Study Package - Physics (XII)
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nihalahmed1018Study Package - Physics (XII)
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nihalahmed1018LONG TERM 2025
(TWO YEAR)
PHYSICS
STUDY PACKAGE
CLASS XII
Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE
PALA
Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800
Arunapuram Campus, Ph: 04822 - 212415, 210949, 216975
Ernakulam - Ph: 0484 - 2665080, 2665090
www.brilliantpala.org
email: [email protected]
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CONTENTS
1. Electric Charges and Fields ----------------------------------------------------------------- 05
2. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance ------------------------------------------------ 27
3. Current Electricity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 55
4. Moving Charges and Magnetism ---------------------------------------------------------- 81
5. Magnetism and Matter ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 111
6. Electromagnetic Induction ----------------------------------------------------------------- 131
7. Alternating Current ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 149
8. Electromagnetic Waves---------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
9. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments ---------------------------------------------------- 180
10. Wave Optics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 197
11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter ---------------------------------------------------- 218
12. Atoms ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230
13. Nuclei ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 242
14. Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits ------- 255
15. Experimental Skills ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 272
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CHAPTER - 01
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest. It is also called static electricity.
Conductors and Insulators
Some substances readily allow passage of electricity through them, others do not. Those which allow
electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that
are comparatively free to move inside the material. Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are
conductors. Most of the non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer high resistance to the
passage of electricity through them. They are called insulators.
When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over the entire surface of
the conductor. In contrast, if some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place.
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the excess charge on the body disappears
by causing a momentary current to pass to the ground through the connecting conductor. This process of
sharing the charges with the earth is called grounding or earthing. Earthing provides a safety measure for
electrical circuits and appliances.
Basic properties of Electric Charges
Quantization of charge
The quantization of electric charges is the property by virtue of which any charge exist in discrete
lumps or packets of a certain minimum charge, +e or –e where –e is the charge of electron and +e is the
charge of a proton.
Thus according to the quantization of charge, the charge on a body is an integral multiple of the charge
of an electron. i.e., Q ne where n = 1,2,3......
A charge can be 1e, 2 e, 3e and so on.
The absolute value of fundamental unit of charge, e 1.6 10 19 C
The cause of quantization is that, only integral number of electrons can be transferred from one body
to the other. This property establishes the discrete nature of charge, ruling out the continuous nature.
Electric charge is additive
Total charge on a body is the algebraic sum of all the charges, located anywhere on the body. While
taking algebraic sum, the sign of the charge must be taken into account. Two charges +2q and +q will get
added up to give +3q whereas two charges +2q and -q will get added up to give +q. Hence electric charge
is additive.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Conservation of electric charge
According to this property, the algebraic sum of electric charges on all the bodies in an isolated system
remains constant for all the time. i.e., the charge can neither be created nor be destroyed in isolation.
Coulomb’s law
According to this law, the force of attraction or repulsion between any two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Suppose two bodies having charges q1 and q2 are separated in vacuum by a distance r. According to
coulomb’s law
1 qq qq
F q1 q 2 , F 2 ,
F l 2 2 i.e., F K . l 2 2
r r r
Where K is the electrostatic force constant.
If q1q2 > 0, i.e., if both the charges are +ve or -ve, the bodies repel each other.
q1 q2
F12 r12 F21
r
q1q2 > 0
If q1q2 < 0, i.e., if one of the charges is +ve and the other is -ve, the bodies attract each other.
If F21 is the force on q2 due to q1 and r̂12 is a unit vector pointing from q1 to q2. Then for q1q2 > 0,
according to Coulomb’s law
q1q 2
F 21 K. rˆ12 --------(1)
r2
Similarly the force on q1 due to q2.
q1q 2
F12 K. rˆ21 --------- (2) Where rˆ rˆ is the unit vector pointing from q to q
r2 12 21 2 1
For q1q2 < 0, charge of the bodies attract each other.
q1 F12 F21 q2
r12
r
q1q2 < 0
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q1q 2
F 21 K. 2 rˆ21 -------(3)
r
q1q 2
F12 K. 2 rˆ12 -------(4)
r
q1q 2
As rˆ12 rˆ21 ; F12 K. 2 rˆ21 F21 F12 F 21
r
This shows that the forces exerted by the two charges on each other are equal and opposite.
Newton’s third law of motion is obeyed.
The experimentally measured value of K is 9 10 9 Nm 2 / C 2
1
In S.I K . Where 0 is called the absolute permittivity of free space.
40
0 8.85 10 12 N 1 m 2 C 2
Permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects and is affected by a medium
1 qq
(1) becomes F21 . 12 2 . rˆ12
40 r
1 qq qq
Magnitude of force, F . 12 2 N = 9 109 1 2 2 N-------(5)
40 r r
Unit of charge
We can define unit of charge from Coulomb’s law. If q1 = q2 = 1 and r = 1m, then F = 9 109 N
Hence Unit charge in S.I. (1 coulomb) is that charge which when placed in vacuum at a distance of 1m from
an equal and similar charge could repel with a force of 9 109 N.
In C.G.S. the unit of charge is esu (electro static unit) or stat coulomb. 1 C = 3 × 109 e.s.u.
Dielectric Constant or Relative Permittivity or specific inductive capacity.
When the charges are placed in a medium other than free space, the force between them is given by
1 q1q 2
Fm
4 r 2 ----------(6) where is the absolute permittivity of the medium.
Force between same charges at the same distance in air or vacuum,
1 q1q 2
F0
4o r 2 -------------(7)
F0
r ------------------(8)
Fm 0
Where r is the relative permittivity of the medium.
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From (8) we may define the dielectric constant of a medium as the ratio of force of attraction or
repulsion between two point charges separated by a certain distance in air or vacuum to the force of
attraction or repulsion between the same two point charges held at the same distance apart in the medium.
r for the vacuum is 1 and r for air is 1.006. For Hydrogen r is 1.00026. For glass r is 3 – 4. For
mica 3 – 6. For water 80 – 82
Force between two charges in terms of their position vectors
Suppose two point charges q1 and q2 are situated at points A and B with position vectors r1 and r2
respectively. Where OA r1 and OB r2 . O is the origin of the coordinate system. According to the
triangle law of addition of vectors
OA AB OB i.e., r1 r1 2 r2 r12 r2 r1 -------------(9)
1 q1q 2
According to Coulomb’s law, Force on q2 due to q1, F21 rˆ12 ---------(10)
4 0 r122
Z
F12
q1 A
r 12
r1 B
r 21
q2
r2
O F21
X
Y
1 q1q 2
Similarly, F12 .rˆ21 --------(11)
40 r21
2
1 q1q 2 r12 rˆ12 q1q 2 r12
We can write (10) and (11) as F21 i.e., F21
40 r122 . r12 40 r123
F
q1q 2 r2 r1 qq
F12 1 2
r1 r2
i.e., 21 3 and 3
40 r2 r1 40 r1 r2
The Superposition principle
The principle enables us to obtain the total force on a given charge due to any number of point charges.
The principle of superposition states that the total force on a given charge is the vector sum of individual
forces exerted on the given charge by all the charges. Each force between any two charges is calculated
by Coulomb’s law and is not affected by the presence of other charges.
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Suppose charges q1, q2, q3 ...... qn are situated at points with position vectors r1, r 2 , r 3 ..... r n respectively
with respect to the origin.
Z q2
F03
q1
q0
r1 r2 F01
r0
F02
r3 q3
O
X
To calculate the total force F1 on q1, first we use Coulomb’s law to calculate force F12 on q1 due to q2,
force F13 on q1 due to q3 and so on. Finally we use polygon law of vectors to calculate the resultant force F1
on q1.
F1 F12 F13 F14 ...... F1n
q q qq qq
F1 1 12 2 . r̂21 12 3 .r̂31 ....... 1 2n .r̂n1
4 0 r21 r31 rn1
1 q 2 q1 q 2q 3 q 2q n
Similarly F 2 F 21 F 23 .......... F 2n
2 .rˆ12 2 .rˆ32 ....... ˆ 2 .rˆn 2
40 r 12 r rn2
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Electrostatic Field
It is a region in space where a test charge experiences a force of electrostatic origin.
Relation between electric field strength and Force
Electric field strength at a point in an electrostatic field is defined as the force experienced by unit +ve
charge placed at that point.
If F is the force acting on a test charge +q0 at any point r , then the electric intensity at that point is
F
given by E(r ) q . Electric field intensity is a vector. The direction of E is same as that of F. E is along the
0
direction in which the test charge q0 would move.
SI unit of the intensity is N/C.
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Electric field intensity due to a point charge.
Suppose we have to calculate the electric field intensity at a point P due to a point charge q at O.
q0 E
+
P
r r
Where OP = r q
+ For a point charge q
O
Imagine a small test charge qo is placed at P. According to Coulomb’s law, the
1 qq o
Force at P, F 4 . r 2 . r̂ , where r̂ is the unit vector directed from O to P
0
F 1 q
As E E . .rˆ
q0 40 r 2
Electric field intensity due to a group of charges
Electric field intensity at any point due to a group of point charges is equal to the vector sum of the
electric field intensities due to individual charges at the same point.
If E1 , E 2 , E 3 are the intensities of electric fields due to point charges q1, q2, q3 etc. having position
vectors to q0, r1, r2 , r3 respectively, then the total intensity at the point
E E1 E 2 E 3 ....... E n
1 n qi
E . rˆi
40 i 1 r 2 .
i
Electric lines of Force (field lines)
Michael Faraday invented the idea of electric lines of force. He gave us a partial, qualitative information
about an electric field. An electric line of force is defined as a path, straight or curved such that tangent to it
at any point gives the direction of electric field intensity at that point. It is the path along which a charge
moves in the electrostatic field, if free to do so.
It is important to note here that the lines of force do not actually exist. But what they represent is a
reality.
Fig (1) shows some lines of force due to simple +ve point charge. These are directed radially outward.
The lines of force due to single -ve point charge are directed radially inwards (Fig. 2), (Fig 3) shows lines of
force due to a pair of equal and opposite charges.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Properties of Electric lines of force
1. Electric lines of force are discontinuous curves.
2. They start from a +ve charged body and end at a -vely charged body. No electric lines of force exist
inside the charged body.
3. Tangent to the line of force at any point gives the direction of electric field intensity at that point.
4. No two electric lines of force can intersect each other. This is because at the point of intersection we
can draw two tangents to the two lines of force. This would mean two directions of electric intensity at
the same point, which is not possible. Hence no two lines of force can cross each other.
5. Electric lines of force are always normal to the surface of a conductor, both while starting or ending on
the conductor. There is no component of electric field intensity parallel to the surface of the conductor.
Electric dipole
An electric dipole consist of a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a very small
distance.
Dipole moment ( P )
Dipole moment is a measure of the strength of the dipole. It is a vector quantity whose magnitude is
equal to the product of the magnitude of either charge and the distance between them.
P q . 2a --------------(12)
Dipole field
Dipole field is the electric field produced by an electric dipole. It is the space around the dipole in which
electric effect of the dipole can be experienced.
To calculate the dipole field intensity at any point, we imagine a unit +ve charge held at the point. We
calculate the force on this charge due to each of the two forces and take the vector sum of the forces. This
gives us the dipole field intensity at that point.
1. Field intensity on axial line of the dipole
Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges -q and +q separated by a very small distance
2a. We have to calculate the intensity of electric field at a point P in the axial line at a distance r from the
1 q 1 . q
centre O. If E1 is the electric intensity at P due to charge -q. E1 4 . 2 4 0 r a 2 ,
0 AP
It is along PA.
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–q +q E
A O B P
E1 E2
2a
r
E2 1 . q 1 . q
Suppose E 2 is the electric field intensity at P due to +q. 40 BP 2 4 0 r a 2
It is along BP produced. As E1 and E 2 are collinear vectors acting in opposite directions and
E 2 E1 , The resultant intensity E at P will be the difference between the two acting along BP
produced.
1 q 1 q q 1
E E 2 E1 4 2 1 2
r a 40 r a 40 r a r a
2 2
0
q r a r a P
2 2
q 4 ra 2r
40
r2 a 2
2
4 0 r 2 a 2 2 40 r 2 a 2 2
P 2P
If the dipole is short, r > > a E 2r 1
40 r4 40 r3
2. Field intensity on Equatorial line of the dipole
Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges separated by a small distance AB = 2a.
We have to find the electric field intensity at the point P on the equatorial line at a distance r from the
centre O. If E1 is the intensity at P due to charge q at A. Then
1 q 1 q
E1 E
0
ie., 1 4 a 2 r 2 , E1 is represent by PC , let
40 AP 2
PBA . E1 has 2 rectangular components,
E1cos along PR || to BA and E1 sin along PE. If E 2 is the electric intensity at P due to charge +q at B
F
D
R P
C
E
–q +q
A B
O
2a
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
1 q
q E2
E2 1
40 BP 2 ie., 40 a r2
2
E 2 is represented by PD along BPD.
E 2 has two rectangular components. E2 cos along PR || to BA and E2 sin along PF..
E2 sin and E1 sin are equal and opposite and hence they cancel out.
The resultant intensity at P is given by
E = E1 cos + E2 cos .
2 q
cos
Since they are equal. E = 2 E1 cos 40 a r2
2
1 q AO 1 q a 1 P
2 2
40 a 2 r 2 AP = 4 0 a 2 r 2 a 2 r 2 40 a 2 r 2 3/ 2 -------------(13)
1 P
If the dipole is short, r > > a E -------------(14)
40 r 3
Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 equal and opposite charges -q and +q separated by a small
distance 2a having a moment P . P q .2a
Let the dipole be placed in a uniform electric field, E at an angle with the direction of the field.
Force on –q = qE, in the direction opposite to the direction of E . Force on +q = qE, acting in the direction
of E . These forces being equal, unlike and parallel form a couple, which rotates the dipole in the clockwise
direction tending to align the dipole in the direction of field.
Torque = moment of the couple = F arm of the couple = F AC = qE 2a sin
= (2aq) E sin = P .E sin ------(15)
In the vector form we can rewrite the equation as Torque = P E ------(16)
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Direction of is given by right handed screw rule and is perpendicular to both P and E.
As the two forces are equal and opposite the net force on the dipole is zero, hence there is no translatory
motion.
Flux of an electric field
A provisional definition for the flux of the electric field for the Gaussian surface is E EA .
Evaluate the scalar product E A for the two vectors and sum the results algebraically (that is,
with signs included) for all the squares that make up the surface. The sign or a zero resulting from each
scalar product determines whether the flux through its square is positive, negative, or zero. Squares like 1,
in which E points inward, make a negative contribution to the sum. Squares like 2, in which E lies in the
surface, make zero contribution. Squares like 3, in which E points outward, make a positive contribution.
The exact definition of the flux of the electric field through a closed surface is found by allowing the
area of the squares shown in Fig. to become smaller and smaller, approaching a differential limit dA . The
area vectors then approach a differential limit dA . The sum then becomes an integral and we have, for the
definition of electric flux.
E EdA (electric flux through a Gaussian surface)
The circle on the integral sign indicates that the integration is to be taken over the entire (closed)
surface. The flux of the electric field is a scalar, and its SI unit is Newton meter squared per coulomb.
(Nm2C–1)
We see that the electric flux through a Gaussian surface is proportional to the net number of electric
field lines passing through the surface
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Electric flux
E.A EA cos
For open surface, 0 = E.dA
For closed surface, c dA
E
The value of does not depend upon the distribution of charges and distance between them inside
the closed surface.
Gauss’s theorem or Gauss’s law in electrostatics.
According to this theorem the surface integral of electric field E produced by any sources over a closed
surface S enclosing a volume V in vacuum or the total normal electric flux over a closed surface S in
1
vacuum is
0 times the total charge contained in S.
1
i.e., E E.ds
S
Q
0 ...............(17)
q
Generalising we can say, the flux through any enclosed surface E.dS en
o
If n charges q1 , q 2 ,...., q n are enclosed by the surface
q1 q 2 q 3 q
The total electric flux, E E1 E 2 E3 ..... E n .... n
0 0 0 0
1
q1 q 2 q 3 ..... q n
ε0
qen
E
0 , where en is the algebraic sum of the charges inside the closed surface. Hence the
q q
1
total electric flux over a closed surface times the total charge enclosed regardless of how the
0
charges may be distributed. If the medium surrounding the charges is having a dielectric constant K,
qen
then, E
K 0 ..................(18)
Applications of Gauss’s Theorem
1. Electric field intensity due to a line charge. (Cylindrical symmetry)
Consider an infinitely long line charge in the form of a rod having a linear charge density (charge
contained in unit length). We have to find an expression for the intensity at any point P at a particular
distance r from the line charge. Imagine a right circular closed cylinder of length l with infinitely long
line of charge as the axis. At any point on the curved surface, intensity E acts radially outwards. i.e.,
perpendicular to the surface. Imagine a small area ds on the surface. Angle between E and ds on
the curved surface, 0
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Surface integral E . ds for the curved surface = surface integral E dS cos 0 = surface integral E dS
= E ds E ds E. 2 rl . For the 2 edges E and ds are perpendicular to each other..
900
E Gaussian surface
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
l
Surface integral E.dS for the edges = 0. The edges make no contribution for the electric
flux.
According to Gauss’s theorem
q l l
E.ds E 2rl 0
0 ie. E. 2 rl
0
1 2
E E .
2r .0 4 .0 r .........(19)
1
Clearly, E
r
2. Electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged shell.
Consider a spherical shell of radius R. A charge +q is uniformly distributed over the surface of the shell
with charge density . We have to find an expression for the electric field intensity at a point P distant
r from the centre. Consider a sphere of radius r and centre O. Intensity on the surface of this sphere is
uniform and acts radially outwards. Imagine a small area ds on the surface. Angle between E and
ds is zero. Considering the surface of the sphere as the Gaussian surface
E
n
r
P
r dS
+q O
R
S
q q
E.ds 0
E ds cos 0
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since = 0, cos =1 E ds q/ 0
q q 1 q
E ds
0
E.4 r 2
0 ;
E . 2 ................(20)
40 r
Electric intensity at any point outside the spherical shell is such, as if the entire charge is concentrated
at the centre of the shell.
q 4 R 2 . substitute in (20)
1 4 R 2
E ...................(21)
40 r2
Y
Emax
E 1
E
r2
O r=R X
R 2
E 2 -------------------(22)
r 0
At a point on the surface of the shell.
If the point P is on the surface of the shell r = R, substituting r = R in (22)
We get E ----------(23)
0
If the point P lies inside the spherical shell, then Gaussian surface is the surface of a sphere of radius
r (<R). As the charge inside the Gaussian surface is zero,
q 0 , E = 0 -------------(24)
i.e., the electric field intensity inside a shell is always zero.
Variation of electric field intensity with distance from the centre of the shell is shown in the fig. above.
3 Electric field intensity of a solid non-conducting sphere
R
q' r n E
S
O P r
r
At point P, electric field intenstiy E , Er
3
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Rρ
At a point on the sphere, E
3
R3ρ
At a point outside the sphere, E
3 0 r 2
4. Electric field intensity due to a thin infinite sheet of charge
+
E1
E2
E
0
5. Electric field intensity due to two thin parallel sheets of charge
A B
I II III
E2 E1 E1
E1
E2 E2
1
In region I, EI = – E1 – E2 1 2
20
1
In region II, EII = E1 – E2 1 2
20
1
In region III, E III E1 E 2 = 1 2
2 0
The field intensity in between such sheets having equal and opposite uniform surface densities of
charge becomes constant i.e, a uniform electric field is produced. Also it is independent of the distance
between the two sheets. This is how uniform electric fields are produced in practice.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 8. Four charges are arranged at the corners of a square
ABCD as shown in figure. The force on a charge
1. Two charges of 12 C and 18 C are separated kept at the centre O is:
by a distance of 42 cm. The null point from
12 C will be at a distance of:
1) 120 cm 2) 187 cm 3) 130 cm 4) 119 cm
2. Two small, identical metallic spheres A and B, each
carrying a charge q; repel each other with a force F.
A third uncharged metallic sphere C of the same 1) Zero
size is successively made to touch the spheres A 2) Along diagonal AC
and B and then removed away. The new force
between them 3) Along diagonal BD
4) Perpendicular to the side AB
3 4 3 2F
1) F 2) F 3) F 4) 9. Two charges 1 C each of opposite polarity are
8 3 14 9
3. The excess (equal in number) of electrons that must separated by 0.02 m. The force acting on another
be placed on each of two small spheres spaced 3cm 1 C charge placed at the midpoint of the line joining
apart of the force of repulsion between the spheres the two charges will be:
is to be 1019 N is:
1) Zero 2) 2.9 N 3) 1.8 N 4) 180 N
1) 25 2) 225
19
10. Sharper is the curvature of a spot on a charged body:
3) 625 × 10 4) 1250
1) Lesser will be the surface charge density at that
4. A charge ‘q’ is placed at the centre of the line joining
point
two equal charges Q. The system of the 3 charges
will be in equilibrium. If ‘q’ is equal to: 2) Greater will be the surface charge density at that
point
Q Q Q Q
1) 2) 3) 4) 3) More positive will be the surface charge density
2 4 2 4
at that point
5. A charge Q is divided into two parts. The two charges
kept at a distance apart gave a maximum Coulombian 4) More negative will be the surface charge density
repulsion. Then the ratio of Q and one of the parts is at that point
given by: 11. An oil drop having 12 excess electrons is held
1) 1 : 2 2) 2 : 1 3) 1 : 4 4) 4 : 1 stationary under a uniform electric field of 2.55 ×
6. Two identical coins be 4.5 m apart on a table. They 104 N/C. The density of oil is 1.26 g/cm3. Radius of
carry similar charges. If the force of repulsion is the drop is:
40 / 9 N , then charge on each one is: 1) 19.6 × 10–4 mm 2) 9.8 × 10–4 mm
1) 440 C 2) 100 C 3) 110 C 4) 550 C 3) 4.9 × 10–4 mm 4) 39.2 × 10–4 mm
7. A charge Q1 exerts some force on a second charge 12. Charges are placed at the corners of a side ‘a’ as
Q2. If a 3rd charge Q3 is placed near, the force of Q1 shown in figure. If the charge at A is in equilibrium,
exerted on Q2. the ratio q1/q2 is:
1) Will increase
2) Will decrease
3) Will increase if Q3 is of the same sign as Q1 and
will decrease if Q3 is of opposite sign
4) Will remain unchanged 1) 1 2) 2 3) 1 / 2 4) 2 2
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13. An uncharged isolated conductor A is brought near 18. Two small identical spheres having charges 10 C
a charged isolated conductor B, then the charge:
and 90 C attracts each other with a force of F
1) on B increases and potential on B remains newton. If they are kept in contact and then
constant separated by the same distance the new force
2) on B remains constant and the potential of A between them is
decreases
F 16F
3) on B remains constant and the potential of B 1) 2) 16F 3) 4) 9F
6 9
decreases
4) On B reduces the potential of B remains constant 19. Positive and negative point charges of equal
14. Midway between equal and similar charges, a third magnitude are kept at (0, 0, a 2 ) and (0, 0, – a 2 )
equal and similar charge is placed. The third charge: respectively. The workdone by the electric field when
1) Experience a force on the equatorial plane another positive point charge is moved from (–a, 0,
0) to (0, a, 0) is:
2) Experience a net force along the axial line
3) Is in unstable equilibrium with respect to 1) positive
displacement along axial direction 2) negative
4) Is in stable equilibrium with respect to 3) zero
displacement along axial direction
15. A charge Q1 is placed at the centre of a hollow 4) depends on the path connecting the initial and final
conducting sphere and another charge Q2 is placed points
outside this sphere. Which of the following statement 20. Four equal charges each + q are placed at the four
is correct : corners of a square of a side ‘a’. Then the coulomb
1) Both Q1 and Q2 experience a force force experienced by one charge due to rest of three
is
2) Q1 experience a force but Q2 does not
3) Neither Q1 nor Q2 experience any force
1)
2
2 1 k q2
2)
3kq 2
4) Q1 does not experience a force while Q2 does a2
2a 2
16. A charged particle is said to be in stable equilibrium
when :
2 2kq 2 4kq 2
1) the force acting on the particle is zero 3) 4)
a2 a2
2) the force acting on the particle is minimum
21. A square surface of side L metre is in the plane of
3) potential energy of the particle is zero
paper. A uniform field E Vm–1 also in the plane of
4) potential energy of the particle is maximum paper, is limited only to the lower half of the square
17. Two similar balls of mass m are hung from a common surface. The electrical flux associated with the
point by means of silk threads of length l and carry surface
similar charges. The separation between the charges
is given by:
L ql O2 1/ 2
F qlI
2 3/ 2
1) M 2 mg P 2) G 2mg J
MN 0 PQ H K
F ql I2 2
F ql I 2 1/ 3
3) G 2 mg J 4) G 2 mg J EL2
H 0 K H 0 K 1) zero 2) EL2 3) 2
0
4)
EL2
2
20
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
22. A sphere of radius ‘R’ has a uniform distribution of 27. A charge Q is placed at the centre of a cube. The
electric charge in its volume. At a distance ‘X’ from electric flux through one of the faces of the cube is:
its centre for X<R, the electric filed is directly
proportional to: Q Q Q Q
1) 2) 2 3) 4 4) 6
0 0 0 0
1 1
1) 2) 3) X 4) X2 28. Two point charges -Q and +3Q are placed at some
X2 X
distance apart. If the electric field at the location of
23. +Q charge is placed at the point A,B,C of a triangle +3Q is E/3, then at the locality of -Q it is:
having equal limbs. The intensity of electric field at 1) E 2) E/2 3) -3E 4) -E/3
O will be:
29. A solid sphere of radius R has a uniform charge
density per unit volume. The electric field at a point
distant r (r < R) from the centre of the sphere is:
r R
1) zero 2) 3 3) 3 4) 2
0 0 0
1 Q 1 Q 30. Two metallic spheres of radii R1 and R2 have equal
1) 4 . r 2 2) 4 . r surface densitites of charge. The ratio of electric
0 0
fields on the surface:
1 Q2 R 12 R1 R 22
3) Zero 4) 4 . 2 1) R 2 2) R 3) R 2 4) 1 : 1
0 r 2 2 1
24. The magnitude of electric field strength E such that 31. A uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R
an electron placed in it would have an electrical force carries uniform surface charge density of per unit
equal to its weight is given by: area. It is made of two hemispherical shells, held
together by pressing them with force F. F is
mg e e2g proportional to:
1) mge 2) 3) mg 4)
e 2m
25. A solid metallic sphere has a charge +3Q concentric
with this sphere is a conducting spherical shell having
-Q. The radius of the sphere is a and that of the
shell is b( > a). What is the electric field at a distance
2 R 2 2 R 2 2
r (a < r < b) from the centre? 1) 2) 3) R 4) R 2
0 0 0 0
1 Q 1 3Q 32. A charged hollow metal sphere has radius ‘r’. If the
1) 4 . r 2) 4 . r
0 0 p.d between its surface and a point at distance 3r
from the centre is V, then the electric field intensity
1 3Q 1 3 at distance ‘3r’ from the centre is:
3) 4 . r 2 4) 4 . r 2
0 0
6V V V V
1) 2) 3) 4)
26. The electric field in a region of space is given by r 6r 4r 3r
E = 5i 2 j N/C. The electric flux due to this field 33. A closed surface has n electric dipoles located inside
through an area 2m2 lying in the YZ plane, in SI it. The net electric flux emerging through the surface
units is: is:
ne 2e 2ne
1) 10 2) 20 3) 10 2 4) 2 29 1) 2) 3) 4) zero
0 0 0
21
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
34. A nonuniform electric field is given by E = 3 i 4 j 40. The frequency of oscillation of an electric dipole of
moment P and rotational inertia I for small amplitudes
pierces a guassian cube shown in figure. What is about its equilibrium position in a uniform electric
the electric flux through the upper face: field of strength E is:
1 E 1 I
1) 2)
2 PI 2 PE
1 PE 1 PI
3) 4)
2 I 2 E
1) 36 Nm2 /C 2) 12 Nm2/C Assertion - Reason
3) Zero 4) 16 Nm2/C
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and
35. Two electric charges +q and +4q are placed at a the Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
distance 6a apart on a horizontal plane. Find the point
on the line joining them where the electric field is 2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
zero Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
1) 2a from q 2) 2a from 4q 3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
3) 4a from q 4) both 1 and 4 4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
36. Electric charges q, q, –2q are placed at the corners 41. Assertion : Electric field strength due to
of an equilateral triangle ABC of side l. The symmetric charge distributions can
magnitude of electric dipole moment of the system be determined using Gauss’s law.
