal machine can also be stated as a machine which is capable of converting 100% of the
work input to useful work output due to no friction being generated within the machine and gives
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efficiency equal to one.

Also, for an ideal machine, since η = 1, therefore, MA/VR = 1 => MA = VR.

But, in case of an Actual Machine or Real Machine, efficiency is always less than one. That is,

𝑊𝑥
𝜂<1⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑊𝑥 < 𝑃𝑦 ⇒ Output < Input
𝑃𝑦

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 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

Therefore, for an Actual Machine, work output obtained is always less than the work input
to the machine. This loss of work happens due to the friction force generated within the machine
and gives η < 1.

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Also, for an actual machine, since η < 1, therefore, MA/VR < 1 => MA < VR. And since
MA is usually greater than 1, therefore, the VR would also be greater than 1. This fact leads to
the statement:

“In a simple machine, a small force when applied through a large distance overcomes a large
force through a small distance.”

Reversible and Irreversible Machine:

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Let an effort P be applied through distance y to lift a load W through distance x. When the effort
is removed, any of the following two incidences may be observed:

(a) The work done by the machine reverses its direction and the load falls down to its initial
position. Such a machine is called a Reversible Machine. A single fixed pulley used to
draw water from a well is an example of a reversible machine.
(b) The work done by the machine does not reverse its direction and the load does not fall
down. Such a machine is called an Irreversible Machine. The screw jack used to lift
cars is an example of a self-locking type of lifting machine (irreversible machine).

Efficiency of Reversible and Irreversible Machines:

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When the effort is removed, the direction of work done by the machine may tend to reverse
its direction, where the weight of the load begins to act like an effort on the machine. But, if the
frictional work developed inside the machine is more than the work done by the machine in
reverse direction, the load will not fall back. Such machines are named as Irreversible
Machines or Self-locking Machines.

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This frictional work developed inside a machine is the consequence of input work loss due
to friction within the machine. Mathematically,

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Friction Work = Input – Output = Py - Wx

Therefore, for a machine to be irreversible,

Friction Work > Work done by the machine in reverse direction

=> (Py – Wx) > Wx => Py > 2Wx

=> 1/2 > Wx / Py

=> η < 0.5 or 50%

Thus, the condition for irreversibility or self-locking of a machine is that the efficiency
of the machine should be less than 50%. If η ≥ 50% , the machine would be reversible.

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Ideal Effort and Ideal Load:

We know the relation,

𝑀𝐴 𝑊
𝜂= ⇒ 𝑀𝐴 = 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅 ⇒ = 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 𝑃

Therefore, to lift a given Load W, we can find out the ideal and actual effort required as shown
below:

For an ideal machine, For an actual machine,

𝑊 𝑊
⇒𝑃= ⇒𝑃= ∵𝜂<1 Prepared by Ranbir Kalita
𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅
𝑊
⇒𝑃= ∵𝜂=1
𝑉𝑅 Thus,
Thus,
W
W Actual Effort Pactual =
Ideal Effort Pideal = 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅
VR

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 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

Therefore, effort loss due to machine friction in an actual machine is,

W W
Pfriction = Pactual − Pideal = −

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η × VR VR

𝐖 𝟏
⇒ 𝐏𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = −𝟏 … … … eq. 5.1
𝐕𝐑 𝛈

This Pfriction is the effort loss due to machine friction or the extra effort required to
overcome machine friction in an actual machine. Since machine friction is zero in an ideal
machine, therefore,
Pideal < Pactual

Similarly, for a given amount of effort applied P, we can find out the amount of load that
can be lifted in an ideal machine and actual machine as shown below:

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For an ideal machine, For an actual machine,
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑃 × 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅 ⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑃 × 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅 ∵𝜂<1
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑃 × 𝑉𝑅 ∵𝜂=1
Thus, Thus,
Ideal Load Wideal = P × VR Actual Load Wactual = 𝑃 × 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅

Therefore, the decrease in the amount of load that can be lifted in an actual machine is,

Wfriction = Wideal − Wactual = P × VR − P × η × VR

⇒ 𝐖𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝐏 × 𝐕𝐑 𝟏 − 𝜼 … … … eq. 5.2

This Wfriction is the decrease in the amount of load that can be lifted in an actual machine
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due to machine friction as compared to an ideal machine.