is
Reason : Gauss’ law is valid only for
1) ql 2) 2ql symmetric charge distributions.
3) 3 ql 4) 4ql 42. Assertion : Inside an electric field, a charged
particle will always move either
37. A particle of mass m and charge q is placed at rest along or opposite to the electric field.
in a uniform electricfield E and then released. The
Reason : Force on a charged particle in an
KE attained by particle after moving a distance y is
electric field is along the filed if it is
1) qEy2 2) qE2y 3) qEy 4) q2Ey positive charge and opposite to the
38. Four charges 2q, 2q, -2q, -2q are placed at the four field if it is negative charge.
corners of a square of side a. The field at the center Statement
of the square is:
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
2q 2 q 2 2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
1) 2)
0 a 2 4 0 a 2
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
2q 2 q 4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
3) 4)
4 0 a 2
4 0a 2
43. Statement I : Electric field at large distance on the
axis of a short electric dipole is
39. An electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field
inversely proportional to the cube of
with its dipolemoment P perpendicular to E . When the distance from the centre of the
the dipole is rotated through an angle of 1800, the dipole.
work done is:
Statement II : For a point charge, electric field has
1) 2PE 2) Zero 3) PE 4) -2PE a spherical symmetry.
22
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
44. Statement I : Electric potential is a vector. 1) A - p; B - p, r; C - q, r; D - s
Statement II : In an electric field, a negative charge
2) A - s; B - p, q, r; C - q, r; D - p
moves from lower potential to higher
potential. 3) A - s; B - q, r; C - q, s; D - p
Match the Following
4) A - q; B - p, q; C - q, s; D - p
45. In figure a conducting spherical shell of inner radius
‘x’ and outer radius ‘y’ is concentric with a larger Integer
conducting spherical shell of inner radius ‘a’ and outer 46. When an alpha particle is accelerated by a PD of 3
radius ‘b’. The inner shell has a total charge +3Q volt, its energy in eV is
and the outer shell has a total charge +5Q. Let ‘r’
47. A soap bubble is charged to a potential of 16 V. Its
be the distance of any point from the common centre
radius is, then doubled. The potential (in volt) of the
O. Match Column I with Column II.
bubble now will be:
48. An extremely long wire is uniformly charged. An
electron is revolving about the wire and making 108
revolutions per second in an orbit of radius 2 cm.
Linear charge density of the wire in nC/m is nearly
49. ABC is a right-angle triangle with sides AB = 3 cm,
BC = 4 cm, AC = 5 cm. Charges 15, 12 and –20 esu
are placed at A, B, C respectively. Magnitude of the
force experienced by the charge at B in dyne is:
Column I Column II
A) Electric field strength p) Outer surface of the
is zero larger spherical shell
B) Electric field strength q) Inner surface of the
is non-zero larger spherical shell
C) Magnitude of charge r) Outer surface of the
on this surface is 3 Q smaller spherical shell
D) Charge on this surface s) For a < r < b 50. The electric potential at the surface of an atomic
is +8Q nucleus (Z = 50) of radius 9.0 × 10–15m is n × 106 V.
The value of n is
23
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
KEY WITH HINTS
Q 2 :1
1. 2 Q1 = Q/2; Q1
1 q2
6. 2 F
4 0 r 2
9 109 12 10 6 9 109 18 10 6
40 9 109 q 2
x2 b42 xg 2
q 100c
4.5
2
9
42 x
b
2 42 x g 2
3x 2 ;
x
12247
. ; x 187 cm 7. 4 Electrostatic force between two charges is
independent of the presence of third charge
8. 1
2. 1 After C touches A, q A q 2 , q C q 2
3q 3q 9. 4 F1
e j
9 10 9 10 6
2
90 N
After C touches B, q B
4
, qC
4 b0.01g 2
F
1 q 2 3q 4 3 F F2
e j
9 10 9 10 6
2
90N
4 0 r2 8
b0.01g 2
1 q2 9 109 q 2 Total force F1 + F2 = 90 + 90 = 180 N
F ,1019
3. 3 4 0 r 3 102
2 2
10. 2
q2 = 106 , q = 103 = ne 4 3
11. 2 qE mg; qE r g
3 3
n 10 0.625 1022
1.6 1019 1/3
n = 625 1019 3qE
r 9.8 107 m
4g
4. 2
9.8 104 mm
Here system is in equilibrium hence net force on
12. 4
each charge is zero consider the equilibrium of
q1
F + F2 = 0
1 Qq
F force on q1 due to q
4 0
r 2
2
Q2 Net force on charge at A is zero because it is in
F2 force on q1 due to q2 = 1 4 2
0 r
equilibrium.
F + F2 = 0, hence q = –Q/4 f force in charge at A due to –q2
5. 2 Let Q1 be the one part then other part is F force charge at A due to charge at C
(Q1 – Q1) 2 f = F
q1 = Q1, q2 = Q – Q1 1 q 1q 2 1 q12
2
1 q1q 2 1 Q1 Q Q1 4 0 a 2 4 0 2a 2
F
4 0 r 2 4 0 r2
q1
dF d = 2 2
F = Fmax when dQ 0 ; dQ Q1Q Q1 0
2
q2
1 1
13. 3
24
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
here three vectors are in equilibrium hence net
14. 4 Q x Q field at O is zero
q 24. 2 eE = mg; E = mg/e
net force on q is zero hence it is in equilibrium. If
q is slightly displaced from its equilibrium position. 25. 3 Inside the spherical shell field due to the charge
Then restoring force acts towards the equilibrium on the shell is zero. The field at the specified
position. This force brings the body back to its points is the field of metallic sphere.
equilibrium position hence equilibrium is stable. 26. 1 Here area 2m2 lies on yz plane hence area vector
15. 4 Net field inside a conducting sphere is zero hence
A 2iˆ (perpendicular to yz hence directed
Q1 does not experience a force along x direction)
16. 1
17. 4 E . A 5iˆ 2ˆj 2iˆ 10
q
27. 4 total flux through 6 faces is
0
Q
hence flux one face is 6
0
28. 1 –Q --------- + 3Q
Electric field at the location of + 3Q is due to the
presence of – Q
force in +3Q due to –Q is given by
For equilibrium f 21 = + 3Q E/3 = QE
force in –Q due to +3Q is given by
1 q2 X
mg sin ; sin f12 = Q E1 .
4 0 X 2
2l
where E/ is the field at the locality of –Q
k 10 90 k 40 40 f21 = –f12 [action and reaction]
18. 3 F F1
r2 r2 QE = – [–Q E/]; E/ = E
19. 3 The field is along Z axis. Positive point-charge is 29. 2 Electric field inside the sphere is given by
moved in a plane perpendicular to the Z axis from
A to B, Hence, no work is done by the field 1 qr r 4 3
E 3 E ; q R
4 0 R 3 0 3
20. 1 F F1 F2 F3
1 q2 1 q2 30. 4 E on the surface of metallic sphere = 0
F1 F2 F
; 3
4 0 a 2 4 0 2a 2
2
31. 1 Electrostatic pressure P 2
21. 1 Plane of surface is parallel to field. So 90o 0
EA cos 0
2
Force F = PA = 2 R
2
22. 3 Inside the sphere
0
1 Q
E x 1 q 1 q 1 q 3V
4 0 R 3 ; E x 32. 2 V;
4 0 r 4 0 3r 40 r 2
Electric field intensity at distance 3r from the
23. 3
1 q V
centre is given by
E
4 0 3r 2
6r
33. 4
25
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
34. 4 E 3iˆ 4jˆ
I PE
Area vector of upper face = 2 2 ˆj
Flux through upper face = E.A 16N / m 2
1 1 PE
f
35. 1 2 2 I
41. 3
42. 4
kq k 4q 43. 1
x 2a
6a x
2 2
x
44. 3
36. 3 45. 2
46. 6 E = qV = (2e) × (3V) = 6 eV
47. 8
48. 50
The electric force eE will provide necessary
centripetal force.
P1 q l P2 q l
eE mr2
P P P 2P1P2 cos 60 3 P1 3 q
1
2 2
2
mr 4 n
2 2
37. 3 F Eq e
2 r
0
1
Work done F y mv 2
2
40 2mr 2 n 2 2
38. 1 e
1 2 9 1031 4 104 1016 10
9 109 1.6 1019
x 2 10
to check the field at 0, place a +1C charge at 0.
50 109 C / m 50 nC / m
Then the net force in that test charge gives the
net field at 0. q q 15 12
49. 25 FBA r 2 2 20 dyne
A B
if E is field at 0 due to charge at one corner then
AB 3
net field = 2 2E
along AB
1 2q 2 2q q B q C 12 20
2 2 FBC 15 dyne , along
2
4 2 BC
4 0 a
2
0 a 2 rBC
2
20 15
2 2
FB FBA
2
FBC
2
39. 2 W = PE [ cos 1 – cos 2], 1 = 90; 2
= 25 dyne
= 90 + 180 = 270
40. 3 If dipole is slightly displaced through an angle 1 q
50. 8 V R
from its equilibrium position, then restoring torque 4 0
acting on the dipole is given by = PE sin
50 1.6 1019
9 109 8 106 V
PE sin ; is small 9 1015
26
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CHAPTER - 02
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
An important property of the electric field
One basic property of electric fields is that the line integral of electric field intensity between two points
A and B depends only on the position of these points and not on the shape or path followed between the
points.
Suppose a single positive charge +q lies at the origin O of a coordinate system. The electrostatic field
of this charge is directed radially outwards. A and B are two points with position vector rA and rB respectively..
Suppose a small +ve test charge q0 is moved from A to B along any arbitrary path shown by the curve AB.
At any point P on this path where OP r, suppose the electric field intensity is E . Force on the charge q0
at P is q0E radially outwards. To prevent acceleration of test charge under this force, an external agent has
to apply a force F q 0 E . Let the path AB be divided into a large number of small segments, one such
small segment is PQ dl .
Y
q0 E
A P
N
dl
F Q
rA
r
B
rB
+q
X
O
Z
The amount of work done by the external force in moving the charge from P to Q is
dW F . dl q 0 E.dl = –q0 Edl cos ------- (1)
PN dr
Consider PQN , cos dl cos = dr
PQ dl
(1) becomes dW = –q0 E dr
27
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Total amount of work done by the external force in moving the charge from A to B.
B rB rB rB
q 0 .q 1 q 0 .q dr q 0 .q 1 q0 q 1 1
W AB dw =
40 r
dr
40 r
r 2
A rA
2
rA
2
40 rA 40 rB rA
eqn. (2) shows that the value of line integral of electrostatic field intensity between any two points A and
B depends only on the positions of these points and is independent of actual path followed. From (2)
WAB q
E.dl = 1 1 3
q0 4 0 rB rA
Potential Difference
B
q q0 1 1
We have proved that, WAB E.dl.q 0
4 0
A rB rA
WAB
B
q 1 1 q q
E .dl
0 rB rA
V B V A 4
q0 A
4 40 rB 4 0 rA
q q
Where V B = potential at B and V A = potential at A.
40 rB 40 rA
From (4) we define electric potential difference between two points A and B in an electric field as the -
ve of the line integral of electric field intensity on a path from A to B. Also we may define electric potential
difference between two points B and A as the amount of work done in carrying unit +ve charge from A to B
through any path.
WAB ML2 T 2
V(B) V(A) ML2 T 3A 1
q0 . Dimensional formula for potential difference is
AT
Unit of potential difference is J/C or volt.
Potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if the work done in transferring unit charge
from one point to the other is one Joule.
Potential
q q
Suppose the point A is at infinity. Now rA , then VA 4 r 0
0 A 40
B
q
From (4) VB – VA = VB - 0 4 r i.e., V B E.dl
0 B
q W B
i.e., V B = q 5
40 rB 0
Potential at a point is defined as the -ve of the line integral of the electric field between infinity and the
point. It can also be defined as the work done in carrying unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
28
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Electrostatic forces are conservative
We know that
B A
WAB WBA
q0
A
E.dl VB VA and
q0
B
E.dl VA VB
along C1 along C2
A
+ C2
C1 +B
B A
WAB WBA
Adding the two equations above q q E.dl E.dl = VB - VA + VA - VB= 0.
0 0 A B
The work done in moving a unit positive charge along a closed path is 0.
The force involved (electro static force) is conservative. Hence electrostatic field is a conservative
field. Mathematically we can write this result as E. dl 0
1. Electric potential due to single charge
We have to calculate the potential at any point P due to a single point charge +q at O where OP = r. By
definition electric potential at P is the amount of work done in carrying unit positive charge from infinity to P.
Consider any point A on the line joining OP produced,
+ dx –
P
B A E
r
x
q 1
OA = x, the electric intensity, E 4 . 2 along OA produced. Small amount of work done in
0 x
moving a unit +ve charge from A to B where AB = dx is
dW E.dx 6 .
Total work done in moving unit +ve charge from infinity to point P,
r r r
q 1 q 1 q 1
W E .dx . 2 dx 7
4 x 4 x 4 r
0 0 0
q
V W 8
4 0 r
29
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
If q is +ve, potential is +ve and if q is -ve, potential is -ve. Potential is a scalar quantity. Eqn. (8) shows
that at equal distances from a point charge q, the value of potential is the same. Hence electric potential
due to a single point charge is spherically symmetric.
3. Potential at a point due to an electric dipole
Let an electric dipole consist of two equal and unlike charges -q at A and +q at B separated by a small
distance 2a with centre at O. The dipole moment
P q 2a -------------(9)
We have to calculate the potential at P distant r from O let angle POB = ,
Let AP = r1 and BP = r2. Draw DB perpendicular to OP and AC perpendicular to OP.
P
r1
r2
r
D
–q +q
A O B
C
2a
OC
In AOC, cos OC AO cos a cos Similarly OD a cos
AO
1 q 1 q q 1 1
Net potential at P due to the dipole, V
40 r2 40 r1 40 r2 r1
Now r2 BP DP = OP - OD i.e., r2 r a cos
Also r1 = AP CP = OP + OC i.e., r1= r + a cos
Substituting these values in the above equation,
q q r a cos r a cos
V
1
1
4 q 2 2a cos
4 0 r a cos r a cos r 2 a 2 cos 2 40 r a 2 cos 2
0
P cos
i.e., V 4 r 2 a 2 cos 2 ..................(10)
0
30
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Special cases
1. When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole, 0 , cos 1
P P
V V
40 r 2 a 2 .........(11) If a < < r, then
40 r 2 .............(12)
2. When the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole, 90o , cos 90 0
V 0 i.e., electric potential due to an electric dipole is zero at every point on the equatorial
line of the dipole.
2. Electric potential due to a group of point charges
Suppose there are a number of point charges q1, q2, q3,...., qn at distances r1,r2,r3,....,rn respectively
from a point P, where electric potential is to be calculated using Superposition principle, we obtain the
resultant potential at P as the algebraic sum of the potentials due to individual charges.
V = V1+ V2 + V3 + .........+ Vn
q1
r1 q2
r2
p
r4
q4 r3
q3
1 q1 1 q2 1 q3 1 qn 1 q1 q 2 q 3 qn
= ........ = ........
4 0 r1 4 0 r2 4 0 r3 4 0 rn 4 0 r1 r2 r3 rn
i n
1 qi
i.e., V =
40
r
i 1
------------(13)
i
If r1,r2,r3,....,rn are position vectors of the charges q1, q2, q3,...., qn respectively. Then electric potential at
P, whose position vector is r would be
1 n qi
V --------------(14)
40 i1 r ri
Potential Energy in an external field
Potential energy of a single charge.
We are now concerned with the potential energy of a charge (or charges) in an external field. The
external field E is not produced by the given charge(s) whose potential energy we wish to calculate. E is
produced by sources external to the given charge(s). The external sources may be known., but often they
31
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
are unknown or unspecified; what is specified is the electric field E or the electrostatic potential V due to the
external sources. We assume that the charge q does not significantly affect the sources producing the
external field. This is true if q is very small, or the external sources are held fixed by other unspecified
forces. Even if q is finite, its influence on the external sources may still be ignored. We are interested in
determining the potential energy of a given charge q in the external field.
The external electric field E and the corresponding external potential V may vary from point to point. By
definition, V at a point P is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from inifinity to the point P. (We
continue to take potetnial at infinity to be zero). Thus, work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to the
point P in the external field is qV. This work is stored in the form of potential energy of q. If the point P has
position vector r relative to some origin. Potential energy of q and r in an external field = qV(r), where V(r) is
the external potential at the point r.
Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field.
The potential energy of a system of two charges q1 and q2 located at r1 and r2, respectively, in an
external field is the sum of the work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to r1, [q1 V(r1)] and the
work done in bringing q2 to r2. In this step, work is done not only against the external field E but also
against the field due to q1.
Work done on q2 against the external field = q2 V(r2)
q1q 2
Work done on q2 against the field due to q1
4 0 r12
where, r12 is the distance between q1 and q2. By the superpsotiion principle for fields, we add up the
work done on q2 against the two fields (E and that due to q1):
q1q 2
Work done in bringing q2 to r2 q 2 V r2
4 0 r12
Thus, potential energy of the system = the total work done in assembling the configuration
q1q 2
q1V r1 q 2 V r2
4 0 r12
Potential Energy of a dipole in a Uniform Electric field.
Suppose an electric dipole of moment P is oriented at an angle with the direction of uniform external
electric field E . We know that act on the dipole P E sin . Small amount of work done in rotating the
dipole through a small angle d ; dW d = P E sin d
The total work done in rotating the dipole from orientation 1 to 2 is
2 2 2
W d
1
PE sin d
1
PE sin d PE cos 2 PE cos cos ----- 15
1
1 2 1
Suppose the dipole is initially at right angles to E ie 1 90 0 (PE = 0) and we have to set it an angle
with E. ie 2 W P E cos cos 90 P E cos ----- 16
32
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
This work done is stored in the dipole in the form of energy which is called potential energy of the dipole.
U P E cos , In vector form U P.E ----- 17
Potential Energy of a dipole is a scalar quantity. Its dimensional formula is ML2 T-2 and its unit is Joule.
Electrostatic shielding
A cavity (with no charge) within a conductor remains shielded from influence of electric field due to
charge on the conductor. This is known as electrostatic shielding. Whatever be the size and shape of the
cavity and whatever be the charge on the conductor and the external fields in which it might be placed the
electric field inside it is always zero. The vanishing of electric field in the (charge-free) cavity of a conductor
is, as aforementioned a very general result. A related result is that even if the conductor is charged or
charges are induced on a neutral conductor by an external field, all charges reside only on the outer surface
of a conductor with cavity.
We note the important implication of the results in the figure. Whatever be the charge and field
configuration outside, any cavity in a conductor remains shielded from outside electric influence: the field
inside the cavity is always zero. The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from
outside electrical influence.
Flux of an electric field
Flux of an electric field is the total number of lines of forces crossing through an area.
d E.ds E ds cos , where ‘ds’ is the area.
In general E . dA where dA is a small area.
Equipotential surfaces
An equipotential surface is that surface at every point of which the electric potential is the same By
definition, potential difference between two points B and A = work done in carrying unit +ve charge
from A to B.
i.e., VB – VA = W AB
If points A and B lie on an equipotential surface
VB – VA = 0 W AB = 0
Hence no work is done in moving a charge from one point to another in an equipotential surface.
33
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Electric field lines (continuous lines) and cross sections of equipotential surfaces (dotted lines) for
(a) a uniform electric field, (b) the field due to a charged particle and (c) the field due to an electric dipole
We know that dW = E. dl
0 = Edl cos cos 0 90 0 i.e., E dl
Electric field intensity, E is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface i.e., equipotential
surfaces are always perpendicular to field lines. They cannot intersect each other.
Relation between electric field and potential gradient.
Let a positively charged particle q0 be transported from point A to point B in an electric field in such a way
that at each point of the path (arbitrarily chosen) the net force on the charge is zero. The figure show the
electric force on q0 at an arbitrary point in the electric field. Apply an external force F such that the net force
on q0 is zero,
E
B
q0 dl
F qE
F q 0 E
B B
B
work done on the charge by external force WAB
F.dl q 0 E .dl q 0 E.dl
A A A
From the definition of the electric potential difference between two points
WAB
B
VB VA E.dl
q0 A
The line integral of the electric field between two points is the potential difference between them.
Conversely, the potential is a function of x, y and z coordinates. The x, y and z components of the
electric field Ex, Ey and Ez are given by,
34
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
V V V dV
Ex , Ey , Ez E -------(18)
x y z dr
Thus at any point in an electric field, electric field intensity is equal to negative rate of change of
potential with distance at that point. This is called the potential gradient.
Electric Potential Energy
The electric potential energy is the energy possessed by a system of point charges by virtue of their
positions. When two charges are at infinite distance apart, their fields do not extend up to each other.
The electric potential energy of the system is zero. Hence the electric potential energy of a system
of charges is the work done in bringing these charges to their respective positions from infinite separations.
Electric potential energy of a system of two point charges.
Suppose a point charge q1 is held at a point P1 with position vector r1 . Another point charge q2 is at
infinite distance from q1. This is to be brought to the point P2 where the position vector is r2 . P1P2 r12
1 q
Work done in bringing q2 to the point P2 = (potential at P2 due to q1) q2. i.e., W . 1 q2
40 r12
q1
Work done in carrying charge q2 from infinity to P2, W q2
40 r12
This is stored in the system as electric potential energy
q1q 2
U W
4 0 r12 ....................(19)
Electric potential energy of a system of N Point charges
It is equal to the total amount of work done in assembling all the charges at their positions from infinite
mutual separations.
P.E. of a system of four point charges
1 q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3 q1q 4 q 2 q 4 q 3q 4
W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 0
40 r12 r13 r23 r14 r24 r34 ..........(20)
Proceeding in this way we can write PE of N point charges at r1,r2 ,r3 ,.........rN as
1 q jqk
4 0
all pairs
r jk ........(21)
The above expression can be rewritten as
1 1
N N q jqk
4 0 2
j 1 k 1
r jk .............(22)
The factor 1/2 is needed because in the summation we count each pair twice.
For example, when j = 1, k = 2 and j = 2, k = 1. We get contribution from the same pair of charges 1
and 2. As we have to include only one term for each pair, factor 1/2 is a must.
35
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Units of electric potential energy
SI Unit of electric PE is Joule: 1 Joule is the work done in transferring 1 C through a potential difference
1 V. Another convenient unit of energy is electron Volt which is the KE gained or lost by an electron when it
is placed in a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 e V 1.6 10 19 C 1volt 1.6 10 19 J
CAPACITANCE
Conductors, Insulators or dielectrics
A substance which can be used to carry or conduct electric charges from one place to another is called
a conductor.
eg: Ag, Cu, Al ........ In metallic conductors there are a large number of free electrons which act as carriers
of charge.
Insulators are the materials which can’t carry electricity. They are called insulators because they prevent
charge from going to places where it is not desired. Such substances possess a negligibly small number
of free electrons.
Behaviour of conductors in electric fields.
1. Net electric field in the interior of a conductor is zero. Suppose a conductor ABCD is held in an external
electric field of intensity E0 , free electrons in the conductor move from AB to CD. As a result, some net
-ve charge appear on CD and an equal +ve charge appear on AB. These are called induced charges.
They produce an induced electic field EP which opposes the flow of electrons from AB to CD. The flow
therefore stops when EP E0 The net electric field inside the conductor E E0 EP 0
D A
– +
– +
E0 – EP
+ – + –
– +
EP
– +
– +
C B
E0
2. The net charge in the interior of a conductor is zero. We know that according to Gauss’s theorem,
Q
E ds
0
------------(1)
But inside a conductor E = 0. Applying in (1) E can be zero only if Q = 0.
3. Charge always resides on the outer surface of the conductor.
4. Electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
dV
5. Electric potential is constant within and on the surface of a conductor we have E , E=0
dr
ie., dV = 0 V = a constant
6. Surface density of charge is different at different points.Surface density of charge will be maximum at
points where the radius of curvature of the surface is small.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Electrical Capacitance
Electrical capacitance of a conductor is a measure of the ability of the conductor to store charges on it.
When a charge is given to an insulated conductor, the potential rises. As the charge on the conductor
is increased its potential rises. At any state if Q is the charge on the conductor and V its potential it is
found that
Q V or Q CV ---------------(2)
Where C is a constant known as the capacity of the conductor. The value of C depends on size, shape
and material of the conductor.
When Q 1 C, if V 1 volt , then C 1 CV 1 C = 1 F (farad)
Capacity of a conductor is said to be unity (1 farad) if the potential of a conductor raised by 1 volt by
giving a charge of 1C.
Smaller units of capacity are 1 F 10 6 F , 1 F 1 p F = 10-12 F, 1nF = 10–9 F
Capacity of an isolated spherical conductor
+ + +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+q
r +
+ O
+
+ +
+ +
+ + + + +
Suppose O is the centre and r the radius of an isolated spherical conductor, let a charge +q be given to
the sphere.
This charge spreads uniformly over the surface of the sphere. The potential of the sphere is the
same at all points in the sphere.
1 q
Potential, V 4 r 3
0
q
q 1 q
We know that C =
V 4 0 r
C 4 0 r 4
If the sphere is placed inside a dielectric medium of dielectric constant r .
C 4 0 r . r -----------(5)
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Taking earth to be a sphere of radius r = 6400 km = 6.4 106 m
6.4 10 6
We obtain C 4 0 r = 9 10 9 = 0.711 10-3 F = 711 F
Thus the capacity of earth is only 711 F . This shows that farad is too big a unit of capacitance.
The capacitance of an insulated conductor is increased considerably by bringing an earthed conductor
near to it. This is the principle of a Capacitor or Condenser.
Such an arrangement of two conductors separated by a dielectric medium is said to form a capacitor or
condenser.
The capacity of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge Q on the plates to the potential difference between
the plates.
Q
i.e. C ---------------(6)
V
If the plates of the condenser are plane, it is called parallel plate condenser. If the conductor are spherical
it is called spherical capacitor and if the two plates are cylindrical it is called a cylindrical capacitor.
Parallel Plate Capacitor
It consists of two thin conducting plates each of area A held parallel to each other at suitable distance d
apart. The plates are separated by an insulating medium like air, paper, mica etc. One of the plates is
insulated and the other is earth connected.
A B
d
+ +
+ + –
+ + E –
+ + –
+ + –
When a charge +Q is given to the insulated plate, then a charge -Q is induced on the nearer face of the
other plate and +Q is induced on the farther face of the other plate. As this plate is earthed, the charge +Q
being free, flows to the earth.
Due to +Q charge on one plate and -Q charge on the other, an electric field E is set up. When the plates
are separated by air / vacuum, we know that electric field intensity between the plates is
E
0 ----------------(7)
Where is the surface density of charge on either plate. As electric intensity between the plates is uniform,
therefore.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
V
E , Where V is the potential difference between the plates.
d
d Q Q d
V Ed , using (7), As, , therefore V
0 A A 0 --------------(8)
Q Q A
The capacity C of parallel plate capacitor is given by C 0 -------------(9)
V Q d / 0 A d
Note. When plates of capacitor are separated by a dielectric medium of relative permittivity r K,
A r 0 A
Capacity, Cm r C 0 KC 0 i.e., C m KC0 ------------(10)
d d
i.e, capacity becomes K times the capacity with air/vacuum as dielectric.
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant
Faraday observed that when an insulating material is introduced in the space between the charged
plates of a capacitor, its capacitance increase. The factor by which capacitance is multiplied depends on
the nature of the dielectric introduced, and is called relative permittivity r or dielectric constant (K) of the
material. We may write.
Capaci tan ce with dielectric Cm
r or K
Capaci tan ce with air C0
0 A A
Thus C m KC 0 r ----------(11)
d d
Grouping of Capacitors
In many electrical circuits, capacitors are to be grouped suitably to obtain the desired capacitance. Two
most common modes of grouping of condensors are : Series grouping and Parallel grouping.
(a) Capacitors in Series.
The capacitors are said to be connected in series between two points, when we can proceed from one
point to the other only through one path.
+ – + – + –
+Q + – –Q +Q + – –Q +Q + – –Q
+ – + – + –
+ – + – + –
C1 C2 C3
V1 V2 V3
+ V
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Q Q Q
V1 , V2 , V3
C1 C2 C3
If Cs is the total capacitance of the combination, (i.e., capacitance of a single capacitor that would
acquire charge Q when potential difference, across it is terminal is V), then
Q
V As V V1 V2 V3
C
1 1 1 1
Cs C1 C 2 C3 --------------(12)
For n capacitors connected in series, total capacitance would be
n
1 1
Cs i 1 Ci ------------------(13)
(b) Capacitors in parallel
The capacitors are said to be connected in parallel between any two points, if we can proceed from one
point to the other along different paths. Three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, C3 are connected in parallel.
Let V be the potential difference applied across the combination.
+ –
+Q1
+ – –Q1
+ –
+ –
+Q2 + – –Q2
+ –
–
+ –
+Q + – –Q
+Q3 + – –Q3
+ –
+ –
+ V
C p V = C1V + C 2 V + C3 V = C1 + C2 + C3 V
C p = C1 + C 2 + C3 -----------------(14)
In general, when n capacitors are connected in parallel, then
n
Cp Ci ----------------(15)
i 1
Energy Stored in a capacitor
The charging of a capacitor can be visualized by imagining as if some external agent (say, a battery)
pulls electrons from the positive plate of the capacitor and transfer them to the negative plate. In other
words, the battery transfer positive charge from negative to the positive plate. Some work is done in transferring
40
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
this charge, which is stored in the condenser in the form of electrostatic energy. This energy is obtained at
the cost of chemical energy stored in the battery. Suppose the condenser is charged gradually. At any
stage, the charge on the condenser is q.
q
Potential of condenser
C
q
Small amount of work done in giving an additional charge dq is dW dq
C
Total work done in giving a charge Q to the condenser
q Q
q 1 q 2 q Q 1 Q2
W C C 2 q 0 C 2 = Energy stored.
q 0
dq
1 CV 1
2
1
Put Q CV U CV 2 Put CV Q U QV
2 C 2 2
1 Q2 1 1
Hence U CV 2 QV -------------(16)
2 C 2 2
When Q is in coulomb, V is in volt, C in farad, Energy U is in joule.
Energy Density in a parallel plate capacitor
Energy density (u) is defined as the total energy stored per unit volume of the condenser.
1
CV 2 0 A
total energy(U) 2
i.e., u , using C and V Ed , we get
volume (v) Ad d
1 A E2 d2 1
u 0 0 E -------------------(17)
2
2 d Ad 2
Here, E is the strength of electric field in the space between the plates of the capacitor.
Loss of energy on sharing charges
When charges are shared between two bodies, no charge is lost. However, some energy is dissipated
in the form of heat etc. Hence some energy is lost on sharing charges. To calculate the loss of energy,
suppose two capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 charged respectively to potentials V1, V2 are connected
together and their charges are shared. The charge flows from one capacitor at higher potential to the other
at lower potential till their potentials become equal.
C1V1 C 2 V2
The common potential reached is given by V
C1 C 2
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
1 1
Total energy before sharing charges E1 C1V12 C 2 V22
2 2
1
Total energy after sharing charges E 2 C1 C2 V 2
2
C1 C2 V1 V2
2
Then the loss of energy E E1 E 2 -------(18), which is positive
2 C1 C2
i.e, E1 E 2 0 or E1 E 2
This proves that total energy after contact is somewhat less than total energy before contact. Hence
there occurs a loss of energy = E1 E 2 on sharing charges. This loss of energy appears in the form of
sparking and heat produced in the connecting wire.
Non polar and polar dielectrics
Dielectrics are insulating materials which transmit electric effects without conducting. We know that in
every atom, there is a positively charged nucleus and a negatively charged electron cloud surrounding it.
The two oppositely charged regions have their own centres of charge. The centre of positive charge is the
centre of mass of positively charged protons in the nucleus. The centre of negative charge is the centre of
mass of negatively charged electrons in the atom / molecules. Dielectrics are of types: Non polar dielectrics
and Polar Dielectrics.
Non-polar dielectrics like nitrogen, oxygen, benzene, methane etc. are made of non-polar atoms /
molecules. In such molecules, the centre of positive charge coincides with the centre of negative charge in
the molecule. Each molecule has zero dipole moment in its normal state. Each of these molecules is
symmetric.
+
– – +
E0 = 0 E0
Polar dielectrics like water, alcohol, CO2,NH3, HCl etc. are made of polar atoms / molecules. In such
molecules, the centers of positive and negative charges do not coincide because of the asymmetric shape
of the molecules. Therefore, each molecule has some dipole moment.
Dielectric polarisation
When a non-polar dielectric is held in an external electric field E0 , the centre of positive charge (protons)
in each molecule is pulled in the direction of E0 and the centre of negative charge is pulled in a direction
opposite to E0 . Therefore, the two centres of positive and negative charges in the molecule are separated.
The molecule gets distorted, (see the Fig.) and is said to be polarised or a tiny dipole moment is imparted to
each molecule.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Induced dipole moment p acquired by the molecule may be written as
p 0 E0 --------------(19)
where is a constant of proportion and is called atomic / molecular polarizability..
From (19), we can write the dimensions of
dimensions of p Cm
dimensions of 0 dimensions of E 0
= C 2 N 1 m 2
N C = m
1 3
--------(20)
is the vector displacement
Suppose all atoms are uniformly polarized in the direction of E 0 and x
between the centers of the charges in the atom. Dipole moment of each atom p qx . If N is the number
of atoms per unit volume, then dipole moment per unit volume = total dipole moment density.
P Np or P Nqx
This dipole moment density P is called electric polarization.
The units of P are C.m.m-3 = C.m–2
Electric susceptibility. It is found that the electric polarization P is directly proportional to E
i.e. P E or P 0 E -----------------(21)
Where is a constant, called the electric susceptibility of the dielectric.
K 1 ------------(22)
This is the relation between dielectric constant and electrical susceptibility of the material.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
QUESTIONS
Single correct option 5. Two point charges of 3 × 10–8 C and –2 × 10–8 C are
located 15cm apart. At what point on the line joining
1. Two charges each q are placed at the corners of an the two charges is the electrical potential is zero,
equilateral triangle of side d. The potential at the other from 3 × 10–8C?
corner is:
1) 9 cm 2) 6 cm
q 2 q 2
1) 4 d 2) 3) 7.5 cm 4) 5 cm
0 4 0 d 2
6. Three metallic concentric shells A, B and C of radii
q q a, b and c(a < b < c) have surface charge densities
3) 2 d 4) 2 d 2 , and respectively. Then potential of A is:
0 0
2. A lightning flash may transfer upto 30 C through a
potential difference of 2 108 V. The energy involved 1) a b c
0
2 2 2
0
2
e
2) c b a
2
j
is :
1) 5.6 1022 MeV 2) 3.6 1026 MeV b
3) a b c
0
g
4) a b c
0
3) 2.6 1032 MeV 4) 3.75 1022 MeV
3. A hollow sphere of radius r is put inside another 7. In the electric field of a point charge q shown, a
hollow sphere of radius R. The charges on the two charge is carried from A to B and from A to C. The
are +Q and -q as shown in the fig. A point P is located work done is:
at a distance x from the common centre such that
r < x < R. The potential at the point P is:
1) Greater along the path AC than along AB
2) Same in both cases
1 FG
Qq IJ 1 Q qFG
2) 4 R r
IJ
1) 4
0 H
x K 0 H K 3) Greater along the path AB than along AC
4) Zero is both cases
1 FG Q q IJ 1 FG 1 Q IJ 8. The electric potential V as function of distance ‘x’
3) 4 R x
H K 4) 4 4 . x
H K
0 0 0 in metres is given by V = (5x2 + 10x – 9)V. The
value of the electric field at x = 1m would be:
4. A hollow metal sphere of radius 5 cm is charged
such that the potential on its surface is 10 V. The 1) 20 V/m 2) 6 V/m
potential at the centre of the sphere is:
3) 11 V/m 4) –20 V/m
1) Zero
9. Eight charged water drops each with a radius of 1mm
2) 10V and a charge of 10–10C merge into a single drop.
The potential of this single drop is:
3) Same as at a point 5 cm away from the surface
1) 100 V 2) 3600V
4) Same as at a point 25 cm away from the surface
3) 8000V 4) 36V
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
10. Two conducting spheres of radii R1 and R2 are 16. The electric intensity at a point at a distance 2m from
charged to the same potential. The ratio of their a charge q is E. The amount of work done is bringing
charges is: a charge of 2C from infinity to this point will be:
1) 2 E J 2) 4 E J
R 12 R22 R1 R2
1) 2) 3) R 4) R 3) (E/2) J 4) (E/4) J
R22 R 12 2 1
17. Two positive point charges 12 and 8 microcoulombs
11. The electric field strength at a distance r from the
respectively are placed 10 cm apart in air. The work
centre of a charged sphere of radius R is E. If r > R,
done to bring them 4cm closer is :
how much work will be done in bring in a test charge
q0 from infinity to that point: 1) zero 2) 3.8 J
1) q0 RE 2) (1/2) q0 RE 3) 4.8 J 4) 12.96 J
3) q0 rE 4) (1/2) rE 18. The given capacitor A has a charge q, whereas B is
uncharged. The charge appearing on the capacitor
12. A soap bubble is charged to a potential of 16 V. Its
B long time after the switch S is closed:
radius is then doubled the potential of the bubble now
will be:
1) 16 V 2) 8 V 3) 4 V 4) 2 V
13. An electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated
from rest through a potential difference V in vacuum.
Its final kinetic energy is EK and speed is . We
have: 1) zero 2) q/2 3) q 4) q/4
19. An electron and a proton are accelerated by the same
2eV
1)
1/2
L eV O
2) M P
1/ 2
potential difference, from rest. Then
m NmQ 1) electron gain more KE
3) EK= eV 4) Both 1 and 3 2) proton gain more KE
14. Figure shows 3 sets of cross - sections of 3) proton will gain more speed
equipotential surfaces; all three cover the same size
region of space. In which of these electric field 4) electron and proton gain same KE
maximum and directed down the page: 20. When a dielectric of dielectric constant K is
introduced between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor, the field at a point between the plates :
1) increases
2) remains the same
3) becomes K times E
1) 1, 2 2) 3, 1 3) 2, 1 4) 1, 3
4) becomes E/K
15. A charge Q is distributed over two concentric hollow
spheres of radii r and R( > r) such that the surface 21. In the following circuit, the effective capacitance
densities are equal. The potential at the common between A and B (figure) is:
centre is:
Q( R 2 r 2 ) Q
1) 4 ( R r ) 2)
0 Rr
Q( R r )
3) Zero 4) 4 ( R 2 r 2 ) 1) C 2) C/3 3) 2C 4) C/2
0
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
22. In the network of capacitors (figure), the effective 26. A circuit is shown in figure. The charge of the
capacitance between X and Y is: condenser having capacity 5 F is:
1) 4.5 micro coulomb 2) 9 micro coulomb
1) 3 C 2) 6 C 3) 7 micro coulomb 4) 30 micro coulomb
3) 12 C 4) 18 C 27. Four metallic plates each with a surface area of one
23. In the network of capacitors (figure) , the effective side A are placed at a distance d from each other as
capacitance between p and q is: shown in figure. The capacitance of the system is:
1) 4C 2) 3C/4 0A 2 0A 3 0 A 4 0A
1) 2) 3) 4)
d d d d
3) 6C 4) 3C/2
24. In figure, the effective capacitance between A and 28. The energy required to charge a capacitor of 5 F
B is: to 20 kV is:
1) 1 kJ 2) 10 kJ 3) 100 kJ 4) 5 kJ
29. A capacitor is charged by a battery. The ratio of the
energy stored and the energy drawn from the battery
is:
1) 1 : 1 2) 1 : 2 3) 2 : 1 4) 4 : 1
30. The force with which the plates of a parallel plate
1) 1.5 C 2) 2 C
capacitor having charge Q and area of each plate A,
3) 3 C 4) 6 C attract each other is :
25. The equivalent capacity of the arrangement shown 1) directly proportional to Q
in figure between points A and B is:
2) directly proportional to A
3) inversely proportional to A
4) inversely proportional to A2
31. A parallel plate capacitor of charge ‘Q’ has a plate
area ‘A’ and surface charge density ‘ ’. If E is the
electric field between the plates, the magnitude of
FG 2 IJ
2) 2 3 F
force on each plate equal to :
1) 4 F H K 1 2Q
1) QE 2)
2 E
FG 18 IJ
3) 23 F
29
H K 4)
6
F
3)
1
QE 2 4)
1
EQ 2
2 2
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
32. A parallel plate capacitor is charged and the charging 35. The plates of a capacitor are separated by 5 mm,
battery is then disconnected. If the plates of the and they are connected to a battery of 100 V. The
capacitors are moved further apart by means of force on an electron located between the plates is:
insulating handles, then which of the following are
1) 1.6 10–19 N
correct :
2) 3.2 10–19 N
(i) The charge on the capacitor increases
3) 1.6 10–15 N
(ii) The voltage across the plate increases 4) 3.2 10–15 N
(iii) The capacitance increases 36. Two capacitors of capacitance 4 F , and 6 F are
connected across a 120 V battery in series with each
(iv) The energy of the capacitor increases other. The p.d. across the 4 F capacitor is:
1) i and ii 2) ii and iii 1) 40 V 2) 48 V 3) 60 V 4) 72 V
3) ii and iv 4) iv only 37. Six equal capacitors each of capacitance C are
connected as shown in figure. Then the equivalent
33. Two slabs of the same dimensions having dielectric capacitance between points A and B is:
constants K 1 and K 2 completely fill the space
between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor as
shown in figure. If C is the original capacitance of
the capacitor, the new capacitance is :
1) 6 C 2) C 3) 2 C 4) C/2
38. A parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric constant
K charged to a potential V1 is connected to a similar
uncharged air filled parallel plate capacitor. The
common potential is V2. The value of K is:
K1 K 2 C 2K1K 2 V2 bV V g
1) 2) C 1 2
2 K1 K 2 1b
1) V V
2 g 2) V2
KK
3) K1 K 2 C 4) 1 2 C
K1 K 2 V1
b
3) V V
1 2 g b
4) V1 V2 V1 g
34. An air capacitor has capacitance C. If 1/3 of the 39. The effective capacitance between A and B is:
space is filled with dielectric of dielectric constant K
as in figure, the new capacitance will be :
5 1 LM 3 1 OP
C
1) 2 C
1)
K
C 2)
K 3
C
2)
MN 2 PQ
2 2
K 1 C K 1 LM 5 1 OP L 3 1O
4) M PC
3) 4) C C
2 3 3)
MN 2 PQ MN 2 PQ
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
40. The effective capacitance between X and Y is: Statement
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
43. Statement I : Electric potential of earth is take as
7 8 zero.
1) F 2) F
6 3 Statement II : Electric field strength on the surface
of earth is zero.
5 44. Statement I : In a capacitor, as plates carry equal
3) F 4) 2 F
6 and opposite charges, there is a
force of attraction between the
Assertion - Reason plates.
Statement II : When equal charges are given to two
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the spheres, the potential of smaller
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion sphere will be less and hence charge
will flow from larger sphere to
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the smaller sphere when they are
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion connected.
Match the following
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
45. Two capacitors having capacitance C1 and C2 are
4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true connected in series and a potential difference V
is applied across them. Then:
41. Assertion : For practical purposes, the earth is
used as a reference at zero potential
in electrical circuits.
Reason : The electrical potential of a sphere
of radius R with charge Q uniformly
distributed on the surface is given
Match the entries in Column-I with Column-II.
Q
by 4 R
0
Column I Column II
A) V1 < V2 p) C1 < C2
42. Assertion : As separation between the plates of
a charged parallel plate capacitor is B) U1 < U2 q) C1 > C2
increased, while the capacitor is in a C) V1 r) C1 V / (C1 + C2)
disconnected state from the battery,
D) V2 s) C2 V / (C1 + C2 )
electric energy stored in the
capacitor increases.
1) A - p; B - q; C - r; D - s
Reason : Work is performed against the 2) A - q; B - q; C - r; D - s
electric attractive force between the
3) A - q; B - s; C - p; D - p
two plates.