Hence, it can be said that, Pfriction and Wfriction are the representative values of machine
friction in an actual machine calculated in terms of loss of effort and loss of load.

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Law of Machine:

The law of machine gives the relationship between effort applied and load lifted.

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Let P be the effort required to lift a load W. Then, for a machine with constant velocity
ratio (VR), the law of machine can be written as,

P = mW + C ……… (eq. 5.3)

Clearly, this is a straight line equation that resembles with y = mx + c. Comparing with it, we
have,

m = slope of the straight line = ΔP/ΔW

C = intercept of the straight line on P-axis = Machine Friction

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Fig. 5.1

As can be seen in the graph shown in Fig. 5.1, Prepared by Ranbir Kalita

 The line representing an actual machine does not pass through the origin and has a
positive intercept on the P-axis. This intercept represents the effort required to overcome
the machine friction. If the effort applied P < C, the load will not be lifted.

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 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

 The line representing an ideal machine passes through the origin and as such the P-axis
intercept is zero, i.e. C = 0. This is because, in an ideal machine, the machine friction is

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zero.
 The slope of the lines is constant and in case of an actual machine, this slope ΔP/ΔW is
equal to the coefficient of friction (μ).

Now, we have the relation,

𝑊 𝑊 𝟏
𝑀𝐴 = = ⇒ 𝑴𝑨 = … … … eq. 5.4
𝑃 𝑚𝑊 + 𝐶 𝒎+𝑪 𝑾

In the above expression, m and C are constants. Therefore, if W is increased, the ratio C/W
decreases and in turn (m + C/W) also decreases. As a result, when the denominator (m + C/W)
decreases, the value of MA increases and when C/W → 0 as W → W max , we get the maximum

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possible value of MA. Therefore,

𝟏
𝑴𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 = … … … eq. 5.5
𝒎

Again, we have the relation,

𝑀𝐴 𝑊 1 𝑊
𝜂= = × =
𝑉𝑅 𝑃 𝑉𝑅 𝑚𝑊 + 𝐶 × 𝑉𝑅

𝟏
⇒ 𝜼= … … … eq. 5.6
𝒎 + 𝑪 𝑾 × 𝑽𝑹

In the above expression, m, C and VR are constants. Therefore, if W is increased, the ratio
C/W decreases and in turn (m + C/W) also decreases. As a result, when the denominator Prepared by Ranbir Kalita

[(m + C/W)×VR] decreases, the value of η increases and when C/W → 0 as W → W max , we get
the maximum possible value of η. Therefore,

𝟏
𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = … … … eq. 5.7
𝒎 × 𝑽𝑹

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Obviously, the relation between η and W given by eq. 5.6 is hyperbolic and the expression for
ηmax given by eq. 5.7 is a straight line parallel to W-axis. This is shown in Fig. 5.2.

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Fig. 5.2

A combined graph showing the variation of Effort (P), MA and Efficiency (η) with Load (W) is
shown in Fig. 5.3 below.

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Fig. 5.3

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 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

LEVERS

A lever is essentially a rigid straight bar which rest on a point called the Fulcrum and can turn

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about that fulcrum. Levers are basically used:

 Either to gain advantage in effort applied,

 Or to gain advantage to in distance moved by the effort.

Fig. 5.4

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As shown in Fig. 5.4, lever AB is resting on fulcrum O. Load W is applied at point A and effort
P is applied at point B. The perpendicular distance of point A from fulcrum O is called the Load
Arm and that of point B from fulcrum O is called the Effort Arm. Therefore,

a = length of load arm

b = length of effort arm

When the lever is in equilibrium,

ΣMO = 0 [CW +ve]

=> W × a = P × b

𝑊 𝑏
⇒ =
𝑃 𝑎 Prepared by Ranbir Kalita

𝑾 𝒃 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐚𝐫𝐦

or, 𝐌𝐀 = = = … … … eq. 5.8
𝑷 𝒂 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐫𝐦

The above eq. 5.8 that shows the relation between W, P, b and a is called the Law of Lever and
the ratio (b/a) is called the Leverage. The relation is developed based on two assumptions:

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(i) The lever is weightless, and

(ii) The friction is neglected.