4) A - r; B - q; C - q; D - s
48
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Integer 48. A sphere of 2 cm radius is suspended within a
hollow sphere of radius 4 cm. The inner sphere
46. A parallel plate capacitor is maintained at a certain is earthed and the outer sphere is charged to a
potential difference. When a 3 mm thick slab is potential of 3 esu. The charge on the system in
introduced between the plates, in order to maintain esu is
the same potential difference, the distance
49. Three capacitors of 2F, 5F and 4F are
between the plates is increased by 2.4 mm. Find
connected in series to a source of 190 V. The
the dielectric constant of the slab?
potential difference across the second capacitor
47. Two metal plates form a parallel plate capacitor. in volt is
The distance between the plates is d. A metal 50. Two capacitors (uncharged) of 2F and 3F are
plate of thickness b(= d/2) and same area is connected in series. A battery of 10 V is
inserted completely between the plates. What is connected across the second capacitor. The
the ratio of the capacitance in the two cases? charge on the first capacitor in C is
49
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
KEY WITH HINTS
1. 3
5. 1
1 3 108 1 2 108
0
40 x 40 0.15 x
x 0.09 m
1 q q
V1 , V2 1/ 4 0 a b c
4 0 d d 6. 3 V V1 V2 V3
0 0 0
q 7. 2 Here q is located in the centre of the sphere
V V1 V2
2 0 d VB = VC . WAB = WAC
8. 4 V = (5x2 + 10x – 9)
2. 4 Energy qV 30 2 108 60 108 J
dV
E 10x 10 10 1 10 20V / m
60 10 8 dx
19
eV 375 1026 eV
1.6 10 9. 2 Volume of bigger drop = n × volume of one
4 3 4
375 1020 MeV 3.75 102 MeV smaller drop R n r 3
3 3
R = n1/3r; Q = nq
3. 3
1 1
V1 Q / R n2/3 q/r
4 0 4 0
point P lies out side the inner sphere hence 2 9 109 1010
potential at P due to inner sphere is given by V1 8 3 3600V
1 103
1 q
V1 1 Q1 1 Q 2 Q1 R 1
4 0 x . P lies inside the outer sphere 10. 3
4 0 R1 4 0 R 2 ; Q 2 R 2
potential at P due to outer sphere
11. 3 potential energy = q0V = q0 rE
1 Q
V2 V 1
4 0 R ; 12. 2 r
13. 4 From work-energy theorem in mechanics, the
1 Q q kinetic energy gain (EK) = ½mv2 = eV. Hence
V V1 V2 R x
4 0 the speed of the particle is v = (2eV/m)1/2
4. 2 Potential on the surface of a charged hollow dV
14. 4 E ; E is perpendicular to the equipotential
sphere = potential at the centre of the sphere dr
surface and is directed from higher potential to
but electric field inside the sphere is zero lower.
50
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
15. 4 Q q 1 q 2 and 1 2 ; 23. 2
q1 q2 q1 r2
2
2
or 2 Capacitors 4 and 5 are short circuited.
4 r 4 R q2 R
Qr 2 QR 2
q1 & q2 ;
er 2
R2 j er 2
R2 j charge in 4 and 5 = 0
V V1 V2
1 FG
q1 q 2
IJ
4 0 rH R K =>
16. 2 Potential energy = charge electric potential
= 2C × E × d = 2 × E × 2 = 4 EJ 24. 1
17. 4 Work done = change in electrostatic potential
energy
1 q1q 2 q1q 2
Workdone
4 0 r2 r1
1 1
9 109 12 8 10 12 2
2
4 10 10 10
3C 3C 3C
CAB = 3C series 3C = 1.5C
W = 12.96 J 3C 3C 2
18. 1 The charge on capasitor A are locked due to
mutual attraction 25. 1
19. 4 KE qV
q same for both electron and proton
20. 4 E1 = E k
21. 2 C and C/2 are in series. 4 2
C AB 2 4F
3 3
C x C/2
The C eff C/3
3C / 2
22. 3
26. 2
Cxy = (6C) 11 (6C) = 12C
51
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
total voltage across upper branch is 6V
Q2
30. 3 F ,F 1/ A
2k0A
q2
31. 1 Force on eaach plate 2A
0
1 q 1 1
q q .qE
2 A0 2 0 2
use voltage devision formula in series combination
32. 3 If charging battery is disconnected than charge
V 6V, C1 3F, C2 2 5 7F on the capacitor remains constant. If plates are
moved further apart then d increases. Hence
VC1 6 3 18
V2 V A o
C1 C2 3 7 10
capacitance decreases C
d
18 voltage increases V = Ed
charge in 5 F capacitor = 5F V 9C
10 energy increases [V = Q2/2C]
27. 3 K1A 0 K A A
33. 1 C1 , C 2 2 0 , C= 0
2d 2d d
34. 4 Combination is parallel.
0 A 2 K
C C1 C 2
d 3 3
eV
35. 4 F eE
d
p.d across first capcitor V1 = VA – VB
1.6 1019 100
p. d across second capacitor V2 = VB – VA 3.2 1015 N
5 103
p. d across third capacitor V3 = VA – VB
here |V1| = |V2| = |V3|. VC 2 120 6
36. 4 V1 72V
C1 C2 46
hence C1 . C2 and C3 are in parallel combination
3 0 A
hence CAB = C1 || C2 || C3 = 3C = 37. 3
d
1 1
V C v 2 5 106 20 103
2
28. 1
2 2
= 1000J 1kJ C1 C5
C 2 C 4 ; hence charge in C3 is zero
29. 2
Energy drawn from the cell = V1 = QV
Energy stored in the capacitor (V2) = 1/2 QV C C
CAB || ||C 2C
V2/V1 = 1 : 2 2 2
52
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
38. 1 Common potential (V2) 46. 5 As here with introduction of slab or with change
in separation, potential difference between the
C A VA C B VB plates is changed, the charged capacitor is
=
CA CB isolated, i.e., q = q'.
So, C0V0 = CV [as q = CV]
CA KC, VA V1
or C0 = C [as V = V0 given]
CB = C, VB = 0 Now as with introduction of dielectric slab the
hence K = V2/(V1 – V2) capacity increases from
39. 4 0 A 0 A
C0 to C1
d d t t / K
but by increasing d to (d + 0.24 cm) the capacity
C1 becomes
0 A
C
If CAB = x d 0.24 t t / K
So, from C0 = C, we have
d d 0.24 t t / K
t 0.30
or K 5
t 0.24 0.30 0.24
1 1 1 1 47. 2 Before the introduction of the slab the capacity
1 of the system
C AB x C C Cx
q q
C0 [as E = (V/d)]
3 1 V Ed
on solving C AB C
2
A A
or C0 / d d ------ (i)
0
40. 2 0
as q A and E
0
When the metal slab of thickness b is introduced
between the plates, the system becomes equal
to two capacitors C1 and C2 in series (as metal
slab is an equipotential surface) as shown in
figure.
2 1 8
C xy 2 F
2 1 3
41. 1
42. 1
43. 3
44. 3
45. 2
53
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
So, the capacity C of the system now becomes 49.
1 1 1 1 d b y y
, i.e.,
C C1 C 2 C 0 A 0 A
0 A
as C d
here 2F and 4F capacitors are in series
d b combination hence they can be replaced by
1 A
or C A ; i.e., C
0
----- (ii) 2 4 4
0 d b F capacitor
But as here b = (d/2) 24 3
0 A A C
C 2 0 2C0 , i.e., 2
d / 2 d C0
48.
To find the p.d across 5F capacitor, Apply voltage
division formula in series combination
4 0 b 2 VC1 190 4 / 3
C V2 40V
ba C1 C 2 4
5
3
But in CGS system 4 0 1
50.
2 2
b 4
hence C 8 stat farad
ba 42
Q C V 8 3 = 24 esu of charge
charge in 2F capacitor is zero because p.d acorss
that capacitor is zero.
54
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CHAPTER - 03
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
The rate of flow of charge is called electric current.
Materials of different electrical properties
Materials can be generally classified into conductor and insulator based on their conductivity of
electricity.
Conductors are materials in which electric charges readily flow. Metals are conductors of electricity. In
metals each atom gives up one or more of its outer or valence electrons to conduct electricity.
In an insulator the electrons are bound tightly to the atoms and are not free to move under the electric
fields applied under ordinary circumstances.
Semi conductors are materials having conductivity intermediate between insulator and conductor. In
semi conductors 1 atom in 1012 atoms may contribute an electron to the flow of electricity in the material.
While in a conductor every atom may contribute an electron to the flow of electricity.
Good conductors such as copper silver, gold etc exhibit a small non zero resistance to the flow of
electricity.
A conductor in an electric field
Consider a large rectangular slab of a conductor such as copper placed in a uniform electric field E0
E0
The electric field E 0 , exerts a force F = eE 0 on the electrons, which causes the electrons to move
opposite to the direction of the field. These electrons moving to the top of the copper, leave a deficiency of
electrons (positive charge) on the bottom surface. This movement continues until the concentration of the
electron at the top of the slab and positive ions at the bottom creats a field that cancels the applied field in the
interior of copper and prevents the additional flow of electrons. Imagine a mechanism where the ends of the
slab are supplied with fresh charges to makeup for any charges neutralised by electrons moving inside the
conductor. In that case there will be a steady current in the conductor.
55
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Electric Current
The continuous flow of electrons or charged particles in a circuit is called an electric current.
Consider a charge dq pass through a conductor of cross sectional area A in a time dt. The electric
dq
current is defined as the net charge that flows through the conductor in unit time interval, i =
dt
There will be an electric current when there is a net flow of electric charges across the surface.
The direction of electric current is taken as the direction of flow of positive charge. The current is
1C
considered to be a scalar eventhough it has a direction. The unit of current is Ampere, 1 amp =
1s
q
If a constant current passes through a surface i =
t
i
A
The net charge passing through any surface is determined by integrating the current q = idt
The current density j or current for unit area has a magnitude j = i A . Current density is a vector
quantity, the direction of j is the direction of positive charge
electrons
A
i
j
Since the electrons are moving upward the direction of j is downward, ie the electrons move in the direction
of j
Ohm’s Law
A basic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in 1828, long before the physical
mechanism responsible for flow of currents was discovered. Imagine a conductor through which a current
I is flowing and let V be the potential difference between the ends of the conductor. Then Ohm’s law states
that
V I or V RI
where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor. The SI units of resistance
is ohm, and is denoted by the symbol . The resistance R not only depends on the material of the conductor
but also on the dimensions of the conductor.
The resistance is proportional to length R
56
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area R
A
Combining the above relations R or R , where the constasnt of proportionality
A A
depends on the material of the conductor but not on its dimensions. is called the resistivity..
I
From Ohm’s law V IR
A
E
E j or E j or j E ------ (1)
where is called the conductivity..
Drift of electrons and origin of resistivity.
As the electrons move in a conductor, having an electric field E , a force F eE , is exerted on the
electron. During their motion electrons collide with ions of the lattice and transfer energy to them. Due to
this, the motion of electrons are irregular, having collision with ions, and accelerated in directions opposite to
the direction of electric field in between collisions and so on. The net effect is a drift of electrons in a direction
opposite to the field. There is no net acceleration of electrons since they lose energy in collisions with ions
of the lattice. On an average electrons are moving with a constant drift velocity vd , in a direction opposite to
the direction of the field.
Consider the motion of electrons in a conductor of length L; Let vd is the drift velocity of electrons, so
L
that they travel the length L in time t. then t =
vd
i
L
A
E
j
The area of cross section of the conductor is A, so in a time t, all the electrons in a volume AL will flow
through the surface. If n is the number density of electrons, then the magnitude of the net charge passing
q neAL
through the surface is q = neAL, and current density j nevd
At AL
vd
j nevd , the negative sign indicates the direction of current density is opposite to the motion of
electrons.
NOTE:
When the electron is moving in an electric field experiences a force of F eE , the relaxation time,
vd eE
(time between collision). Then the acceleration produced in the electrons will be
m
57
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
eE
vd i --------(2), j = nevd --------(3)
m
eE ne Ei ne
2 2
j ne i E
m m m
ne 2
j E , comparing the two, is the conductivity
m
1 m
then resistivity, 2 --------(4)
ne
Let be the mean free path, ie the average distance travelled by electrons between collisions, v
ne2 mv
Substituting in the above equation. and
mv ne 2
Mobility
As we have seen, conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In metals, these mobile charge carriers
are electrons; in an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions; in an electrolyte, these can
be both positive and negative ions. The mobility defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit
electric field:
| vd |
E
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is 104 of the mobility in practical units (cm2/Vs). Mobility is
positive. From Eq. (2), we have
eE
vd
m
v d e
Hence, , where is the average collision time for electrons.
E m
Derivation of Ohm’s law
eE V V
vd E ; vd e
m L mL
I I eV
I = nAe vd vd ; vd
nAe nAe ml
ne 2 A V I ne 2 A 1
I ;
ml V ml R
ml m l m l
R 2 ; 2 R
ne A ne A
2
ne A
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law has been found valid over a large class of materials, there do exist materials and devices
used in electric circuits where the proportionality of V and I does not hold. The deviations broadly are one or
more of the following types.
(a) V ceases to be proportional to I.
(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. If I is the current for a certain V, then reversing
the direciton of V keeping its magnitude fixed, does not produce a current of the same magnitude as
I in the opposite direction.
(c) The relation between V and I is not unique. i.e., there is more than one value of V for the same current
I. Materials and devices not obeying Ohm’s law are actually widely used in electronic circuits.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Variation of Resistance with temperature
The vibrational energy of the lattice increases with temperature and the atoms are moving more
rapidly through the medium. So the interference in the flow of electrons are increased. Due to this the
resistivity of the metal increases with temperature almost linearly. The resistivity at any temperature T is
0 1 T T0
where is the mean temperature coefft. of resistivity 0 is the resistivity at a temperature T0.
1 0 1
Slope = o ;
T 0 T T0 0 T
T T
Since resistance is proportional to resistivity, we have
R R 0 1 T T0 -------(5)
Series combinations
1 V2
In series combination same current passes through all of them R ; R
W W
1
When I is constant V R ; PR; P I2 R ; PVR ------- (8)
W
In series combination bulb of greater wattage will give less brightness and will have a smaller resistance
and smaller P.D. across it.
Combination of Resistances
Resistances in series - voltage divider
R1 R2 R3
V1 V2 V3
I
If resistances are connected such that the current flowing through them is the same, (I) then they are
connected in series as shown.
P.D. across each of them will be, V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3) = IR where R = R1 + R2 + R3 --------(9)
V VR1 VR 2 VR 3
Also I R R R , V1
R1 R 2 R 3
V2
R1 R 2 R 3
V3
R1 R 2 R 3
1 2 3
V
For n identical resistors connected in series then Req = nR, the P.D. across each resistance is V
1
.
n
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Resistors in parallel
V
I1 R1
I I2 R2 I
A B
I3 R3
The resistances are connected between the same two points such that the P.D. across each resistance
is the same, V, then the resistances are in parallel.
1 1 1
then, V = i1R1, V = i2R2, V = i3R3; i i1 i1 i3 V R R R
1 2 3
V
Also by ohms law i , where R is the equivalent resistance between A & B,
R
1 1 1 1
R R1 R 2 R 3 -------(10)
Thus circuit divides the current.
For two resistances; I = I1 + I2 , I2 = I – I1
R2
I1R 1 I 2 R 2 , I I1 R 2 I1R 1 , I1 I
R1 R 2
I1 R1
R2
I2
Resistance of opposite branch
Current through any resistance is i I total -------(11)
1)
Sum of the Resistances
R 1R 2 R 3
For three resistance in parallel Req = R R R R R R
1 2 2 3 1 3
R 2R 3 R 1R 3 R 1R 2
I1 = I R R R R R R ; I2 = I R R R R R R ; I3 = I R R R R R R
1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
I1 R1
I I2 R2 I
I3 R3
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Electric Power
The energy transformed when an infinitesimal charge dq moves through a P.D. V is, dU = Vdq.
dU dq
The rate at which energy is transferred is power P V IV I IR I2 R
dt dt
V V2
P V ; The SI unit of power is Watt. (1 W = 1 J/S)
R R
The total energy consumed is its power consumption multiplied by the time it work, The practical unit
of electrical energy is kWh. (kilowatt - hour). one kwh = (1000) (3600) = 3.60 × 106 J
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
In a real source when a charge is moving through it, encounters a resistance. Due to this the potential
difference across a cell is different from its emf. We can call this as the internal resistance of the
source. This resistance behaves according to Ohm’s law, and it will be a constant and independant of
the current I, when current passes through r, a potential equal to Ir is dropped across this.
Then the P.D. between the terminals of the source is V = E – Ir
EMF is independant of the resistance of the circuit and depends on the electrolyte of the cell. P.D.
depends on the resistance between the two points of the circuit and the current flowing through the
circuit.
R
i
r
+ –
The emf of a battery can be measured by connecting a high resistance voltmeter across its terminals,
without connecting to any external circuits.
V
– +
,r
V
A R I
()
A voltmeter connected across battery measures its terminal P.D, V and an ammeter connected can
measure the current in the circuit, I. A graph between V & I can be drawn for various values of R.
slope = –r
O I
The y intercept of the graph gives the emf E, and its slope gives internal resistance r. Thus the emf of
the battery is its terminal P.D. when the current in the circuit is zero.
The general relations connecting terminal P.D. and emf of the battery is V = E – Ir ----- (12)
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
But at the time of charging a battery the current flows in the battery in the opposite direction. So in the
above equations I is to be replaced by (–I). So V = E + Ir. ie, at the time of charging the terminal P.D.
goes above the emf of the cell. But at the time of discharging the terminal P.D. is equal to or less than
the emf.
Energy from a battery
If the charges are flowing such that the direction of current is same as that of emf (ie, battery discharging),
the electrical potential energy of the charge carrier increases. If Q is the amount of charge flowing
through a battery in a time t, the change in electrical PE of the carriers is U = VQ.
U
Where V is the terminal P.D. The rate at which the charge carrier gain electrical PE is , and this
t
U Q
can be called the power output Po. P0 V VI
t t
For a discharging battery the terminal PD, V = E – Ir; P0 I E Ir EI I 2 r
EI is the power expended by the battery. I2r is the power dissipated in the battery due to internal
resistance. So the power output of the battery is equal to power expended by the battery minus power
dissipated by the battery. P0 P Pr
For a charging battery the current is against the direction of emf. V E Ir
So power input Pi IV I E Ir ; Pi EI I 2 r
The power input to the battery is equal to the rate at which the carrier lose electrical potential energy in
passing through a battery. The term EI represents the power delivered to the emf of the battery by the
charge carries.
E = I (R + r)
E
Internal resistance r 1 R -------(13)
V
Combination of cells
Series combination
E1 E2 E3 ...................En
.......
r1 r2 r3 rn
I
In series connections negative of each cell is connected to positive of next cell. In that case, the
E1 E 2 .....E n
current through the circuit I
r1 r2 ......rn R
Eeq = E1 E 2 E 3 ...........E n ; req = r1 + r2 + r3 .............. rn + R
If n cells of equal emf E and equal internal resistance r, are connected in series through a resistance
R1 then
nE nE E
I ; E eq nE ; req nr ; If R << nr, then I
nr R nr r
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Parallel combination
E
r I/m
E
r I/m
E
r I/m
E
r
I/m
I
R
For parallel connections, let there are m branches and the positive of each cell is connected to a point
I E
then for a loop. IR rE 0; I
m r
R
m
r E eq r E eq r mE
req ; I' ; I I ', so E eq E ; If R , I ; If R , I
m R r eq m R m r
Equivalent EMF
When two cells of different emf are connected in parallel.
El rl Il
E2 r2 I2
R
I
E1 IR
I I1 I 2 ; E1 IR I1r1 0 ; I1
r1
E 2 IR E E 1 1 1 1 1 r2 r1
Also I 2 ; I 1 2 IR ; req
r2 r1 r2 r1 r2 req r1 r2 ; r1 r2
Eeq req
R
1
E E 1 1 E1r2 E 2 r1
I R re q E r r r r
1 2
eq
1 2 1 2
r1 r2 --------(14)
1
E 1
For n cells, E eq
r r
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Mixed combination of cells
E r E r E r E r
.......
E r E r E r
.................
E r E r E r
.................
I .................
E r E r E r
R
For a circuit containing n-cells in series with each of emf E and internal resistance r connected as
nE n
shown. There are m such rows. Then current in circuit = I nr ;
E eq nE ; req r
R m
m
2
nE
P R
Power transferred to the load
R nr
m
nr n 2 E2 m2 E 2 R
Power is maximum when R ; Pmax
m 4R 4r 2
KIRCHOFFS RULES
There are two laws given by Kirchoffs for analysing circuit for its current and P.D.
First law (Junction Rule)
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero or
sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. i 0
i5
i1
i4
i2 i3
i1 i 2 i 3 i 4 i 5 . This law is based on conservations of charge
Second law (Loop rule)
In any closed circuit the algebraic sum of the potential differences and emf is zero. E IR 0 This
law is based on conservation of energy.
R1 R2
I
E I R1 R 2 R 3
E I
R3
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
r1 E1
R2 I R1 I
E2
r2
E1 E 2
E1 Ir1 E 2 Ir2 IR1 IR 2 0 ; E1 E 2 I r1 r2 I R 1 R 2 ; I
r1 r2 R1 R 2
WHEATSTONES BRIDGE
A network of four resistors connected with a battery and a galvanometer. On opposite corners of the
resistance network form a Wheatstones bridge
B
P Q
ig i1 – ig
i1
A G C
R S
i2 i2+ig
D
()
From the fig. i1P i g G i 2 R 0 ; i1 ig Q i 2 i g S i g G 0
Where G is the galvanometer resistance. When the bridge is balanced the current through the
galvanometer is zero.
i1P i 2 R 0 ............ (15); i1Q i 2S 0 ......(16)
15 P R
16 Q S
A simple form of Wheatstones bridge is called metre bridge.
E K
()
P Q
C
D
A B
l1 G
l2
The four arms of the bridge are formed by the resistance of P, Q and resistance of wire AD and
resistance of the wire BD.
When the galvanometer shows zero deflection, the bridge is balanced. r is the resistance/unit length
of the wire.
P ll r ll l l1
; then P Q 1 Q
Q l2 r l 2 l2 100 l1
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Maximum power transfer
When a cell of emf E and internal resistance r connected in series to a load resistance R
E r
E2
P I2 R R ; When dP 0 , power is maximum
R r
2
dR
R r 2R. R r
2
E2 0; r R 2R or r = R
R r
4
ie, Maximum power is transferred when internal resistance equals external resistance.
Electric fuses
A fuse is a metallic conducting wire of 75% lead 25% Tin with low melting point and higher resistance
in series with an appliance or circuit. It is a safety device that protects the appliances from getting
damaged. When high current or current above the allowed level flows, the fuse wire gets heated and
melts, thus the circuit is broken.
Fuse
r
In long distance power transmission, the voltage is increased to a high value and the current is reduced.
During transmission the heat generated is I2R. Po is the power transmitted then P0 = VI
P02 1
So power loss = 2
. R . P0 and R are constants for a power line, then power loss is prop to 2 . If
V V
power is transmitted at high voltage, the power loss will be smaller.
High electric power instruments have low resistance compared to low electric power instruments for
V2 1
a given voltage P , P .
R R
67
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
QUESTIONS
Single correct option 8. 2, 4 and 6 S are the conductances of three
conductors. When they are joined in series, their
1. The diameter of aluminium wire is reduced to half equivalent conductance will be:
its original value; then its resistance will become:
1) 12 S 2) (1/12)S
1) Four times 2) Eight times
3) (12/11)S 4) (11/12)S
3) Sixteen times 4) Two times 9. Four wires AB, BC, CD and DA of resistance 4
2. The masses of three wires of copper are in the ratio each and a fifth wire BD of resistance 8 are joined
1 : 3 : 5 and their lengths are in the ratio 5 : 3 : 1. to form a rectangle ABCD of which BD is diagonal.
Then the ratio of their electrical resistances are: The effective resistance between the points A and
B is:
1) 1 : 3 : 5 2) 5 : 3 : 1 1) 8/3 2) 4/3
3) 1 : 15 : 25 4) 125 : 15 : 1 3) 16 4) 24
3. For which of the following dependence of drift 10. The resistance of a 10m long wire is 10 , its length
velocity v on electric field E is ohm’s law obeyed: is increased by 25% by stretching the wire uniformly.
The resistance of wire will change to
1) v E 2) v = constant (approximately):
3) v E1/2 4) v E2 1) 12.5 2) 14.5
4. A certain piece of copper is to be shaped into a 3) 15.6 4) 16.6
conductor of minimum resistance. Its length and
11. What is the equivalent resistance between the points
diameter should be respectively:
A and D of figure:
1) l, d 2) 2 l, d
3) l/2, 2d 4) 2l, d/2
5. The equivalent resistance of n identical resistors
connected in parallel is ‘x’. If the resistors are
connected in series, the equivalent resistance would
be: 1) 10 2) 20
1) nx 2) n2x 3) x/n 4) n/x 3) 30 4) 40
6. The electric intensity E, the current density j and 12. A wire of resistance 1 is stretched to double its
conductivity are related as: length. The resistance will become:
1) 1/4 2) 1
1) j = E 2) j = E/
3) 2 4) 4
3) jE = 4) j = E
13. A wire of resistance R and of radius r is drawn into
7. A metal block has length 2 metres, width 1 metre a wire of radius 2 r, the new resistance of the wire
and thickness 0.5 metres. If the resistance across will be:
the length is 16 ohm, the resistance across the
thickness is: 1) R/2 2) R/16
3) 2R 4) 4R
1) 1 ohm 2) 2 3) 4 4) 6
68
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
14. Seven resistances are connected as shown in the 18. A piece of wire is cut into 4 equal parts and the
figure. The equivalent resistance between A and B pieces are bundled together side by side to form a
is: thick wire. Compared with that of the original wire,
the resistance of the bundle is:
1) the same
2) 1/4 as much
3) 1/8 as much
4) 1/16 as much
1) 3 2) 4
19. A wire of resistance R is stretched till the length is
3) 4.5 4) 5 increased to ‘n’ times its original length. The new
resistance will be:
15. In a balanced Wheatstone’s network, the resistances
in the arms Q and S are interchanged. As a result: 1) nR 2) R/n
1) The galvanometer shows zero deflection 3) n2R 4) n/R
2) The galvanometer and the cell must be 20. A copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer.
interchanged for balance What is the percentage change in the resistance?
3) The network is still balanced 1) 2% 2) 0.2%
4) The network is not balanced 3) 2.2 % 4) 0.02 %
16. Effective resistance between A and B is: 21. Find the equivalent resistance between A and B:
1) 3 R 2) R/3 3) 3 R/2 4) 2 R/3
22. Twelve equal wires each of resistance R ohm are
connected so as to form a skeleton cube. An electric
current enters this cube through one corner and
1) 15 2) 30 3) 3.75 4) 7.5
leaves out from the diagonally opposite corner. The
17. In the given circuit, it is observed that the current I total resistance of this assembly is:
is independent of the value of the resistance R6. Then
1) (6/5) R 2) (5/6) R 3) 5 R 4) (3/5) R
the resistance values must satisfy:
23. An infinite ladder network of resistances is
constructed with 1 ohm resistance as shown in figure.
The equivalent resistance is:
1) R1 R2 R3 = R3 R4 R5
1 1 1 1
2) R R R R R R
e j e j
5 6 1 2 3 4
1) 1 3 2) 1 3
3) R1 R4 = R2 R3
4) R1 R3 = R2 R4 = R5 R6 e
3) 1 5 j 4) e j
5 1
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
24. Find the resistance between A and C. in the following 28. The equivalent resistance between A and B is:
circuit:
1) 1 2 4 5
1) r 2) r
5 4
1 1
3) 4)
3 2 r r
3) 4)
25. The resistance across M and N in the given figure 3 2
is: 29. If all resistances are R ohm each. Find the equivalent
resistance between A and B:
r r
1) 2)
2 3
3) 6 r 4) 2r 1 5
1) R ohm
26. The equivalent resistance between A and B in the 2
given network is:
2) 1 3 R ohm
5 1
3) R ohm
2
3 1 R
4) ohm
2
1) 5 2) 6
30. The effective resistance between P and Q is:
3) 10 4) 12
27. If the space between two concentric spheres of radii
a and b (a < b) is filled with a medium of resistivity
‘’, then the resistance of the interelectrode gap will
be:
FG b a IJ FG 1 1 IJ
2) 4 2 2
1) 4 H ab K aH b K 1)
3R
2
2)
R
2
F 1 1I
2
F 1 1I
G J 4) 4 GH b a JK R 4
4 H a b K
3) 3) 4) R
2 5
70
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
31. In the circuit shown in figure, the cells E1 and E2 36. In the given circuit, the current is:
have e.m.fs of 4V and 8V and internal resistance
0.5 and 1 respectively. The p.d across E1 and
E2 will be:
1) 1.0 A from A C via B
2) 1.0 A from C A via B
3) 3.0 A from A C via B
4) 3.0 A from C A via B
1) 4.25V; 4.25V
37. Two cells x and y of same emf but different internal
2) 3.75V; 3.75V resistances r1 and r2 respectively (r1 > r2). These
3) 4.25V; 7.5V cells are connected in series as shown in figure and
the combination is connected in series with an external
4) 3.75V; 7.5V resistance R. If the potential difference measured
32. n identical cells each of e.m.f E and internal across the cell x is zero, the resistance R has a value:
resistance r are connected in parallel. An external
resistance R is connected across the combination.
The current through this resistance is:
nE nE
1) 2) 1) r1 + r2 2) r1 - r2
R nr nR r
3) r1/r2 4) r1 r2
E E
3) 4) 38. Figure shows a circuit with two cells in opposite to
Rr nR r
each other. One cell has an emf of 6 V and internal
33. When a resistance of 2 is connected across the resistance 2 and the other cell has an emf of 4 V
terminals of a cell, the current is 0.5 A. When the and internal resistance of 8 . The potential
resistance is increased to 5, the current is 0.25 A. difference across the terminals X and Y is:
The e.m.f. of the cell is:
1) 1.0 V 2) 1.5 V
3) 2.0 V 4) 2.5 V
34. The internal resistance of a cell of e.m.f. 2V is 0.1.
It is connected to a resistance of 3.9. The voltage
across the cell will be: 1) 5.4 V 2) 5.6 V 3) 5.8 V 4) 6.0 V
1) 0.5 V 2) 1.9 V 39. As shown in figure, the current flowing in the 2R
resistor is:
3) 1.95 V 4) 2 V
35. Two identical cells connected in series send 10 A
current through a 5 resistor. When they are
connected in parallel, they send 8 A current through
the same resistance. What is the internal resistance
of each cell:
1) zero 2) 2.5
2E 2E E E
3) 10 4) 1 1) 2) 3) 4)
R 7R 7R R
71
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
40. If in the circuit figure, the internal resistance of the 43. Two resistances are connected as shown in figure.
battery is 1.5 and VP and VQ are potentials at P The current I1, I2 and I are:
and Q respectively. What is the potential difference
between the points P and Q:
1) 3, 2 & 1 A
2) 0.24, 0.08 & 0. 32 A
1) Zero 3) 1.2, 2.4 & 4.8 A
4) 2, 1 % 3 A
2) 4 volt (VP > VQ)
44. For the circuit shown in figure value of I2 is:
3) 4 volts (VQ > VP)
4) 2.5 volts (VQ > VP)
41. Potential difference between the points P and Q in
the electric circuit shown in figure:
1) 2.89 A 2) 0.345 A 3) 0.167 A 4) 4.5 A
45. In the given circuit currents I1 and I2 are:
10 12
1) 12 V 2) 24 V 1) A, A
7 7
3) 8 V 4) 4.8 V 10 12
2) A, A
7 5
42. Five identical resistors, each of value 1100 ohms are
connected to a 220 V battery as shown. The reading 8 12
3) A A
of the ideal ammeter A is: 7 5
8 12
4) A, A
7 7
46. The reading of the ammeter shown in figure is:
1 2
1) A 2) A
5 5
3 4
3) A 4) A 1) 2.18 A 2) 2.714 A
5 5
3) 1 A 4) 1.714 A
72
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
47. An electric lamp is marked 60 W, 240 V. If it operates Statement
at 200 V, the current through it will be:
1) 0.18 A 2) 0.21 A 1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
3) 0.25 A 4) 0.30 A 2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
48. Find the power wasted in the transmission cables of
resistances 0.05 ohm when 10k W is transmitted at 3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
200 volts:
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
1) 0.0125 kW 2) 0.125 kW
3) 25 kW 4) 37.5k W 53. Statement I : As soon as a source of emf is
49. Three equal resistors connected in series with a connected across a conductor,
source of e.m.f. together dissipate 10 watt of power. current is immediately established in
What will be the power dissipated if the same the conductor.
resistors are connected in parallel across the same
source of e.m.f: Statement II : Drift speed of electrons is large
1) 10 watt 2) 30 watt enough so that electrons from one
end of the conductor can travel to
3) 3 (1/3) watt 4) 90 watt
the other end almost instantaneously.
50. A 500 W heater is designed to operate on 200 V
mains. By what percentage will its heat output drop 54. Statement I : Electric field strength inside a current
if the line voltage drops to 160 V: carrying conductor is always zero.
1) 72 % 2) 36 %
Statement II : Drift of electrons results in current
3) 18 % 4) 9 %
through the conductor.
Assertion - Reason
Match the following
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion 55. In the circuit shown in figure the capacitor is initially
uncharged. At t = 0, the switch is closed at position
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the (1) and remains closed for a long time. Then at t = t',
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion the switch is shifted to position (2).
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
51. Assertion : As temperature of a metallic current
carrying conductor is increased, its
resistance increases.
Match Column-I with Column - II.
Reason : Decrease of temperature results in
decrease of electrc field strength Column I Column II
along the conductor so that current A) As the capacitor charges p) Current in the circuit
reduces. from t = 0 to t = t' falls exponentially
B) As the capacitor q) Current in the circuit
52. Assertion : When current is drawn from a cell, discharges, i.e., for t > t' grows exponentially
its terminal potential difference is C) Maximum current in the r) R, C
less than the emf. circuit depends on
D) Time to achieve 50% s) R, C
Reason : The difference is as a result of a charging of the capacitor
finite internal resistance of the cell. depends on
73
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
1) A - q; B - p; C - q; D - r 57. A wire connected in the left gap of a metre bridge
balances a 10 W resistance in the right gap at a point,
2) A - p; B - p; C - s; D - r which divides the bridge wire in the ratio 3:2. If the
length of the wire is 1 m, The length of 1W resistance
3) A - p; B - q; C - p; D - r in mm is
4) A - s; B - p, q; C - q; D - s 58. Two electric lamps each of 100 watt 220 V are
connected in series to a supply of 220 volt. The power
Integer
(in W) consumed would be:
56. In the circuit shown the cell is ideal with e.m.f = 15
59. The time (in sec) required for 1 KW heater to raise
V, each resistance is of 3W. The potential difference
the temperature of 10 litres of water through 100C
(in volts) across the capacitor is
is:
60. If six identical cells each having an e.m.f. of 6 V are
connected in parallel, the e.m.f. of the combination
in volts is
74
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
KEY WITH HINTS
1. 3 If the radius of the wire is made 1/n times, then
the new resistance R1 = n4R = 16 R 9. 1
l l l 2
R
2. 4 A V/l a fV
2 2
l l d l2
= m / d m or R
a f m
R1 : R 2 : R 3
l12 l22 l32
: :
a f af
5l
2
:
3l
:
2
l2
m1 m 2 m 3 m 3m 5m
9 1
= 25: : 125:151
:
3 5
Ee
3. 1 v a 8 4 8
m R AB 4 4 114
84 3
l 4l 10. 3 l1 l
4. 3 R
A d 2
25 125l 5
l2 l + l= l.
R 100 100 4
5. 2 RP = x ; RS = nR = n.nx = n2x
n
R / n2R
F 5I 2
V VA I 1 V FG IJ H 4K 10 15.6
I
6. 1 R l ; A l ; H K j E 11. 3 Effective resistance of R2 and R4 in series,
R/ = 10 + 10 = 20. Effective resistance of R3
7. 1 Resistance across length = 16 ,
and R5 in series, R// = 10 + 10 = 20
2 Net total resistance of R/ and R// in parallel is:
R ; 16 4
A 0.5 1
20 20
RP 10
4 .m 20 20
Resistance across the thickness Total resistance between A and D
= 10 + 10 + 10 = 30
0.5 4 0.5
R 1 12. 4 R1 = n2R = (2)21 = 4
2 2
13. 2 If r/ = nr, then R/ = R/n4; Here n = 2;
1 1 1 So R/ = R/24 = R/16
8. 3 R1 ; R 2 ; R 3
2 4 6
14. 2 The combined resistance of two 10 resistances
1 1 1 in parallel is 5, and the combined resistance of
In series; R = R1 + R2 + R3 = two 6 resistances in parallel is 3. The
2 4 6
arrangement reduces to wheatstone bridge as
6 3 2 11 shown in figure
=
12 12
1 12
Equivalent conductance, G S
R 11
75
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
17. 3 Here resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 and R6 will form
a wheatstone bridge. The current I will be
independent of the value of resistance R6 if the
1 3 R R
bridge is balanced i.e., R R or R 1R 4 R 2 R 3
2 4
18. 4 If R is the total resistance, the resistance of each
P R 5 3 piece is R/4. Then they are bundled together side
As Q S ie, 5 3 , therefore, the bridge is by side to form a thick wire. Here thick wire is
the parallel combination of 4 pieces. hence
balanced. 8 resistance across C and D is
ineffective 1 R R
R eff
4 4 16.
Now R1 = RACB = 5 + 3 = 8; R2 = RADB
l l /
=5+3=8 19. 3 R , R/ / ,
A A
1 1 1 1 1 1
; R 4 ohm But volume = const.
R P R1 R 2 8 8 4 P
lA A
ie, Resistance across A and B is 4 ohm lA l / A / A / /
;
l n
P R ( nl )
15. 4 In a balanced wheat stone bridge, Q S , in /
Then R n2 R
A/n
which P, Q, R and S may not have the same
value. Then if Q and S are interchanged, then l l
P R 20. 2 R
; ie, network is not balanced A r 2
S Q
R
R
100
l
l
r
100 2. 100 1
r
af
r 2 l Constant
16. 4
r l
2 100 100 0
r l
r l
Inner circuit is a balanced wheatstones bridge. 2 100 100
r l
R l
From (1), 100 2. 100 2 0.1% 0.2%
R l
21. 2
RAB = (40) || (40) || (21) || (24)
R
RAB = (20) || (21) || (24) = 7.5 . R AB
3
76
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
22. 2
24. 1
25. 2
1 2 1 3
Consider the path ABCD R MN r r r
26. 2
This acts as a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge.
10/3 can be avoided.
27. 1 Consider a concentric spherical shell of radius
According to Kirchoffs second law ‘x’ and thickness dx as shown in figure. Its
net emf = IR resistance dR is:
V 2iR iR 2iR ; IR AD 5iR
5
6i R AD 5iR ; R AD R
6
23. 1
dx
dR ; Total resistance
4 x 2
RAB = R + R||R/ + R = 2R
RR /
R R/
. R
4 z
a
b dx
x 2
LM
1 1
N
4 a b
OP
Q
ba
4 ab
F
H
I
K
Since R/ is the effective resistance of an infinite
network, the addition or substraction of one unit 28. 1 By symmetry
of resistors will not affect the effective value.
RR /
R AB R / ; Then R / 2 R ;
R R/
e
Solving R/ = 1 3 R j
77
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
29. 3 On stretching, it is equivalent to the figure E E E
33. 2 I or 0.5 and 0.25
Rr 2r 5 r
So, 0.5 (2 + r) = 0.25 (5 + r); On solving r = 1
E = 0.5 (2 + r) = 0.5 (2 + 1) = 1.5 V
E 2
34. 3 I 0.5 ;
R r 3.9 01
.
V = E – Ir = 2-0.5 0.1 = 1.95 V
x RR
x R || R; R eff x
R eff
x 2R F rI
35. 2 In series 2E = (5 + 2r) × 10; E = 5 H 2K8
Solving, x
R
2
d i
5 1
r 2.5
30. 1 36. 4 emf between A and C = 10V + 5V = 15V
E 15V
Total resistance = 5; Current I 3A
R 5
37. 2
3R
R PQ 3R // 3R
2
Net emf = 2E; Total resistance = R + r1 + r2
31. 3 Cell of higher e.m.f. will send the current in the
circuit. Effective e.m.f = 8 - 4 = 4V. 2E
i
3 6 R r1 r2
Effective resistance = 0.5 + 1 + 4.5 +
3 6
Consider the discharging of x
= 8
Current, I = 4/8 = 0.5 A V = E – i r1 = 0, E = i r1
Terminal pot. diff. across E1 = 4 + 0.5 0.5 2Er1
E R = r1 r2
= 4.25 V R r1 r2
Terminal pot. diff across E2 = 8 - 0.5 1 = 7.5 V
38. 2 Since the cells are in opposition.
32. 2 Net E = 6 – 4 = 2V
2
I 0.2A
82
Terminal pd of (6V)
= 6 – 0.2 2 (Discharging) = 5.6 V;
E nE Terminal pd of 4V
i= ; i=
r nR+r
R+ = 4 + 0.2 8 (Charging) = 5.6 V
n
78
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
4R 2R E 12
39. 2 Total resistance of circuit = R 4 R 2R 43. 2 I1
R1 50
0.24A
4 7 E 12
= R R R I2 0.08A
3 3 R 2 150
E 3E I I1 I 2 0.32A
Current in circuit, I = (7 / 3) R 7 R
44. 3 Total resistance = 5+(2||3||6)+(9||18)
Current through resistance 2R
= 5+1+6 = 12 ohm
3E 4R 2E
6
7R 6R 7R I= 0.5A ; I1 × 9 = I2 × 18;
12
55 (I – I2) × 9 = I2 × 18; I2 = 0.167 A
40. 4 Effective resistance of circuit = 5 5 15
. 4
Total current in circuit, I = 20/4 = 5A 45. 2
Current in arm APB or AQB = 1/2 = 2.5 A
V A – VP = 3 2.5 = 7.5 V;
VA – VQ = 2 2.5 = 5.0 V
VP VQ ( VA VQ ) ( VA VP ) Apply Kirchoffs second law for the closed path
ABEFA
5.0 7.5 2.5 V
net emf = IR
41. 2 Pot. diff. between P and Q is the potential 6 + 4 = 7l1, l1 = 10/7 A
difference due to current through each arm of
network similarly for the closed path BCDEB
= 1.5 (4 + 12) = 24 V 8 + 4 = 5 l2, l2 = 12/5 A
42. 3
46. 1
R = 1100 .
12.8
R eff 4 e j
2 0.8
6
14 84
I
Ammeter reading = current through R/3 a f
12.8 / 6 12.8
A
220 660 660 3 84 2
= A Ammeter reading = 2.18A
R /3 R 1100 5 12.8 6
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
V V2 51. 3
47. 2 i ; R R ; VR = rating voltage.
R P
52. 1
V P 200 60 53. 3
i
VR2 a f
240 2 = 0.21 A
54. 4
P 10 103 55. 2
48. 2 Current in the circuit I = 50A
V 200
56. 12
Power vertical = i2R = (50)2 0.05
= 2500 5 10-2 = 125 W
49. 4 Let R1 be the effective resistance in series and
let P1 be the power generated
V2 V2
then R1 P ie 3R ; V 2 30 R
1 10 Reffe = 5
Let R2 be the effective resistance in parallel and E 15
i 3A
P2 be the power. R effe 5
V2 R V 2 30 R VA VC 3V; VA VB 2 3 3 3 15V
R2 ie ; P2 90 W
P2 3 P2 P2
bVA g b g
VB VA VC 12 V
50. 2 Resistance of the coil
VC VB 12V
V 2 2002
R 80 R 3
P 500 57. 67 R 15 ; length of 1 ohm = 1/15 m
S 2
V12 58. 50 Here use the expression P = V 2/R
R
P1
59. 420
V12 1602 H = p x t = m c (T2 - T1)
P1 320 W
R 80
60. 6 When cells are connected in parallel, only sizes
% of heat output drop of electrodes will increase but the e.m.f. remains
unchanged.
500 320 180
100 100 36%
500 500
80
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CHAPTER - 04
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Introduction
Electricity and Magnetism have been realised that they were intimately related. In 1820 a Danish
physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a straight wire caused a noticeable deflection in
a nearby magnetic compass needle. It is noticeable when the current is large and the needle is sufficiently
close to the wire so that the earth’s magnetic field may be ignored. Reversing the direction of the current
reverses the orientation of the needle. Oersted concluded that moving charges or currents produced a
magnetic field in the surrounding space.
Magnetic Force
Sources and Fields
The interaction between two charges can be considered in two stages. The charge Q, the source of
Q
the field, produces an electric field E, where E 4 r 2
0
Field E is a vector field. A charge q interacts with this field and experiences a force F given by
qQrˆ 2
F qE r
40
The concept of a field was specially stressed by Faraday and was incorporated by Maxwell in his
unification of electricity and magnetism.
The field at a particular point can be due to one or more charges. If there are more charges the fields
add vectorially.
Just as static charges produce an electric field, the currents or moving charges produce (in addtion)
a magnetic field, denoted by B(r), again a vector field. It has several basic properties identical to the electric
field. It is found to obey the principle of superposition: the magnetic field of several sources is the vector
addition of magnetic field of each individual source.
LORENTZ FORCE
The force experienced by a charged particle moving in space where both electric and magnetic field
exists is called Lorentz force.
Force due to electric field. When a charged particle carrying charge +q is subjected to an electric field of
strength E, it experiences a force given by Fe qE -----------(1)
whose direction is the same as that of E .
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Force due to magnetic field. If the charged particle is moving in a magnetic field B , with a velocity v , it
experiences a force given by Fm q(v B)
The direction of this force is in the direction of (v B) i.e., perpendicular to the plane containing v and B is
directed as given by Right hand screw rule.
Due to both the electric and magnetic fields, the total force experienced by the charged particle will be
given by
F Fe Fm qE q v B q E v B --------(2)
This is called Lorentz force.
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
Current through a conductor is due to the motion of free electrons in the conductor in a definite direction.
When such a conductor is placed in a magnetic field, each electron moving in the magnetic field experiences
a force. Hence the current carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in the magnetic field.
Expression for the force acting on the conductor carrying current placed in a magnetic field
Consider a straight conductor PQ of length l, area of cross-section A, carrying current I placed in a
uniform magnetic field B . Let the conductor be placed along X-axis and magnetic field be acting in XY plane
making an angle with X-axis. Suppose the current I flows through the conductor from the end P to Q.
Since the current in a conductor is due to motion of electrons, therefore, electrons are moving from the end
Q to P (along X – X' axis).
Let v d drift velocity of electron
-e = charge on each electron.
Then magnetic Lorentz force on an electron is given by
f e v d B
If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor, then total number of free electrons in
the conductor will be given by
N n Al nAl
B Fm
P Q
I I
A B
X' O I X
l
l
Total force on the conductor is equal to the force acting on all the free electrons inside the conductor
while moving in the magnetic field and is given by
F Nf nAl e vd B nAle vd B --------(3)
We know that current through a conductor is related with drift velocity by the relation I nAev d
I l nAevd . l
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We represent Il as current element vector. It acts in the direction of flow of current i.e., along OX.
Since Il and v d have opposite directions, hence we can write
I l nAlevd ---------------------(4)
From (3) and (4), we have
F I l B -------------------------(5)
F I lB
F I l Bsin -----------------------(6); where is the smaller angle between Il and B
Special cases
Case I. If 00 or 1800 , sin 0, From (6), F Il B (0) = 0 (Minimum)
It means a linear conductor carrying a current if placed parallel to the direction of magnetic field, it
experiences no force.
Case II. If 900, sin 1; From (6),
F = IlB 1 Il B ----------(7) (Maximum)
It means a linear conductor carrying current if placed perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field, it
experiences maximum force. The direction of which can be given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. Accordingly,
the direction F is perpendicular to the plane of paper directed upwards.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
Stretch the three fingers of the left hand in three mutually perpendicular directions. If the middle finger
represents the current, the forefinger represents the magnetic field, then the thumb will represent the
direction of the force acting on the conductor
MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Suppose a particle of mass m and charge q, entering a uniform magnetic field B at O, with velocity
, making an angle with the direction of the magnetic field acting in the plane of paper as shown in the
v
Fig.
Resolving v into two rectangular components we have : v cos v1 acts in the direction of the magnetic
field and vsin v2 acts perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
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y-axis
p p p
v2= v sin
x-axis
(q, m) v1 = v cos
B
axis of
(uniform) helix
For component velocity v 2 , the force acting on the charged particle due to magnetic field is
F q v2 B
or F q v 2 B qv 2 Bsin 90o q(v sin )B
The direction of this force F is perpendicular to the plane containing B and v 2 hence acts perpendicular
to the plane of the paper. As this force is to remain always perpendicular to v 2 , it can not change the
magnitude of velocity v 2 . It changes only the direction of motion. Hence the charged particle is made to
move on a circular path in the magnetic field, as shown in figure. The force F on the charged particle due to
magnetic field provides the required centripetal force mv 2 / r necessary for motion along the circular
2
path of radius r. As the velocity v1 v cos is parallel to B, it remains constant throughout the motion.
mv 22 Bqr Bqr
Bqv 2 or v2 or v sin
r m m
v sin Bqr Bq
The angular velocity of rotation of the particle in magnetic field will be
r mr m
Bq
The frequency of rotation of the particle in magnetic field will be
2 2 m ------------------(8)
1 2 m
The time period of revolution of the particle in the magnetic field will be T -----------------(9)
Bq
Therefore, under the combined effect of the two component velocities, the charged particle in magnetic
field will cover linear path as well as circular path i.e., the path of the charged particle will be helical, whose
axis is parallel to the direction of magnetic field.