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Apart from gaining advantage in effort applied, a lever can also used to gain advantage in
displacement of the effort. As shown in Fig. 5.5, Lever AOB is capable of rotating about the
fulcrum O.

Fig. 5.5

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If a small angular displacement α is given to end A, the angular displacement of end B will also
be α. In that case,

Displacement of end A: AAʹ = a.α

Displacement of end B: BBʹ = b.α

But, since the length of OB > OA, i.e. b > a, therefore, BBʹ > AAʹ.

Displacement of end B 𝑏. 𝛼 𝑏
or , = =
Displacement of end A 𝑎. 𝛼 𝑎

That is, if the length of effort arm (b) is increased, the ratio b/a also increases and as a result, a
small displacement to end A results into a large displacement of end B. This aspect has been put
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to an extensive use in the construction of measuring instruments.

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Classification of Levers:

First Class Lever Second Class Lever Third Class Lever

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Load between Fulcrum and Effort between Fulcrum and
Fulcrum between Load and
Effort. Load.
Effort.

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑀𝐴 = <=> 1 𝑀𝐴 = >1 𝑀𝐴 = <1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Since MA is always < 1, these
levers cannot lift heavy loads;
When MA > 1, the lever is then Since MA is always > 1, the
but provide an increase in the
called as Effort Multiplier lever is called Effort
speed of lifting. Thus, these
Lever. Multiplier Lever.

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levers are called Speed
Multiplier Lever.
Examples: Sea saw, Scissors, Example: Nut Cracker, Lemon Example: Fire tongs, knife,
Pliers etc. Crusher etc. Human Arm etc.

Compound Levers:

A compound lever is a combination of simple levers linked with one another. Such levers
are used to obtain higher mechanical advantage, which is rather difficult to get by using a simple
lever alone.

As shown in Fig. 5.6(a), AB is a simple lever connected to another simple lever CD with
the help of a link BC. P is the effort applied at end A to lift a load W acting at point F.
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Fig. 5.6(a)
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The separate FBDs of lever AB and lever CD is shown in Fig. 5.6(b) and (c) respectively. Let Q
be the force in link BC.

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Fig. 5.6

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From the FBD of Lever AB shown in Fig. 5.6(b) and taking moment about fulcrum E, we have,

𝑃𝑙1
𝑃𝑙1 = 𝑄𝑙2 ⇒ 𝑄 = ……… 1
𝑙2

Here, Q is the force in link BC.

From the FBD of Lever CD shown in Fig. 5.6(c) and taking moment about fulcrum D, we have,

𝑊𝑙3
𝑄𝑙4 = 𝑊𝑙3 ⇒ 𝑄 = ……… 2
𝑙4

Therefore, from (1) and (2), we get,

𝑃𝑙1 𝑊𝑙3
=
𝑙2 𝑙4
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𝑾 𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟒 effort arm length effort arm length

⇒ = × = ×
𝑷 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟑 load arm length lever −AB
load arm length lever −CD

Suppose, l1/l2 = l4/l3 = 10. Therefore, if only lever AB or CD were used, the MA would be 10
only. But, as the two lever are combined to form a compound lever, now the total MA has
increased to (10 × 10) = 100.

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 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

PULLEYS

A pulley is essentially a metallic or wooden wheel which is capable of rotation about an axis.

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The wheel generally has a groove cut along its periphery and a rope is made to rest in that
groove. When a chain is used instead of a rope, sprocket teeth are cut on the periphery of the
wheel. Pulleys are used to lift weights. Example: a single fixed pulley used to lift water from a
well.

Pulleys are of two types: (i) Fixed Pulley, and (ii) Movable Pulley

The following assumptions are made while analyzing a pulley or an arrangement of pulleys:

 The weight of the pulley is small compared to the load lifted and hence can be neglected.
 The rope used is light inextensible, i.e. tension in the rope remains same on both sides of

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the pulley.
 Friction is zero between the axle and the hole of the pulley through which the axle passes;
and also between the connection points of the axle with the Block.

It is to be noted that, assuming zero friction for the surface of the groove through which the rope
passes around the pulley is meaningless. Here, friction is necessary; otherwise the rope will slide
around the pulley and the pulley will not make any rotation at all.