The linear distance covered by the charged particle in the magnetic field in time equal to one revolution of
2 m
its circular path (known as pitch of helix) will be d v1T v cos ----------(10)
Bq
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Motion in combined electric and magnetic fields
Velocity selector
We know that a charge q moving with velocity v in presence of both electric and magnetic fields
experiences a force given by
F q E v B FE FB
We shall consider the simple case in which electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each
other and also perpendicular to the velocity of the particle, as shown in figure. We have,
ˆ B Bk,
E Ej, ˆ v viˆ
ˆ F qv B q viˆ Bkˆ qvBjˆ
FE qE qEj, B
Therefore, F q E vB ˆj
Thus, electric and magnetic forces are in opposite directions as shown in the figure. Suppose, we
adjust the value of E and B such that magnitudes of the two forces are equal. Then, total force on the
charge is zero and the charge will move in the fields undeflected. This happens when,
E
qE qvB or v ------- (11)
B
This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam containing
charges moving with different speeds (irrespective of their charge and mass). The crossed E and B fields,
therefore, serve as a velocity selector. Only particles with speed E/B pass undeflected through the region
of crossed fields.
FORCES ON A CHARGED PARTICLE IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field
Consider a charged particle of charge +q and mass m is moving with velocity v along OX (i.e., along
X-axis). In the absence of an electric field, it meets the screen PQ, at point A . Let the charged particle be
subjected to a uniform electric field of strength E acting along OY (i.e., along Y-axis). Due to electric field, the
charged particle experiences a force given by F = qE
The direction of this force is in the direction of electric field E i.e., along OY.
qE
Acceleration along OY is, a
m
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Q
Y C
E
B
y
O X
A
x P
This acceleration being perpendicular to the motion of charged particle, will not change the speed of the
charged particle along OX.
If x is the length of the region of electric field, then the time taken by the charged particle to travel is given by
x
t ----------(12)
v
If y is the displacement of the charged particle along OY direction in the electric field during time t, then
1 2
using the relation s ut at
2
2
1 qE 2 1 qE x
We have, y (0)t t
2 m 2 m v
2mv 2 2mv 2
or x2 y ------- (13) or x = ky
2
qE
= k = constant
qE
This is an equation of a parabola. Hence inside the electric field, the charged particle moves on a
parabolic path OB and on leaving the field, it moves along a straight path BC, tangent to the curved path OB
at B.
Motion of a charged particle in a uniform Transverse Magnetic Field
When a charge +q is projected in a uniform transverse magnetic field 90 , v B then maximum
o
magnetic force of constant magnitude always acts perpendicular to its direction of motion so the charge
moves along circular path and the required centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force.
Magnetic force on moving charge is given as
F q v B F qvBsin
Here v = velocity of the particle, B = magnetic field
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Direction of Force
The force F is always perpendicular to both the velocity v and the field B in accordance with Right
Hand Screw Rule, though v and B themselves may or may not be perpendicular to each other..
Direction of force on charged particle in magnetic field can also be found by Flemings Left Hand Rule
(FLHR).
Here, First finger (indicates) Direction of magnetic field.
Middle finger Direction of motion of positive charge or direction, opposite to the motion of negative
charge.
Thumb Direction of force
In this case path of a charged particle is circular and magnetic force provides the necessary centrepetal
force.
mv 2
i.e., Fm qvB
r
mv 2 mv
qvB radius of path r
r qB
mv p 2mEk 2mqV
Radius of the circular path r
qB qB qB qB
Magnetic field due to a current element
BIOT-SAVART’S LAW .
Biot-savart’s law is an experimental law predicted by Biot and Savart. This law deals with the magnetic
field at a point due to a small current element (a part of any conductor carrying current ). Let us consider a
small element AB (of length dl) of the conductor XY carrying a current I. Let r be the position vector of the
point P from the current element dl and be the angle between dl and r . The magnetic flux density dB
*
at P is given by.
Y
I
B
dl q
A
r
I P
X
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1
(i) dB I, (ii) dB dl (iii) dB sin & (iv) dB
r2
Idl sin Idl sin
Combining these factors, we get dB dB K -------(14)
r2 r2
where K is a constant of proportionality. Its value depends on the system of units chosen for the measurement
of the various quantities and also on the medium between point P and the current element.
0
In S.I. Units: K ,where 0 is absolute permeability of free space and
4
0 4 10 7 WbA 1m 1 4 10 7 TA 1m 4 10 7 NA 2 4 10 7 Hm 1
0 Idl sin Idl sin
dB ; In C.G.S: K=1 dB Gauss
4 r 2 r2
In vector form, we may write
0 I dl r
dB or
dB
0 I dl r
-------------(15)
4 r 3 4 r3
Direction of dB .
dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r directed inwards.
APPLICATION OF BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF A CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING CURRENT
Consider a circular coil of radius r with centre O, lying with its plane in the plane of the paper. Let I be
the current flowing in the circular coil in the direction shown in Fig. Suppose the circular coil is made of a
large number of current elements each of length dl.
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field at the centre of the circular coil due to the current
element dl is given by
0 dl r
dB I where r is the position vector of point O from the current element.
4 r 3
0 Idl r sin 0 Idl sin 900 0 Idl
Since the angle between dl and r is 900 , dB dB ---------(16)
4 r3 4 r2 4 r 2
I
Magnetic lines
i of forces
90o O
dl I
r
I I
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In this case, the direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of the current loop and is directed inwards. The
total magnetic field at point O due to current in the whole circular coil can be obtained by integrating Eqn.(16).
Then
0 Idl 0 I
B dB
4 r 2 4 r 2
dl
But dl total length of the circular coil = circumference of the current loop 2r
0 I I nI
B .2r 0 ; for n turns of the coil, B 0 -----------------(17)
4 r 2
2r 2r
Direction of Magnetic field ( B )
The direction of magnetic field is determined with the help of the following simple laws :
(1) Maxwell’s cork screw rule
According to this rule, if we imagine a right handed screw placed along the current carrying linear
conductor, be rotated such that the screw moves in the direction of flow of current, then the direction of
rotation of the thumb gives the direction of magnetic lines of force.
(2) Right hand thumb rule
B B
A A
According to this rule if a current carrying conductor is held in the right hand such that the thumb of the hand
represents the direction of current flow, then the direction of folding fingers will represent the direction of
magnetic lines of force.
Note : If the magnetic field is directed perpendicular and into the plane of the paper it is represented by
(cross) while if magnetic field is directed perpendicular and out of the plane of the paper it is
represented by (dot)
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(3) Right hand thumb rule of circular currents
According to this rule if the direction of current in circular conducting coil is in the direction of folding fingers
of right hand, then the direction of magnetic field will be in the direction of stretched thumb.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT
Consider a long straight conductor XY lying in the plane of the paper carrying current I in the direction
X to Y, Let P be a point at a perpendicular distance a from the straight conductor Clearly, PC= a.
Consider a small current element of length dl of the straight conductor at O. Let r be the position vector of
P with respect to current element and be the angle between dl and r , CO = l.
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field (i.e. magnetic flux density) at point P due to current element
dl is given by
Y
a
2
C P
1
l
r
dl
O
I
X
Idl r 0 Idl sin
dB 0
. -------------(18)
4 r 3 4 r 2
In right angled POC, 900 ; θ 90
and sin sin 900 cos ----------(19)
a a l
Also cos or r --------(20); tan
r cos a
Differentiating it, we get dl a sec 2 d -------------------------(21)
I a sec d cos 0 I
2
Putting the values in (18) from (19), (20) and (21), dB 0 cos d --------(22)
4 a2 4 a
cos
2
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The direction of d B , according to right hand thumb rule will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper
and directed inwards. As all the current elements of the conductor will also produce magnetic field in the
same direction, therefore, the total magnetic field at point P due to current through the whole straight conductor
XY can be obtained by integrating Eq. (22) within the limits 1 and 2 . Thus
2
0 I 2 I 0 I
B dB cos d 0 sin 2 sin 1 sin 1 sin 2
1 4 a 1 4a 4a
For infinitely long conductor,
0I 0 2I
1 2 ; B 2sin -----------------------(23)
2 4a 2 4 a
The direction of magnetic lines of force can be given by Right Hand Thumb Rule or Maxwell’s cork-
screw rule.
Magnetic field due to a straight current carrying wire
Magnetic field due to a current carrying wire at a point P which lies at a perpendicualr distance r from
the wire as shown is given as
0 i
B . sin 1 sin 2
4 r
0 i
From figure 90 1 and 90 2 ; Hence B =
o o
. cos cos -------(24)
4 r
Different Cases
Case 1 : When the linear conductor XY is of finite length and the point P lies on its perpendicular bisector
as shown
1 2
0 i
B . 2sin
4 r
Case 2 : When the linear conductor XY is of infinite length and the point P lies near the centre of the
conductor
1 2 90o
0 i 2i
B . sin 90o sin 90o 0 .
4 r 4 r
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Case 3 : When the linear conductor is of infinite length and the point P lies near the end Y or X
1 90o and 2 0o
0 i i
So B sin 90 sin 0 0
4 r 4r
Case 4 : When point P lies on axial position of current carrying conductor then magnetic field at P
B=0
Case 5 : The value of magnetic field induction at a point, on the centre of separation of two linear parallel
conductors carrying equal currents in the same direction is zero.
MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING CURRENT
dB cos dB
C dl Y
E
90o r
a
dB sin
O
x
I I P dB sin
D F
Y'
dl dB cos dB
Consider a circular coil of radius a with centre O. Let the plane of the coil be perpendicular to the plane
of the paper and current I be flowing in the coil in the direction shown in the Fig. Suppose P is any point on
the axis of the circular coil at a distance x from its centre O. Clearly, OP = x.
Consider two small elements of the coil each of length dl, at C and D which are situated at diametrically
opposite edges. Then
PC PD r a 2 x 2
Let CPO DPO
According to Biot Savart’s law, the magnitude of magnetic field (i.e. magnetic flux density) at P due to
current element dl at C is given by
0 Idl sin 900 0 Idl
dB 4 a x 2 -----------------(25)
2
4 r2
The direction of dB is in the plane perpendicular to dl and r , is directed as given by right handed
screw rule, i.e., acting along PE CP.
Similarly, the magnitude of magnetic field at P due to current element of length dl at D is given by
0 Idl sin 900 0 Idl
dB
4 4 a 2 x 2 --------(26). Its direction is along PF DP.
2
r
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0 Idl
From (25) and (26), dB dB ' YPE Y ' PF CPO
4 a 2 x 2
Resolving dB and dB into two rectangular components, we have
(i) dB cos acts along PY and dBsin acts along PX,
(ii) dB'cos acts along PY' and dB' sin acts along PX.
Since the components of the magnetic field acting along PY and PY' are equal and opposite, they
cancel each other and the components of the magnetic field acting along PX (i.e., along the axis of the coil)
being in the same direction are added up. The same is true for all the diametrically opposite pairs of current
elements of the circular coil.
Thus total magnetic field (i.e., magnetic flux density) at P due to current through the whole circular coil
is given by
0 Idl sin 0 I a
B dBsin sin dl ; sin
4 a x 4 a 2 x 2
2 2
a x2
2
and dl 2a
0 I a 0 Ia 2
B 2a 3/ 2 , along PX
4 a 2 x 2 a 2 x 2 2 a2 x2
If there are n turns in the coil, then dl 2 an
0 Ina 2
B ---------------(27)
2a2 x2
3/2
Special Cases
Case 1. (i) When point P lies at the centre of the circular coil, then x = 0. From (40), we have
0 Ina 2 0 In
B Bmax which is the same as given by Eq. (25) derived earlier.
2a 3 2a
0 2I 0 I
(ii) For single turn coil n = 1 . Bcentre
4 a 2a
Case 2. When point P lies far away from the centre of the coil, then x > > a. Now a 2 x 2 x 2 as a 2 can be
neglected as compared to x 2 . From (27), we have
0 2nIa 2 0 2nIA
B (Where a A = Area of the current loop.)
2
4 x 3 4 x 3
0 2M
or B -------(28)
4 x 3
where, nI A = M = Magnetic diploe moment of the current loop.
Thus the current loop can be regarded as a magnetic dipole which produces its magnetic dipole
moment of the current loop is equal to the product of ampere turns and area of the loop.
S.I. unit of magnetic dipole moment is A-m2.
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Atom as a magnetic Dipole
Since the electrons in an atom are in continuous motion, a current flows in opposite direction. Due to
the current flow a magnetic moment is developed and atom behaves as a magnet.
i
e–
r
TOP FACE
e–
i
M
Charge e 2
i where T the period of revolution of electron
Time T
e e
i ----------------(29)
2 / 2
Area of the orbit A r2
e 2 1
Magnetic moment of the atom is given by M iA r i.e., M er 2 -------(30)
2 2
According to Bohr’s theory, an electron in an atom can revolve only in certain stationary orbits-in
h
which angular momentum of electron (mvr) is an integral multiple of , where h is Planck’s constant.
2
nh nh
mvr = m(r)r or r2
2 2m
Put in (30); Using Bohrs theory magnetic moment is written as
1 nh eh eh
M e. n n B ----------(31) where B
2 2m 4m 4m
The magnetic moment of an atom is quantized and the least value of atomic dipole moment M is
eh . This is called Bohr Magneton. It serves as the unit of atomic magnetic dipole moment.
B
4m
eh 1.6 10 19 6.6 10 34
B ; B 9.27 10 24 ampere metre 2
4m 22 31
4 9 10
7
We may define Bohr magneton as the magnetic dipole moment associated with an atom due to the
orbital motion of an electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom.
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path in
vacuum is equal to 0 times the total current threading the closed path, i.e., 0 I
B.dl ------(32)
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× I5 I4
circulation
I3
ACW
I1 × I2
I I1 I 2 I 3 up + ve
down × – ve
This result is independent of the size and shape of the closed curve enclosing a current. This law is suitable
for infinitely long and symmetrical current distributions.
Proof
Consider a long straight conductor XY, lying in the plane of the paper. Let I be the current flowing in the
direction as shown in Fig. The magnetic field is produced around the conductor. The magnetic lines of force
are concentric circles perpendicular to the plane of the paper as shown by dotted lines.
Y
B
dl
r P
X
The magnitude of the magnetic field produced at a point P at distance r from the conductor is given by
0 2I 0 I
B . -------(33)
4 r 2r
The direction of B at every point is along the tangent to the circle. Consider a small element dl of the
circle of radius r at P. The direction of B and dl is the same. Therefore, angle between them is zero.
Therefore, line integral of B around the complete circular path of radius r is given by
0 I 0 I 0I
B.dl Bdl cos 0 Bdl 2r dl 2r dl 2r 2r I
0
0 -------(34)
where denotes integral around the closed path and dl 2 r circumference of the circle.
APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
1. Magnetic Field due to solenoid carrying current.
A solenoid consists of an insulated long wire closely wound in the form of a helix. Its length is very
large as compared to its diameter.
Consider a long straight solenoid having n turns per unit length and carrying current I. The magnetic
field set up in the solenoid is as shown in Fig. At points inside the long solenoid, the magnetic field is uniform
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and parallel to the length of the solenoid. At points outside the solenoid, the magnetic field is almost zero.
Consider a rectangle PQRS as shown in Fig. whereas PQ = L.
S R
I I P Q
B
Q R S P
B.dl B.dl B.dl B.dl B.dl = BL + 0 + 0 + 0 = BL ------- (35)
P
Q
R S
From Ampere’s circular law
l 0 total current through the rectangle PQRS
B.d
0 number of turns in rectangle I 0 nLI ------------(36)
From (35) and (36), we get BL 0 nLI or B 0 nI
It is to be noted that in case of a long straight solenoid, the relation
B 0 nI gives the magnetic field at a point well inside the solenoid. At a point, near the end of a
solenoid, magnetic field is found to be 0 nI / 2. From the study of magnetic lines of force due to current
carrying straight solenoid, we note that the magnetic field produced is just as is due to a permanent magnet.
The toroid
The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. It
can be viewed as a solenoid which has been bent into a circular shape to close on itself. It is shown in figure
carrying a current I. The field B inside the toroid is constant in magnitude for the ideal toroid of closely
wound turns.
Figure shows a sectional view of the toroid.
The direction of the magnetic field inside is clockwise as per the right-hand thumb rule for circular
loops. Three circular Amperian loops 1, 2 and 3 are shown by dashed lines. The circular areas bounded by
loops 2 and 3 both cut the toroid: so that each turn of current carrying wire is cut once by the loop 2 and
twice by the loop 3.
Let the magnetic field along loop 1 be B1 in magnitude. Then an Amepre’s circuital law, L 2r1 .
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However, the loop encloses no current, so Ie = 0.
Thus, B1 2 r1 0 0 , B1 0
Thus the magntic field at any point P in the open space inside the toroid is zero.
Let the magnetic field along loop 3 be B3. Once again from Ampere’s law L 2r3 . From the sectional
cut, we see that the current coming out of the plane of the paper is cancelled exactly by the current going
into it. Thus, Ie = 0, and B3 = 0. Let the magnetic field at S be B. Once again we employ Ampere’s law.
We find, L 2r ,
The current enclosed Ie is (for N turns of toroidal coil) NI.
B 2 r 0 NI
0 NI
B ----------- (37)
2r
Let r be the average radius of the toroid and n be the number of turns per unit length. Then
N 2rn = (average) perimeter of the toroid × number of turns per unit length. and thus,
B 0 nI -------- (38)
In an ideal toroid the coils are circular. In reality the turns of the toroidal coil form a helix and there is
always a small magnetic field external to the toroid.
FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENTS
Consider C1D1 and C2D2, two infinite long straight conductor carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same
direction. They are held parallel to each other at a distance r apart, in the plane of paper. The magnetic field
is produced due to current through each conductor shown separately in Fig.(a) and (b). Since each conductor
is in the magnetic field produced by the other, therefore, each conductor experiences a force.
Magnetic field at a point P on conductor C2D2 due to current I1 passing through C1D1 is given by
0 2I1
B1 --------------------(39)
4 r
D1 D2 D1 D2
r r
B1
r1
r2 P O
I1 I2 I1 B2 I2
C1 C2 C1 C2
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)
According to right hand rule, the direction of magnetic field B1 is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper, directed inwards.
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As the current carrying conductor C2D2 lies in the magnetic field B1 (produced by the current through
C1D1), therefore, the unit length of C2D2 will experience a force given by
F2 B1I 2 1 B1I 2
Putting the value of B1, we have
0 2I1I 2
F2 -----------------(40)
4 r
According to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, force on the conductor C2D2 acts in the plane of the paper
perpendicular to C2D2 , directed towards C1D1. Similarly, it can be shown that the conductor C1D1, also
experiences a force given by (40) which acts in the plane of the paper, perpendicular to C1D1 and directed
towards C2D2 . Hence C1D1 and C2D2 attract each other.
It means the two linear parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each other.
The force experienced by the unit length of each conductor is given by eqn.(40)
Further it can be shown that if the currents in the conductors C1D1 and C2D2 are in opposite direction,
they repel each other with the same force as
given by Eqn.(40).
D1 r D2
B1
I2
F1 F2
I1 B2
C1 C2
Relation (40) is used to define 1 ampere.
Let I1 I 2 1A; r 1m
0 2I1I 2 107 2 1 1
Then F 2 10 7 Nm 1
4 r 1
Thus one ampere is that much current which on flowing through each of the two parallel uniform linear
conductors placed in free space at a distance of one metre from each other produces between them a force
of 2 10 7 Nm 1 of their lengths.
TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider a rectangular coil PQRS suspended in a uniform magnetic field B. Let PQ = RS = l and QR =
SP = b. Let I be the current flowing through the coil in the direction PQ RS and be the angle which plane
of the coil makes with the direction of magnetic field The forces will be acting on the four arms of the coil.
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F4 S F3 = BIl
F3 b cos
T S
P I
B
I B
B1
o 1
B
90 I
R
F1
P
B
Q IF F1 = BIl
2
Let F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 be the forces acting on the four current carrying arms PQ, QR, RS and SP of the
coil
The force on arm SP is given by F4 I SP B
and F4 I SP Bsin 180 IbBsin
0
The direction of this force is in the direction of SP B i.e., in the plane of coil directed upwards. The
force on the arm QR is given by F2 I QR B or F2 I QR Bsin IbBsin
The direction of this force is in the plane of the coil directed downwards.
Since the forces F2 and F4 are equal in magnitude and acting in opposite directions along the same
straight line, they cancel out each other i.e., their resultant effect on the coil is zero.
Now, the force on the arm PQ is given by F1 I PQ B
F1 I PQ Bsin 900 IlB
According to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, the direction of this force is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper directed outwards (i.e., perpendicular to the plane of paper directed towards the reader).
And, force on the arm RS is given by
F3 I RS B I RS Bsin 90o I l B ( RS B)
The direction of this force, according to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper directed away from the reader i.e., into the page of the paper.
The forces acting on the arms PQ and RS are equal, parallel and acting in opposite direction along
different lines of action, they form a couple, the effect of which is to rotate the coil in the anti-clockwise
direction about the dotted line as axis.
The torque on the coil (equal to moment of couple) is given by either force arm of the couple
The forces F1 and F3 acting on the arms PQ and RS will be as shown in Fig. when seen from the top.
Arm of the couple ST PS cos b cos , IlB b cos IBA cos
If the rectangular coil has n turns, then nIBA cos ---------(41)
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Note. If the normal drawn on the plane of the coil makes an angle with the direction of magnetic field, then
900 or 900 ; And cos cos 900 sin
Then torque becomes, nIBAsin MBsin M B
where nIA = M = magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the rectangular current loop
---------------------(42)
M B.
This torque tends to rotate the coil about its own axis. Its value changes with angle between plane of
coil and direction of magnetic field.
Special cases
1. If the coil is set with its plane parallel to the direction of magnetic field B, then 00 and cos 1
Torque, = nIBA (1) = nIBA (maximum)
2. If the coil is set with its plane perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field B, then 900 and
cos 0 ; Torque, = nIBA (0) = 0 (Minimum)
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
Moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for detection and measurement of small electric
currents.
Principle
Its workings is based on the fact that when a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque.
Construction
It consists of a coil PQRS1 having large number of turns of insulated copper wire. The coil is wound
over a nonmagnetic metallic frame (usually brass) which may be rectangular or circular in shape. The coil
is suspended from a movable torsion head H by means of phosphor bronze strip in a uniform magnetic field
produced by two strong cylindrical magnetic pole pieces N and S.
N S
RADIAL FIELD
(TOP VIEW OF
THE GALVANOMETER)
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The lower end of the coil is connected to one end of a hair spring S' of quartz or phosphor bronze. The
other end of this highly elastic spring S' is connected to a terminal T2 . L is a soft iron core which may be
spherical if the coil is circular and, cylindrical, if the coil is rectangular. It is so held within the coil, that the coil
can rotate freely without touching the iron core or pole pieces. This makes the magnetic field linked with the
coil to be radial field i.e. the plane of the coil in all positions remains parallel to the direction of magnetic field.
M is a mirror attached to the phosphor bronze strip. This helps us to note the deflection of the coil using lamp
and scale arrangement. The whole arrangement is enclosed in a nonmetallic case to avoid disturbance due
to air etc. The torsion head is connected to terminal T1. The galvanometer can be connected to the circuit
through terminals T1 and T2.
Theory
Suppose the coil PQRS, is suspended freely in the magnetic field.
Let l = length PQ or RS, of the coil, b = breadth QR or S,P of the coil,
n = number of turns in the coil, Area of each turn of the coil, A = l b.
Let, B = Strength of the magnetic field in which coil is suspended.
I = current passing through the coil in the direction PQRS as shown in Fig.
Let at any instant, be the angle which the normal drawn on the plane of the coil makes with direction
of field.
The rectangular coil carrying current when placed in the magnetic field experiences a torque whose
magnitude is given by nIBA sin .
If the magnetic field is radial i.e., the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field
then 900 and sin 1. nIBA
Due to this torque, the coil rotates. The phosphor bronze strip gets twisted. As a result of it, a restoring
torque comes into play in the phosphor bronze strip, which would try to restore the coil back to its original
position.
Let be the twist produced in the phosphor bronze strip due to rotation of the coil and k be the
restoring torque per unit twist of the phosphor bronze strip, then, Total restoring torque produced = k
In equilibrium position of the coil, Deflecting Torque = Restoring Torque
k
nIBA = k ; or I or I G ----------(43)
nBA
k
where G a constant for a galvanometer called galvanometer constant.
nBA
I . It means, the deflection produced is proportional to the current flowing through the galvanometer..