(i) Single Fixed Pulley:

As shown in Fig. 5.8, the Block supporting the pulley is

fixed to the roof and a rope is passing around its
periphery. On one end of the rope, Load (W) is attached Prepared by Ranbir Kalita

and on the other end Effort (P) is applied to pull the Load
(W).

Fig. 5.8

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Under equilibrium condition, when the effort (P) is just sufficient to lift the load (W), taking
moment about the axle of the pulley, we get,

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ΣMO = 0 [CW +ve]

=> (P × r) – (W × r) = 0

=> P = W
∴ Mechanical Advantage (MA) = W/P = 1
And, in absence of friction,
η = 1 => MA/VR = 1 => MA = VR = 1

Since MA = 1 for a single fixed pulley, definitely, there is no gain in effort applied. But, a single
fixed pulley can be used to change the direction of application of the effort. That is, to lift a load,
it is always easier to apply the effort in downward direction and this can be achieved by using a

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single fixed pulley.

(ii) Single Movable Pulley:

Unlike a single fixed pulley, a single movable

pulley changes its position when the load is lifted or
lowered down. As shown in Fig. 5.9, the Load (W) to be
raised is attached to the pulley itself at its Block. One end
of the rope is fixed to the roof and the Effort (P) is
applied at the free end. Let T be the tension generated in
the portion of the rope between point A and the fixed end.

Under equilibrium condition, when the effort (P) is Prepared by Ranbir Kalita
just sufficient to lift the load (W), taking moment about
the axle of the pulley, we get,

ΣMO = 0 [CW +ve] Fig. 5.9

=> (T × r) – (P × r) = 0

=> T = P ……… (1)

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This is obvious because the rope is assumed to be light inextensible and that the frictional losses
are zero.

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Again, taking moment about point A, we get,

ΣMA = 0 [CW +ve]

=> (W × r) – (P × 2r) = 0

=> P = W/2 ……… (2)

From (1) and (2),

P = T = W/2

This means, the Load (W) is equally shared by the two portions of the rope.

𝑊 𝑊

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∴ 𝑀𝐴 = = ⇒ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝟐
𝑃 𝑊
2

Therefore, since MA = 2, it is clear that a single movable pulley doubles the effort applied.

In practical application, a single movable pulley is always used in combination with a

single fixed pulley to change the direction of the effort
applied as shown in Fig. 5.10.

Let the Load (W) be raised through a distance y from

O to Oʹ. As a result, the free end of the rope which is the
point of application of the Effort (P) will move downward
by a distance 2y, i.e.

AAʹ + BBʹ = 2y Prepared by Ranbir Kalita

Therefore,
Distance moved by the Effort 2𝑦
𝑉𝑅 = = ⇒ 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟐
Distance moved by the Load 𝑦

Fig. 5.10

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System of Pulleys:

A number of pulleys can be arranged in a definite way to form a composite system that

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results into a higher gain in mechanical advantage which otherwise would not be possible to gain
by using a single pulley.

There are essentially three systems of pulleys:

(1) First system of pulleys

(2) Second system of pulleys
(3) Third system of pulleys

(1) First System of Pulleys:

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This system of pulleys mainly consists of movable pulleys and each pulley has a separate
rope passing around it periphery. One end of each rope is fastened to a fixed support and the
other end is attached to the Block of the next upper pulley. The load is attached to the bottom
most pulley and effort is applied at the free end of the rope as
shown in Fig. 5.11. At the end, a single fixed pulley can be
included into the system to just change the direction of
application of the effort.

From Fig. 5.11, it can be seen that,

W = 2T1 ; T1 = 2T2 ; T2 = 2T3

and P = T3
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Therefore,
W = 2 × 2T2 = 2 × 2 × 2T3 = 8T3 = 8P
Thus,
𝑊 8𝑃
MA = = ⇒ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝟖 = 𝟐𝟑
𝑃 𝑃

Fig. 5.11

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Under ideal condition, when friction is zero,

𝜂 = 1 ⇒ Input = Output

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𝑊 𝑦
⇒ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑊𝑥 ⇒ =
𝑃 𝑥

⇒ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟐𝟑

Since the system of pulleys shown in Fig. 5.11 has Three Movable Pulleys, and we have
found that MA = VR = 23, therefore, we can write in generalized form:

𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟐𝒏

Where n is the number of movable pulleys in the system. In the considered system shown
in Fig. 5.11, n = 3 and not 4; because, the fixed pulley does not have any contribution is gaining

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mechanical advantage. It is only used to change the direction of effort applied (P).

(2) Second System of Pulleys:

This system of pulleys consists of two blocks – one upper block and one lower block. The
upper block contains fixed pulleys and the lower block contains movable pulleys. One end of the
rope is attached to either the upper block or the lower block and that same rope goes around the
other pulleys. The Load (W) is attached to the lower most block and Effort (P) is applied at the
free end of the rope as shown in Fig. 5.12 and 5.13.

The system of pulleys shown in Fig. 5.12(a) consists of three fixed pulleys in the upper
block and two movable pulleys in the lower block. One end of the rope is attached to the upper Prepared by Ranbir Kalita
pulley of the lower block and the free end of the rope is passing around the periphery of the
upper pulley of the upper block. Load (W) is attached to the lower most pulley of the lower
block and Effort (P) is applied at the free end of the rope.

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Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13

Fig. 5.12(b) shows the FBD of the lower block. As can be seen, the Load (W) is being
supported by Five segments of the rope and each segment has tension T which is equal to Effort
(P). Therefore, we can write,
W = 5T = 5P
Thus,
𝑊 5𝑃
MA = = ⇒ 𝐌𝐀 = 𝟓
𝑃 𝑃
Under ideal condition, when friction is zero and η = 1,
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𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟓

Again, considering Fig. 5.13(a), there are Six pulleys, Three pulleys in each of the upper
and lower blocks. One end of the rope is attached to the lower most pulley of the upper block and
the free end of the rope is passing around the periphery of the upper pulley of the upper block.
Load (W) is attached to the lower most pulley of the lower block and Effort (P) is applied at the
free end of the rope.

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College
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Fig. 5.13(b) shows the FBD of the lower block. As can be seen, the Load (W) is being
supported by Six segments of the rope and each segment has tension T which is equal to Effort

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(P). Therefore, we can write,
W = 6T = 6P

Thus,
𝑊 5𝑃
MA = = ⇒ 𝐌𝐀 = 𝟔
𝑃 𝑃

Under ideal condition, when friction is zero and η = 1,

𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟔

Therefore, in a generalized way, we can write,

𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝒏

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Where n is the total number of pulleys in the system.

(3) Third System of Pulleys:

This system of pulleys consists of one fixed pulley

and several movable pulleys. As shown in Fig. 5.14, the
top most pulley is the fixed one and the remaining pulleys
are movable. Each pulley has a separate rope passing
around its periphery. One end of each rope is attached to
the Block which carries the Load (W) and the other end is
fixed to the block of the next lower pulley. The Effort (P) is
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applied at the free end of the rope that is passing over the
lower most pulley.
From Fig. 5.14,

W = T1 + 2T2 + 2T3 + 2T4

And; T1 = P ; T2 = 2T1 ; T3 = 2T2 ; T4 = 2T3

Fig. 5.14

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College
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Therefore,

W = T1 + (2 × 2T1) + (2 × 2T2) + (2 × 2T3) = T1 + 4T1 + (4 × 2T1) + (4 × 2T2)

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=> W = T1 + 4T1 + 8T1 + (8 × 2T1) = T1 + 4T1 + 8T1 + 16T1

=> W = P + 4P + 8P + 16P = P (1 + 4 + 8 + 16)

=> W = P (1 + 22 + 23 + 24)

Here, (1 + 22 + 23 + 24) is the sum of a finite geometric series with common ration r = 2 and total
number of terms n = 4. As such,
𝑟 𝑛 − 1 24 − 1
Sum = = = 24 − 1
𝑟−1 2−1

Therefore, W = P (24 – 1)

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Thus,
𝑊 𝑃 24 − 1
MA = = ⇒ 𝐌𝐀 = 𝟐𝟒 − 𝟏
𝑃 𝑃
Under ideal condition, when friction is zero and η = 1, 𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟐𝟒 − 𝟏

Therefore, in a generalized way, we can write, 𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏

Where n is the total number of pulleys in the system.

NOTE:

In all the three systems of pulleys, friction is assumed to be zero, as such η = 1. Therefore,
we got MA = VR. But this may not be the case always.