Such a galvanometer has a linear scale.
Current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a
unit current flows through it.
nBA
If is the deflection in the galvanometer when current I is passed through it, then Is --(44)
I k
The unit of current sensitivity is rad. A-1 or division A-1
Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a
unit voltage is applied across the two terminals of the galvanometer.
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Let, V = voltage applied across the two terminals of the galvanometer,
Deflection produced in the galvanometer..
Then voltage sensitivity Vs ; If R = resistance of the galvanometer..
V
nBA
I = current through it, Then V= IR; Voltage sensitivity, Vs ---------(45)
IR kR
The unit of Vs is rad V-1 or division V-1
Conditions for a sensitive galvanometer.
A galvanometer is said to be very sensitive if it shows large deflection even when a small current is
nBA
passed through it. For the galvanometer I
k
For a given value of I, will be large if nBA/k is large. It is so if (a) n is large (b) B is large (c) A is large and
(d) k is small.
SHUNT
Shunt is a low resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer to reduce the current through it
and hence its sensitiveness
I = total current in the circuit,
Ig = I – Is------------------------(46)
According to ohm’s law, p.d between points A and B I g G IsS -------------------(47)
S
IS IS
G
I A Ig Ig B I
S
or I g G (I Ig )S or I g (G S) IS or Ig I
G S
Putting the value of Ig from (46) in (47) we get
G
(I IS )G IsS or IG I s (G S) or Is I ---------------(48)
G S
AMMETER
An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer. It is used to measure the current in a circuit in ampere.
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a suitable low resistance wire in parallel
with the galvanometer.
Let G = resistance of the galvanometer,
n = number of scale division in the galvanometer.
K = figure of merit or current for one scale deflection in the galvanometer, Ig = nK.
Let I be the maximum current to be measured by galvanometer.
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AMMETER
(I – Ig) (I – Ig)
G
I A Ig Ig B I
A suitable shunt of resistance S is connected in parallel with the galvanometer so that out of the total
current I, a part Ig should pass through the galvanometer and the remaining part (I – Ig) flows through the
shunt. Now, potential difference between the points A and B is given by
Ig
VA VB I g G I Ig S or S
II G ----------------(49)
g
Thus S can be calculated.
If this value of shunt resistance S is connected in parallel with galvanometer it works as an ammeter
for the range 0 to I ampere. Now the same scale of the galvanometer which was recording the maximum
current Ig before conversion into ammeter will record the maximum current I, after conversion into ammeter.
The effective resistance Rp of ammeter
1 1 1 S G GS
Rp
Rp G S GS or G S
----------(50)
As the shunt resistance is small, the combined resistance of the galvanometer and the shunt is very
low and hence ammeter has a much lower resistance than galvanometer. An ideal ammeter has zero
resistance.
VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. It is used to measure the potential difference between
two points of a circuit in volt.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a suitable high resistance in series
with the galvanometer. The value of the resistance depends upon the range of voltmeter:
Let, G = resistance of the galvanometer,
n= number of scale divisions in the galvanometer,
K = Figure of merit of galvanometer i.e. current for one scale deflection of the galvanometer.
VOLTMETER
R
G
A Ig B
V
Current which produces full scale deflection in the galvanometer, Ig = nK.
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Let V be the potential difference to be measured by the galvanometer. To do so, a resistance R of
such a value is connected in series with the galvanometer so that if a potential difference V is applied across
the terminals A and B, a current Ig flows through the galvanometer.
Now, total resistance of voltmeter G + R
V V
From Ohm’s law, I g or GR
GR Ig
V
or R G ---------------------(51)
Ig
If this value of R is connected in series with galvanometer, it works as a voltmeter of the range 0 to V volt.
Now the same scale of the galvanometer which was recorded the maximum potential ‘IgG’ before conversion
will record the potential V after conversion into voltmeter.
Effective resistance Rs of converted galvanometer into Voltmeter is Rs = G + R
For voltmeter, a high resistance R is connected in series with the galvanometer, therefore, the resistance
of voltmeter is very large as compared to that of the galvanometer. The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is
infinity.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 7. A current loop placed in a magnetic field behaves
like a:
1. Particles having positive charges occasionally come
with high velocity from the sky towards the earth. 1) magnetic dipole
On account of magnetic field of earth they would be 2) magnetic substance
deflected towards 3) magnetic pole
1) North 2) South 3) East 4) West 4) all are true
2. The magnetic field of induction at a point 4 cm from 8. A charged particle moving in a magnetic field
a long current carrying wire is 10-3T. The field of experiences a resultant force:
induction at a distance of 1.0 cm from the same 1) in a direction of magnetic field
current carrying wire will be: 2) in the direction opposite to the magnetic field
1) 2 10 4 T 2) 3 10 4 T 3) in the direction perpendicular to both the magnetic
field and its velocity
3) 4 10 3 T . 10 4 T
4) 111 4) none of the above
3. The strength of the magnetic field around an infinite 9. A magnetic field
current carrying conductor is: 1) always exerts a force on a charged particle
1) same every where 2) never exerts a force on a charged particle
2) directly proportional to distance 3) exerts a force, if the charged particle is moving
3) inversely proportional to distance across the magnetic field lines
4) inversely proportional to the square of the distance 4) exerts a force, if the charged particle is moving
along the magnetic field lines
4. A current is flowing north along a power line. The
10. A long solenoid has radius a and number of turns per
direction of the magnetic field above it, neglecting
unit length is n. If it carries a current I, then the
the earth’s field is towards:
magnetic field on its axis is directly proportional to:
1) north 2) east 1) anI 2) nI 3) nI/a 4) n2I
3) south 4) west 11. An electric charge is held at rest in a region of space
5. An electron having a charge e moves with a velocity filled with non-uniform magnetic field. As soon as it
u in X - direction. An electric field acts on it in Y - is left free:
direction. The force on the electron acts in: 1) it will move in the direction of the field
1) positive direction Y - axis 2) it will move opposite to the direction of field
2) negative direction of Y - axis 3) it will move perpendicular to the direction of field
3) positive direction of Z - axis 4) it will remain at rest
12. A current carrying rectangular coil is placed in a
4) negative direction of Z - axis
uniform magnetic field. In which orientation, the coil
6. An electron enters a region where magnetic B and
di will not tend to rotate?
1) the magnetic field is parallel to the plane of the
di
electric E fields are mutually perpendicular to one
coil
another then:
2) the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane
1) it will always move in the direction of B of the coil
2) it will always move in the direction of E 3) the magnetic field is at 45o with the plane of the
coil
3) it always possesses circular motion
4) always in any orientation
4) it can go undeflected also
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13. A current carrying loop is free to turn in a uniform 18. Two infinitely long, thin, insulated, straight wires lie
magnetic field. The loop will then come into in the x-y plane along the x and y axes respectively.
equilibrium when its plane is inclined at: Each wire carries a current I, respectively in the
1) zero degree to direction of the field positive x-direction and positive y - direction. The
magnetic field will be zero at all points on the straight
2) 45o to the direction of the field line:
3) 90o to the direction of the field 1) y = –x2 2) y = –x
4) 135o to the direction of the field\ 3) y = x – 1 4) y = x
14. An electron and a proton with equal momentum enter 19. Two concentric coils of 10 turns each are situated in
perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic field: the same plane. Their radii are 20 cm and 40 cm and
1) the path of proton shall be more curved than that they carry respectively 0.2 and 0.3 ampere current
of electron in opposite directions. The magnetic field
2) the path of proton shall be less curved than that in Wb / m 2 at the centre is:
of electron
35 0
3) both are equally curved 1) 0 2)
4 80
4) path of both will be straight line
7 5
15. The magnetic flux density B at a distance r from a 3) 0 4) 0
long straight wire carrying current varies with 80 4
distance r as shown in fig: 20. A solenoid of 1.5 m length and 4 cm diameter
possesses 10 turns per cm. A current of 5 A is
flowing through it. The magnetic field at the axis
1) 2) inside the solenoid is:
1) 2 103 T 2) 2 105 T
3) 4 103 G 4) 2 105 G
3) 4) 21. A current I flows along the length of an infinitely
long straight, thin-walled pipe. Then:
1) the magnetic field at all points inside the pipe is
16. The direction of magnetic field at a point due to an the same but not zero
infinitely long wire carrying current is:
2) the magnetic field at any point inside the pipe is
1) parallel to current zero
2) antiparallel to the current 3) the magnetic field is zero only on the axis of the
3) along the perpendicular drawn form a point on pipe
the wire 4) the magnetic field is different at different points
4) perpendicular to the plane containing the inside the pipe
conductor and the point 22. A straight wire of length 0.5 m and carrying a current
17. A straight wire is carrying an electric current: of 1.2 ampere is placed in a uniform magnetic field
of induction 2 tesla. The magnetic field is
1) there are no magnetic lines of force near the wire perpendicular to the length of the wire. The force on
2) there are lines of force and they are circular lines the wire is:
encircling the wire 1) 2.4 N 2) 1.2 N 3) 3.0 N 4) 2.0 N
3) the lines of force are straight lines parallel to the 23. A power line lies along the east-west direction and
wire and in the same direction as the current carries a current of 10 ampere. The force per meter
4) the lines of force are straight lines parallel to the due to the earth’s magnetic field of 10-4 T is:
wire in the direction opposite to the current 1) 10-5 N 2) 10-4 N 3) 10-3 N 4) 10-2 N
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24. Two very long, straight, parallel wires carry steady 1) 3 × 10–6 m/sec 2) 1.5 × 103 m/sec
currents I and -I respectively. The distance between 3) 1.6 × 104 m/sec 4) 6 × 10–3 m/sec
the wires is d. At a certain instant of time, a point
charge q is at a point equidistant from the two wires, 32. A magnetic field of 5.0 × 10–4 T just balances a
in the plane of the wires. Its instantaneous velocity perpendicular electric field of 15 kV/m in their effect
on an electron beam passing through the two fields
v is perpendicular to this plane. The magnitude of
in a direction perpendicular to both of them. What is
the force due to the magnetic field acting on the
the speed of the electrons?
charge at this instant is:
1) 75 m/s 2) 3 × 104 m/s
I qv Iqv 2 0 Iqv
1) 0 2) 0 3) 4) zero 3) 7.5 × 104 m/s 4) 3 × 107 m/s
2 d d d
25. A coil carrying electric current is placed in a uniform 33. A beam of electrons at rest is accelerated by a
magnetic field, then: potential V. This beam experiences a force F in a
1) torque is formed 2) emf is induced uniform magnetic field. The accelerating potential is
increased to V/ and the force experienced by the
3) both 1 and 2 4) none of the above
electrons in the same magnetic field is
26. A circular loop of area 0.01 m2 and carrying a current 2 F. The ratio V/V/ is:
of 10 ampere is placed parallel to a magnetic field of
intensity of 0.1 T. The torque (in N-m) acting on the 1) 1 2) 2 3) 1/2 4) 1/4
loop is: 34. Two thin long parallel wires separated by a distance
1) 1.1 2) 0.8 3) 0.001 4) 0.01 b are carrying a current i amp. each. The magnitude
27. A circular loop of radius R carrying a current I is of the force per unit length exerted by one wire on
placed in a uniform magnetic field B. The force on the other is:
the loop is:
Fi I i
2 2
0i 0i
1) 2RIB
2 3
2) 2RI B 3) R 2 IB 4) zero GH JK 2) 2b
1) 0 b 2 0
3)
2b
4)
4b
28. An electron moving east is acted on by a magnetic
field in the north direction. The force on the electron 35. The electrons in the beam of a television tube have
is: an energy of 12 KeV. The tube is oriented so that
1) vertically upwards 2) vertically downwards the electrons move horizontally from south to north.
3) towards north 4) towards east The vertical component of earth’s magnetic field
points down and has B = 5.5 10–5 weber/m2. In
e j
29. If electron velocity is 2 i 3 j and it is subjected to what direction will the beam deflect?
a magnetic field 4 k , then: 1) north 2) south 3) east 4) west
1) speed will change 2) path will change 36. The magnetic field at the centre of a square loop of
3) both 1 and 2 4) none of the above side L carrying current I, is:
30. An electron (mass 9 × 10-31 kg, charge 1.6 × 10-19
0 I 2 0 4 2 I
C) moving with a velocity of 106 m/s enters a region 1) . 2) .
where a magnetic field exists. If it describes a circle 4 L 4 L
of radius 0.1 m, the intensity of the magnetic field
0 8 2 I
must be: 3) . 4) zero
4 L
1) 1.8 × 10–4 T 2) 5.6 × 10–5 T
3) 14.4 × 10–5 T 4) 1.4 × 10–6 T 37. An electron is moving along positive x-axis. To get it
moving on an anticlockwise circular path in x-y plane,
31. An electron of mass 0.9 × 10–30 kg under the action
a magnetic field is applied:
of a magnetic field moves in a circle of 2.0 cm radius
at a speed of 3 × 106 m/s. If a proton of mass 1.8 × 1) along positive y-axis
10–27 kg were to move in a circle of the same radius 2) along positive z-axis
and if it were acted upon by the same field then its
3) along negative y - axis
speed will be:
4) along negative z-axis
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38. A current I flows in an infinitely long wire with cross- 44. Statement I : An electron and proton enter a
section in the form of a semicircular ring of radius magnetic field with equal velocities,
R. The magnitude of the magnetic induction along then, the force experienced by the
its axis is: proton will be more than the electron.
0 I 0 I 0 I 0 I Statement II : The mass of proton is 1837 times
1) 2) 3) 4) more than the electron.
2 R 2 2 R 2 R 4 R
45. Statement I : Force experienced by moving
39. An ammeter has a resistance of G ohm and a range charge will be maximum if the
of ‘i’ ampere. The value of resistance used in parallel direction of velocity of charge is
to convert it into an ammeter of range ‘ni’ ampere is: parallel to the applied magnetic field.
G G Statement II : Force is independent of the direction
1) nG 2) (n–1) G 3) 4)
n n 1 of applied magnetic field.
40. A voltmeter has a resistance of G ohm and range of 46. Statement I : A solenoid tends to expand when a
V volt. The value of resistance used in series to current passes through it.
convert it into a voltmeter of range nV volt is: Statement II : Two straight parallel metallic wires
G G carrying current in the same direction
1) n G 2) (n–1)G 3) 4) repel each other.
n n 1
Assertion - Reason Match the following
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and 47. A charged particle enters in a uniform magnetic field
the Reason is true explanation of the Assertion perpendicular to it. Now, match the following two
columns.
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion Column I Column II
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false A) Speed of the particle p) is constant
4) Both Assertion and Reason are false B) Velocity of the particle q) is not constant
41. Assertion : A moving charge does not produce C) Acceleration of the particle r) is maximum
any magnetic field around it.
D) Force on the particle s) is minimum
Reason : A moving charge is equivalent to
current and produces electric field 1) A - p; B - q, r; C - q; D - r
only. 2) A - p; B - q; C - q; D - r
42. Assertion : For a point on the axis of a circular
3) A - p; B - q; C - q; D - q, r
coil carrying current, the magnetic
field is maximum at the centre of 4) A - p; B - q, r; C - q; D - q
the coil. Integer
Reason : Magnetic field is inversely
proportional to the distance of point 48. A proton of mass m and charge +e is moving in a
from the centre along the axis of circular orbit of magnetic field with energy 1 MeV.
circular coil. The energy of a-particle (mass 4m and charge + 2e)
so that it can revolve in the path of same radius as
43. Assertion : A linear solenoid carrying current is
that of proton is ..... MeV
equivalent to a bar magnet.
Reason : The magnetic field lines due to the 49. A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of
current carrying solenoid resemble 900 . In order to send only 10% of the main current
exactly with those of a bar magnet. through this galvanometer, the resistance of the
Statement required shunt is ......
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true 50. If only 2% of the main current is to be passed through
a galvanometer of resistance G, then the resistance
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false G
of shunt will be . The value of X will be
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true X
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 3 Using Fleming’s left hand rule, field that they
are deflected toward east. 15. 3 B 1
r
B1 r2
3 0 idl r
2. 3 B2 r1 ; B2 4 10 T 16. 4 dB
4 r 3
0i
3. 3 B dB is or to both idl and r
2r
17. 2 Current carrying wire gives both electric field
4. 2 Right hand thumb Rule gives direction of field. and magneticfield. Hence there are lines of force
(Take the conductor on your right hand with and they are circular lines encircling the wire
thumb points along the direction of current. Then
folded fingers gives the direction of magnetic
field.
5. 2 Force on electron in electric field
F eE eEj
6. 4 If force on the electron due to electric field is
equal and opposite to the force on electron due
to magnetic field, then electron will go 18. 4
undeflected
7. 3 Magnetic field due the current carrying wires
are opposing each other in the first quadrant and
the third quadrant and they will be equal at equal
distances from each axis.
looking from the top current is anti clock wise So equation for null point y = x, y – x = 0
(induced polarity is north). While looking from
the bottom current is clock wise (induced polar- B
LM
0 n I1 I 2
OP
19. 4
ity is south). Hence a current loop placed in a N
2 a1 a 2 Q
magnetic field behaves like a magnetic dipole.
0 10 LM
0.2
0.3 OP
= 2 N
20 10 2 40 10 2 Q
20. 1 B 0 ni 4 107 103 5
= 2 10 3 T
8. 3
F q vB 21. 2
22. 2 F=Bil
V B is or to both V and B
23. 3 Forceper unit length (f) = iB = 10 104 10 3 N
9. 3 F = qVB sin 24. 4 Velocity of the particle is parallel to the magnetic
field, so force is zero.
10. 2 B = 0 ni
25. 1 Current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field
11. 4 F = q VB sin ; F = 0 when V = 0 will experience torque.
12. 2 = NIAB cos ; = 0 when = 900 26. 4 BiAn
13. 3 Torque = 0, when = 900 27. 4 A magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field
experience only a torque, no force. If the field is
mv p
14. 3 r non uniform, dipole experiences both force and
qB qB torque.
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28. 2 Apply flemings left hand rule.
37. 2 Velocity of e V viˆ
29. 2
F e B , Here electron will experience
magnetic force hence its path will change.
mv 2 mv
30. 2 Bqv; B
r rq
In this case the direction of force is along + y
mv 2
qBr v2 m1 qBr axis.
31. 2 q vB ; v , v m ; v
r m 1 2 m F e V B
32. 4 qvB = qE, v = E/B Ĵ ˆi kˆ kˆ ˆi , So, B is along +ve z-axis.
1 2 Vq
33. 4 F Bqv; mv 2 Vq; v 38. 1 For an elemental portion
2 m
2 Vq
F Bq ; F V ;
m d Rd
F12 V1 V F2 1
; / 2
F22 V2 V 4F 4 I Id
Elemental circuit dI Rd
R
ol1l2 i2 0 I
34. 2 f , l1 l2 i ; f 0
2b 2 b Elemental field dB
2 R
35. 3 Right Hand Rule - For negatively charged
B dB sin d ; Putting dB in this eqn.
particles.
0
Stretch the thumb, middle finger and index finger
of the right hand in a mutually perpendicular 0I
B = 2dB; B
manner. If the negatively charged particle is 2R
moved in the direction of the middle finger and IgG G
the magnetic field is oriented in the direction of 39. 4 S ; I nIg ; S
I Ig n 1
index finger, then the force on the particle will
be along the thumb. V nV
R G G ( n 1)G
40. 2 Ig V/G a f
36. 3 41. 4
42. 3
43. 1
44. 4
45. 2
46. 2
47. 3
B2 q 2 r 2
1 2 45 ; a = L/2 48. 1 KE of charged particle E
2m
magneticfield at centre due to one side 49. 100
IgG 0.1 I G
i i 2 I g 0.1I; S 100
0 sin 45 sin 45 ; B1 0 I Ig 0.9I
4a 2L 50. 49
0 8 2I 2 I gG 2I G G
Ig I; S
Total field (B) 4B1 100
x
LM
(I I g ) ; 100 I 2I OP 49
4 L N 100 Q
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CHAPTER - 05
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
Introduction
The word magnet is derived from the name of an island in Greece called magnesia where magnetic
ore deposits were found, as early as 600 BC.
The directional property of magnets was also known since ancient times. A thin long piece of a magnet,
when suspended freely, pointed in the north-south direction. The name lodestone (or loadstone) given to a
naturally occurring ore of iron-magnetite means leading stone. The technological exploitation of this property
is generally credited to the Chinese. Chinese use magnetic needles for navigation on ships.
Basic Properties of magnets
1. A magnet attracts magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel towards it.
2. When a magnet is suspended freely with the help of an unspun thread, it comes to rest along the north
south direction.
Poles N and S are situated a little inwards from the geometrical ends. If L is the distance between the
5L
geometrical ends of a magnet, then the distance between the magnetic poles are 2l .
6
The straight line passing through north and south poles of a magnet is called axial line of the magnet.
A line passing through centre of the magnet in a direction perpendicular to the length of the magnet is
called equatorial line of the magnet.
3. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
4. The force of attraction or repulsion F between two magnetic poles of strengths m1 and m2 separated by
a distance r is directly proportional to the product of pole strengths and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centres ie,
m1m 2 mm
F 2
or F K 1 2 2 , where K is the magnetic force constant.
r r
m1m 2 0
In C.G.S. system K = 1, F ; In S.I. units, K 10 7 WbA 1m 1
r 2
4
Where 0 is the absolute magnetic permeability of free space or air..
0 m1m2
F
4 r2 --------------(1)
This is called Coulomb’s law of magnetic force.
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5. We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet is broken into two halves, we
get two similar bar magnets with somewhat weaker properties. Unlike electric charges, isolated magnetic
north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is defined as the space around a magnet or the space around a conductor carrying
current, in which the magnetic effect can be experienced.
The S.I. unit of magnetic field is tesla.
Uniform magnetic field
× × × ×
× × × ×
× × × ×
× × × ×
In the plane of paper Outward Inward
Magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform, if the magnetic field vector B has the same magnitude
and the same direction at all points in the region.
Magnetic Lines of force
The magnetic field lines represent the magnetic field in the same way as the electric field lines represent
an electric field.
A
B
P
The magnetic lines of force do not exist in reality. They are only hypothetical lines, which enable us to
understand certain phenomena in magnetism.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
Following are some of the important properties of magnetic lines of force:
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed continuous curves, we may imagine them to be extending through
the body of the magnet.
2. Outside the body of the magnet, the direction of magnetic lines of force is from north pole to south pole.
3. The tangent to magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.
4. No two magnetic lines of force can intersect each other.
5. Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and they dilate laterally.
6. Crowding of magnetic lines of force represents stronger magnetic field and vice-versa.
Note : There is one fundamental difference between electricity and magnetism. In electricity, an isolated
charge can exist, but in magnetism, an isolated magnetic pole does not exist.
The essential difference between magnetic and electric lines of force is that magnetic lines of force are
closed, continuous curves, the electric lines of force are discontinuous.
Magnetic Dipole : A magnetic dipole consists of two poles of equal strength and separated by a small
distance.
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Magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of pole strength and the distance between the two
poles.
M = m( 2l )---------------------(2)
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity directed from south to north pole as shown in Fig.
S N
The S.I. unit of M are joule/tesla or ampere metre2.
Magnetic Field Vector B
If a test pole of strength m0 at a point P in a magnetic field B experiences a force F , the field vector at
that point will be
F
B i.e., F m 0 B
m0
Now if the field is produced by a pole of strength m from which the field point is at a distance r, by
0 m0 m F 0 m
inverse square law, F n; so, B n
4 r 2 m 0 4 r 2
Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid
The magnetic dipole moment m associated with a current loop was defined to be m = NIA where N is
the number of turns in the loop. I the current and A the area vector.
The resemblance of magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a solenoid suggest that a bar magnet
may be thought of as a large number of circulating currents in analogy with a solenoid. Cutting a bar magnet
in half is like cutting a solenoid. We get two smaller solenoids with weaker magnetic properties. The field
lines remain continuous, emerging from one face of the solenoid and entering into the other face.
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Let the solenoid of figure (a) consists of n turns per unit length. Let its length be 2 and radius a. Consider
a circular element of thickness dx of the solenoid at a distance x from its centre. It consists of n dx turns. Let I
be the current in t he solenoid. The magnitude of the field at point P due to the circular element is
0 ndxIa 2
dB 3/ 2
2 r x a 2
2
The magnitude of the total field is obtained by summing over all the elements - in other words by
integrating from x to x . Thus
0 nIa 2 dx
B
2 3/ 2
r x a
2 2
Consider the far axial field of the solenoid i.e., r >> a and r >>
Then the denominator is approximated by
3/ 2
r x 2 a 2 r3
0 nIa 2 0 nI 2a 2
and B
2r 3 dx
2 r3
The magnitude of the magnetic moment of the solenoid is, M n 2 I a 2 - (total number of turns
× current × cross-sectional area).