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Whether the presence of friction is considered or not,

 𝐕𝐑 = 𝟐𝒏 for First System of Pulleys; n = Number of movable pulleys in the system.

 𝐕𝐑 = 𝒏 for Second system of Pulleys; n = Total number of pulleys in the system.
 𝐕𝐑 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 for Third System of Pulleys; n = Total number of pulleys in the system.

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College
 Engineering Mechanics : Module-5

References:

 Dr. D. S. Kumar (4th revised edition 2013), Engineering Mechanics (Statics and

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Dynamics), S. K. Kataria & Sons, pp. 371-411, ISBN-13 : 978-93-5014-292-9, ISBN-10
: 81-88548-16-3-3.

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College
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Simple Wheel and Axle

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A simple wheel and axle consists of a Wheel and an Axle both fitted on a common spindle. Two
separate ropes are wrapper around the Wheel and Axle in opposite direction, so that when Effort
(P) applied at the free end of the rope wrapped around the wheel goes down, the Load (W)
attached to the free end of the rope wrapped around the Axle goes up. Since both the Wheel and
Axle are fitted on the same spindle, therefore, when the Wheel completes one revolution, the
Axle also completes one revolution. The two ends of a Spindle are supported on Ball Bearings. A
simple Wheel and Axle is shown in Fig. 5.15 below:

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Fig. 5.15

Let,

D = diameter of the Wheel Prepared by Ranbir Kalita

d = diameter of the axle

For one complete revolution of the Wheel,

Distance moved by the effort (y) = πD

Distance moved by the load (x) = πd

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College
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Distance moved by the effort 𝜋𝐷

VR = =
Distance moved by the load 𝜋𝑑

𝑫
⇒ 𝐕𝐑 =

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𝒅

If t1 and t2 represent the thickness of the two ropes wrapped around the wheel and axle
respectively, then,
𝑫 + 𝒕𝟏
𝐕𝐑 =
𝒅 + 𝒕𝟐
When friction in the ball bearings is assumed to be zero, then,
𝑀𝐴 𝑫
𝜂=1⇒ = 1 ⇒ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 =
𝑉𝑅 𝒅
This can also be shown like,

From Fig. 5.16, under equilibrium condition, taking

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moment about the axis of the spindle, we get,

ΣMO = 0 [CW +ve]

𝐷 𝑑
⇒𝑃× = 𝑊 × ⇒ 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑊𝑑
2 2

𝑊 𝐷 𝑫
⇒ = or 𝑴𝑨 = 𝑽𝑹 =
𝑃 𝑑 𝒅

If friction is the bearing is not neglected, then let Pʹ be the

effort required to lift the same load W. obviously, Pʹ > P. Fig. 5.16

We know,
𝑀𝐴 𝑊 𝑃′ 𝑊 𝑊 Prepared by Ranbir Kalita
𝜂= = = ′ ⇒ 𝑃′ =
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅 𝑃 × 𝑉𝑅 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅

Therefore,
𝑊 𝑊 𝑫 𝐷
𝑀𝐴 = = = 𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅 ⇒ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝜼 × ∵ 𝑉𝑅 =
𝑃′ 𝑊 𝒅 𝑑
𝜂 × 𝑉𝑅

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College
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Inclined Plane

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As shown in Fig. 5.17, a rectangular block of weight W acting as the Load (W) is place on a
rough inclined plane of inclination α with the horizontal. The block is attached to a light
inextensible string that passes over a frictionless pulley and an Effort (P) is applied at the free
and of the rope.

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Fig. 5.17

Now, when the point of application of Effort (P) moves vertically downward through a
distance y, the Load (W) also moves through a distance y along the inclined place. The
component (y sin θ) gives the vertical distance through which the Load (W) has moved.
Therefore,
Distance moved by the Effort 𝑦 𝒚
VR = = ⇒ 𝐕𝐑 = = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜶
Distance moved by the Load 𝑦 sin 𝛼 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶

This VR is independent of Coefficient of Friction (μS) between the inclined plane and the
Load (W) surface.
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Obviously, MA = W/P and its value is depends on μS . This is because, higher the value of
μS , higher will be the value of effort required to move the same Load (W) and as such the value
of MA gets affected.

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Mechanical Engineering Department Jorhat Engineering College