0 2M
B ----- (2)
4 r 3
Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of a bar
magnet is thus equal to the magnetic moment of an equivalent solenoid that produces the same magnetic
field.
The magnetic field due to the bar magnet is then obtained, both for the axial and the equatorial case, in
a manner analogous to that of an electric dipole. The method is simple and appealing. However, magnetic
monopoles do not exist, and we have avoided this approach, for that reason.
The dipole in uniform magnetic field.
Place a small compass needle of known magnetic moment m and moment of inertia I and allow it to
oscillate in a magnetic field.
The torque on the needle is M B ------ (3)
In magnitude MBsin
Here is restoring torque and is the angle between m and B.
d 2
Therefore, in equilibrium I MBsin
dt 2
Negative sign with MBsin implies that restoring torque is in opposition to deflecting torque. For
small values of in radians, we approximate sin and get
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d2 d 2 MB
I 2
MB or 2
dt dt I
MB
This represents a simple harmonic motion. The square of the angular frequency is
2
and the
I
time period is
I 4 2 I
T 2 or B --------- (4)
MB MT 2
Magnetism and Gauss’s Law
Consider a small vector area element S of a closed surface S as in figure. The magnetic flux through
S is defined as B B.S , where B is the field at S . We dvidie S into many small area elements
and calculate the individual flux through each. Then, the net flux B is,
B B B.S 0
all all
Compare this with the Gauss’s law of electrostatics. The flux through a closed surface in that case is
given by
q
E.S
0
where q is the electric charge enclosed by the surface.
The difference between the Gauss’s law of magnetism and that for electrostatics is a reflection of the
fact taht isolated magnetic poles (aslo called monopoles) are not known to exist. There are no sources
or sinks of B; the simplest magnetic element is a dipole or a current loop. All magnetic phenomena can
be explained in terms of an arrangement of dipoles and / or current loops. Thus, Gauss’s law for
magnetism is:
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
Torque on a bar magnet in a magnetic field.
In Fig., a uniform magnetic field B is represented by equidistant parallel lines, NS is a bar magnet of
length 2l and strength of each pole = m. The magnet is held at with the direction of B .
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N
mB
N S
mB S A
Force on N-pole = mB, along B . Force on S-pole = mB, opposite to B .
When a dipole is placed in a uniform field, the net force on it, FR mB m B 0
These forces being equal, unlike and parallel form a couple, which tends to rotate the magnet clockwise so
as to align it along B . Draw NA perpendicular to B and SA || B .
= moment of the couple = mB
Torque acting on the bar magnet. NA.--------------- (5)
NA NA
NAS, sin NA 2l sin
NS 2l
Put in (5) mB 2l sin ; M B s in ---------- (6)
In vector form, we can rewrite this equation as M B
The direction of is perpendicular to the plane containing M and B , and acting inwards .and is given
by right handed screw rule.
When B = 1 and 90 o , then from (6); = M x 1 × sin 90o = M or M =
Hence we may define magnetic dipole moment as the torque acting on a dipole held perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field of unit strength.
Unit of M is unit of divided by unit of B . Therefore, the S.I.unit of M is joule per tesla (JT–1).
Current loop as a magnetic dipole
Consider a plane loop of wire carrying current. Looking at the upper face, current is anti-clockwise.
Therefore, it is a north polarity. Looking at the lower face of the loop, current is clockwise. Therefore, it has
a south polarity. The current carrying loop thus behaves as a system of two equal and opposite magnetic
poles and hence is a magnetic dipole.
Atom as a magnetic Dipole
Since the electrons in an atom are in continuous motion, a current flows in opposite direction. Due to
the current flow a magnetic moment is developed and atom behaves as a magnet.
i
e–
r
TOP FACE
e–
i
M
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Charge e 2
i where T the period of revolution of electron
Time T
e e
i ----------------(7)
2 / 2
Area of the orbit A r2
e 2 1
Magnetic moment of the atom is given by M iA r i.e., M er 2 -------(8)
2 2
According to Bohr’s theory, an electron in an atom can revolve only in certain stationary orbits-in which
h
angular momentum of electron (mvr) is an integral multiple of , where h is the Planck’s constant.
2
nh nh
mvr = m(r)r or r2
2 2m
Put in (8); Using Bohrs theory magnetic moment is written as
1 nh eh eh
M e. n n B ----------(9) where B
2 2m 4m 4m
The magnetic moment of an atom is quantized and the least value of atomic dipole moment M is
eh . This is called Bohr Magneton. It serves as the unit of atomic magnetic dipole moment.
B
4m
eh 1.6 10 19 6.6 10 34
B ---------(10) ; B 9.27 10 24 ampere metre 2
4m 22
4 9 10 31
7
We may define Bohr magneton as the magnetic dipole moment associated with an atom due to the
orbital motion of an electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom.
Some important Terms used in Magnetism
1. Magnetic Permeability
It is the ability of a material to permit the passage of magnetic lines of force through it i.e., the degree or
extent to which magnetic field can penetrate a material. It is represented by . It is the ratio between
B
magnetic flux density and magnetic field strength
H
Relative magnetic permeability of a material is defined as the ratio of the number of lines of magnetic
induction per unit area (i.e. flux density B) in that material to the number of magnetic lines per unit area
that would be present, if the medium were replaced by vacuum. (i.e., flux density B0).
B
i.e. r
B0 ---------------------(11)
r has no dimensions. Its value for vacuum is one. 0 permeability of free space
B0
0 , B0 - Magnetic flux density of free space.
H
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B/H B
r
0 B0 / H B0
–1
We know that 0 107 Weber/Amp- metre or henry/m
2. Magnetic Induction (or Flux Density) B
When a positive test charge q0 is fired with a velocity v through a point P and the moving charge
experiences a sideways force F , we assert that a magnetic field is present at P. The magnetic induction
B of this field is a vector satisfying Lorentz force equation. F q 0 ( v B)
Magnitude of this force is, F q 0 vB sin ----------------(12)
where is angle between v and B
We may define magnetic induction or flux density of magnetic field being equal to the force experienced
by a unit positive charge moving with unit velocity in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field.
2
S.I. Unit of B is weber/metre (Wbm-2) or Tesla
3. Magnetizing force or Magnetic Intensity H
The degree to which a magnetic field can magnetize a material is represented in terms of magnetizing
force or magnetic intensity ( H ). The magnetic induction of the field produced in the material of the
toroidal solenoid B nI ------(13)
The product ‘nI’ is called the magnetizing force or magnetic intensity H i.e.,
H = n I, so that B H --------------(14)
If inside the toroidal solenoid, there is free space, then magnetic induction.
B0 0 H ------------------(15); where 0 is permeability of free space,
B0 F
The SI units of H are ampere turn/metre i.e.,Am-1. From (15), H
0 q 0 v 0
N
The unit for H is 1 1
Nm 2 T 1 or Jm 1Wb 1
C(ms )TmA
4. Intensity of Magnetization ( I )
It represents the extent to which a specimen is magnetized, when placed in a magnetising field.
Quantitatively, the intensity of magnetization of a magnetic material is defined as the magnetic moment
per unit volume of the material.
Magnetic moment M
I ----------------(16)
volume V
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If a = uniform area of cross-section of the magnetised specimen (a rectangular bar)
2l = magnetic length of the specimen
m = strength of each pole of the specimen,
m 2l m
from (23), I ------------(17)
a 2l a
Hence intensity of magnetization of a magnetic material is also defined as the pole strength per unit
area of cross-section of the material
magnetic moment Amp.metre2
I 3
Am 1
volume metre
5. Magnetic susceptibility ( m )
It is a property which determines how easily a specimen can be magnetized.
Susceptibility of a magnetic material is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization ( I ) induced
in the material to the magnetizing force (H) applied. Susceptibility is represented by m .
I
Thus m ------------------(18)
H
By definition I is magnetic moment per unit volume, m is usually called volume susceptibility of the
material.
Relation Between magnetic Permeability and susceptibility
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetizing field of magnetic intensity H , the materialgets
magnetized. The total magnetic induction B in the material is the sum of the magnetic induction B0 in
vacuum produced by the magnetic intensity and magnetic induction B m due to magnetization of the material,
therefore,
B B0 Bm ------------------(19)
But B0 0H and Bm 0 I, where I is the intensity of magnetization induced in the magnetic material.
Therefore, from (19); B 0 H 0 I 0 (H I ) ; r 1 m -------------(20)
Note : The C.G.S unit of magnetic induction B is Gauss which is 10-4 tesla
B 0 (H m H) 0 H(1 m )
But B H H 0 H(1 m )
r = 1 m ---------- (21)
0
The C.G.S unit of magnetic intensity H is the oersted
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Classifications of Magnetic materials
On the basis of their magnetic properties, different materials have been classified by Faraday into the
following three categories:
(a) Diamagnetic substances (b) Paramagnetic substances, and (c) Ferromagnetic substances. Their
main characteristics are discussed below.
(a) Diamagnetic Substances
Diamagnetic Substances are those in which the individual atoms/molecules do not possess any net
magnetic moment on their own.
When a sample of diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field of induction ( B) a small
magnetic moment is produced in each atom/molecule/ion proportional to B but pointing in the opposite
direction. For example, bismuth, antimony etc.
Important properties of diamagnetic substances are:
(i) When suspended in a uniform magnetic field, they set their longest axis at right angles to the direction
of the field.
(ii) When placed in a nonuniform magnetic field, these substances move from stronger parts of the field
to the weaker parts.
(iii) The level of a diamagnetic liquid in U tube is depressed, instead of rising when subjected to a magnetic
field.
This is as if a diamagnetic substance expels field lines.
Permeability of diamagnetic substances is always less than unity r
0 , 0 , B B0
Diamagnetic substances expell lines of force when placed in magnetic field superconductors are
diamagnetic.
I
Susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is negative. m ~ 105
H
Susceptibility of diamagnetic substances does not change with temperature.
(b) Paramagnetic substances
Paramagnetic substances are those in which each individual atom/molecule/ion has a net non zero
magnetic moment of its own. When such a material is placed in an external magnetic field of induction
B , it tries to align the individual dipole moments in the direction of the field. For strong values of B
there is a net average magnetic dipole moment density in the direction of B. Examples are magnesium,
molybdenum, lithium, tantalum etc. Some of the other important properties of paramagnetic
substances are :
(i) When suspended in a uniform magnetic field, they set their longest arm along the direction of the field.
(ii) When placed in a nonuniform magnetic field, they move from weaker parts of the field to the stronger
parts.
(iii) When a magnetic field is applied to the level of a paramagnetic liquid in one limb of a U-tube, the liquid
level rises.
Permeability of paramagnetic substances are greater than unity. r 1 , i.e.,
0 0
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(iv) Susceptibility of paramagnetic substances varies inversely as the temperature of the substance i.e.,
1
m they lose their magnetic characters with rise in temperature. m is slightly greater than unity..
T
(c) Ferromagnetic substances
Ferromagnetic substances are those in which each individual atom/molecule/ion has a non zero magnetic
moment, as in a paramagnetic substance. The individual magnetic moments interact with one another in
such a way as to align themselves spontaneously in a common direction over microscopic volumes. This
leads to formation of domains. All the atomic dipole moments in a domain are lined up leading to some net
magnetic moment. As net magnetic moment varies randomly from one domain to other, there is no bulk
magnetic moment of ferromagnetic material. When a ferromagnetic material is placed in an external
magnetic field of induction B magnetic moments of different domains are aligned and the material gets
strongly magnetized in the direction of B .
For example, iron, cobalt, nickel and a number of their alloys are ferromagnetic in nature.
Permeability of ferromagnetic materials is very large. Similarly, their susceptibility is also very large.
That is why they can be magnetized easily and strongly. With rise of temperature, susceptibility of
ferromagnetic materials decreases. At a certain temperature, ferromagnetics pass over to paramagnetics.
This transition temperature is called Curie temperature. For example, Curie temperature for iron is about
1000 K.
Relative permeability r 1 m so that will have a large value. This shows that magnetic
0 r
field inside the material, B is much stronger than the magnetising field B0, so that more lines of force will be
passing through the material.
Curie Law in Magnetism
According to Curie law, intensity of magnetization (I) of a magnetic material is
(i) directly proportional to magnetic induction (B), and I B
1
(ii) inversely proportional to the temperature (T) of the material I
T
B
Combining these factors, we get I --------------------(22)
T
H I 1
As B H, Magnetic intensity I or
T H T
1 C
i.e., m or m ------------(23)
T T
where C is a constant of proportionality and is called curie constant.
Hysteresis
Let us consider the magnetization of a specimen of a magnetic material placed in the magnetizing field
whose strength can be varied.
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I Y L
A
K C F G
X' X
O H
D
Y'
When the magnetic field intensity ( H ) increases from zero to OG, the intensity of magnetization I
follows the path OA. As the field is gradually decreased to zero and increased to maximum value (OK) in
the opposite direction, and again decreased to zero and increased finally to OG again, the intensity of
magnetization I follows the path ABCDEFA. This curve is called hysteresis curve and the process is
called cycle of magnetization. A similar curve is obtained when we plot magnetic induction B against the
magnetic field intensity H .
When the strength of the magnetizing field is maximum (OG), the intensity of magnetization is also
maximum (OL). As the strength of the field is reduced to zero ( at O), the intensity of magnetization does
not reduce to zero, but have a value = OB. Thus some magnetism is left in the specimen. The value of the
intensity of magnetization of a material, when the magnetising field is reduced to zero is called Retentivity
or Residual magnetism of the specimen.
As the strength of the magnetizing field is increased in the opposite direction, the intensity of
magnetization reduces and becomes zero at C. Thus to reduce the residual magnetism or retentivity to
zero, we have to apply a magnetizing field = OC, in the opposite direction. This value of the magnetizing
field is called Coercivity of the material.
When a specimen of a magnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization, the intensity of
magnetization ( I ) and the magnetic induction B lag behind the magnetic field intensity ( H ) Thus, even if
the magnetic field intensity H is made zero, the value of I and B do not reduce to zero i.e., the specimen
tends to retain the magnetic properties. This phenomenon of lagging of I or B behind H when a specimen
of a magnetic material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis.
Energy Dissipation Due to Hysteresis
Y
SOFT IRON
I
STEEL
X' X
H
Y'
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It can be shown that the loss of energy per unit volume of a specimen per cycle of magnetization in
C.G.S system is equal to the area of the I-H loop of the specimen and in S.I. it is equal to the area of the B-
H loop. The exact shape and size of the I–H and B–H loops depend upon the nature of material of the
specimen.
By studying the hysteresis loops of various magnetic materials, we can study the difference in their
properties e.g., retentivity, coercivity, permeability, susceptibility and energy loss etc.
For example, hysteresis loop for soft iron is narrow and large, whereas the hysteresis loop for steel is wide
and short.
Uses of ferromagnetics
(a) Permanent magnets : The material for making permanent magnets should posses high residual
magnetism. Further, retentivity should last long even under rough handling conditions. Therefore, the
materials must have high coercivity.
(b) Electromagnets. As the material in an electromagnets is subjected to cyclic changes, the hysteresis
loss of the material must be small. The material should attain high values I and B with low values of
magnetizing field H . Soft iron is best choice for this purpose.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 7. The distance between two magnetic poles is doubled
and their pole-strength is also doubled. The force
1. Magnetic field is measured by :
between them:
1) Pyrometre 2) Hydrometre 1) increases to four times
3) Thermometre 4) Flux metre
2) decreases by half
2. A bar magnet of length L and magnetic dipole
moment M is bent in the form of an arc as shown in 3) remains unchanged
figure. The new magnetic moment will be: 4) increases to two times
8. Three identical bar magnets each of magnetic
moment M, are placed in the form of an equilateral
triangle with the north pole of one touching the south
pole of other. The net magnetic moment of the system
is:
3 2 M
1) M 2) M 3) 4) M
2
3. The incorrect statement regarding the lines of force
of the magnetic field is:
1) 3M 2) 3M/2
1) Magnetic intensity is a measure of lines of force
passing through unit area held normal to it 3) 3M 4) 0
2) Magnetic lines of force form a close curve
9. The magnetic field on the axis of a short bar magnet
3) Inside a magnet, its magnetic lines of force move at a distance of 10 cm is 0.2 oersted. What will be
from north pole of magnet towards its south pole the field at a point, distant 5 cm on the line
4) Due to a magnet, magnetic lines of force never perpendicular to the axis and passing through the
cut each other magnet?
4. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 80 units is cut 1) 0.025 oersted
into two halves of equal length, the magnetic moment
2) 0.2 oersted
of each half will be:
1) 80 units 2) 15 units 3) 60 units 4) 40 units 3) 0.4 oersted
5. A long magnetic needle of length 2l, magnetic 4) 0.8 oersted
moment M and pole-strength m units is broken into 10. Points A and B are situated along the extended axis
two at the middle. The magnetic moment and pole- of a 2 cm long bar magnet at distances x and 2x cm
strength of each piece will be: respectively from the pole nearer to the point. The
1) (M/2), m/2 2) M, m/2 ratio of the magnetic fields at A and B will be:
3) M/2, m 4) M, m 1) 4 : 1 exactly
6. A steel wire of length L has a magnetic moment M. 2) 8 : 1 exactly
It is then bent into a semi-circular arc; the new
magnetic moment will be: 3) 4 : 1 approximately
1) M 2) 2M/ 3) M/L 4) M × L 4) 8 : 1 approx.
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11. Two short magnets placed along the same axis with 17. The time period of oscillation of a bar magnet
their like poles facing each other will repel each other suspended horizontally along the magnetic meridian
with a force which varies inversely as: is T0. If this magnet is replaced by another magnet
of the same size and pole strength, but with double
1) distance
the mass, the new time will be:
2) square of distance
1) T0/2 2) T0 / 2 3) 2 T0 4) 2 T0
3) cube of distance
18. Two small magnets each of magnetic moment
4) fourth power of distance 10Am2 are placed in end-on position 0.1 m apart
12. When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform from their centres. The force acting between them
magnetic field, a couple acts on it. Moment of couple is:
will be maximum when the dipole is placed: 1) 0.6 × 107 N 2) 0.06 × 107N
1) along the direction of the field 3) 0.6 N 4) 0.06 N
2) perpendicular to the direction of the field 19. Which among the following is a unitless quantity :
3) against the direction of the field 1) Pole strength 2) Dipole moment
4) inclined at a certain angle to the direction of the 3) Magnetic flux 4) Susceptibility
field 20. A uniform magnetic needle is suspended from its
centre by a thread. Its upper end is now loaded with
13. Rate of change of torque with deflection is
a mass of 50 mg when the needle becomes
maximum for a magnet suspended freely in a uniform
horizontal. If the strength of each pole is 98.1 ab-
magnetic field of induction B when:
amp x cm and g is 981 cm/sec2 , then the vertical
1) = 00 2) = 450 component of the earth’s magnetic induction is:
3) = 600 4) = 900 1) 0.50 gauss 2) 0.25 gauss
14. A magnetic needle lying parallel to a magnetic field 3) 0.05 gauss 4) 0.005 gauss
requires W units of work to turn it through 450, the
torque needed to maintain the needle in this position 21. The magnetic moment of a magnet is 0.1 amp m2.
will be: It is suspended in a magnetic field of intensity
3 10-4 weber/m2. The couple acting upon it when
1) 3W 2) W deflected by 300 from the magnetic field is:
1) 1 10–5 N m 2) 1.5 10–5 N m
3) 3 / 2 W 4) W / 2 1
3) 2 10–5 N m 4) 2.5 10–5 N m
15. If a bar magnet of magnetic moment M is freely 22. A short magnet is arranged with its axis along east-
suspended in a uniform magnetic field of strength B, west. A compass box is placed on it’s axial line at a
the work done in rotating the magnet through an angle distance of 20 cm from the centre. If the deflection
is: is 45o, find the moment of the magnet .
1) MB (1 – sin ) (BH = 0.4 × 10–14 T)
2) MB sin 1) 1.6 Am2 2) 2 Am2
3) MB cos 3) 3.2 Am2 4) 0.8 Am2
4) MB (1 – cos ) 23. All magnetic materials lose their magnetic properties
16. A bar magnet of magnetic moment M is placed at when:
right angles to a magnetic induction B. If a force F is 1) dipped in water
experienced by each pole of the magnet, the length
2) dipped in oil
of the magnet will be:
3) brought near a piece of iron
F MB BF MF 4) strongly heated
1) 2) 3) 4)
MB F M B
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31. The relation between magnetic susceptibility m and
24. A bar magnet of magnetic moment M is placed in a
relative permeability r is:
uniform magnetic field of induction B such that it
1) m r
makes an angle with B . Then the position of stable
equilibrium of the magnet is given by equal to: 2) m 1 r
1) 220o 2) 45o 3) 90o 4) zero 3) r 1 m
25. A thin uniformly magnetised needle has a period of 4) r 1 m
vibration equal to 4 seconds. The needle is cut into 32. An iron rod of length 30 cm and area of cross section
two equal half lengths. The period of vibration of 0.03 cm2 is placed inside a long solenoid of 1000
each half of the needle is : turns per m3 carrying a current of 4A. Find the
magnetic moment of the iron bar if the relative
1) 8 sec 2) 4 sec 3) 2sec 4) 1 sec
permeability of iron is 1000.
26. Two magnetic poles of pole strengths 10 Am and 20
1) 3.6 Am2 2) 4.5 Am2
A.m are separated by a distance of 10cm in air. The
ratio of magnetic forces acting on them 3) 7.0 Am2 4) 1.5 Am2
1) 1 : 2 2) 1 : 1 3) 2 : 1 4) 1 : 4 33. The meniscus of a liquid contained in one of the limbs
27. A current of 3 ampere is flowing in a plane circular of a narrow U - tube is held in an electromagnet
coil of radius 4cm and 20 turns. The coil is placed in with the meniscus in line with the field. The liquid is
a uniform magnetic field of induction 0.5 tesla. The seen to rise. This indicates that the liquid is:
potential energy of the system in the position of stable 1) ferromagnetic
equilibrium is: 2) paramagnetic
1) 0 Joule 2) –0.15 Joule 3) diamagnetic
3) –0.3 Joule 4) –1.5 Joule 4) non - magnetic
28. A current of 3 A is flowing in a plane circular coil of 34. Susceptibility is positive and large for a:
radius 4 cm and number of turns 20. The coil is placed 1) paramagnetic substance
in a uniform magnetic field of magnetic induction
2) ferromagnetic substance
0.5 T. Then the dipole moment of the coil is:
3) diamagnetic substance
1) 300 A m2 2) 0.3 A m2
4) non magnetic substance
3) 30 A m2 4) 75 A m2
35. A ferromagnetic material is heated above its curie
29. The time period of a freely suspended magnet does temperature. Which one is a correct statement:
not depend upon:
1) ferromagnetic domains are perfectly arranged
1) length of magnet
2) ferromagnetic domains become random
2) pole strength of magnet
3) ferromagnetic domains are not influenced
3) horizontal component of earth’s field
4) ferromagnetic material changes into diamagnetic
4) length of the suspension material
30. When an iron cylinder of diameter 0.20 cm and length 36. In case of a bar magnet, lines of magnetic induction:
30 cm is kept parallel to a magnetic field of intensity
4800 A/m the cylinder acquires a pole strength of 1) start from the north pole and end at the south
9Am. Find the permeability of the material of the pole
rod? 2) run continuously through the bar and outside the
1) 0.075222 × 10–4 H/m bar
2) 9.522 × 10–4 H/m 3) emerge in circular paths from the middle of the
bar
3) 75.22 × 10–4 H/m
4) are produced only at the north pole like rays of
4) 7.522 × 10–4 H/m light from a bulb
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37. A magnet is placed in earth’s magnetic field with 43. The magnetic induction and the magnetic field inside
south pole of the magnet pointing north. At the neutral the iron core of an electromagnet is 1.07 weber per
point: metre2 and 150 ampere per metre. Then the relative
permeability of this iron is:
1) the earth’s magnetic field is zero
2) the magnet’s magnetic field is zero 1) 1.07/150 2) 10–7/4
3) the fields of the magnet and the earth are equal 107
. 107 107
. 107
and in the same direction
3) 150 4
4) 150 4
4) the fields of the magnet and the earth are equal
and in opposite direction 44. When a material becomes super conducting it will
become:
38. A short magnet of moment 6.75 A-m2 produces a
neutral point on its axis. If the horizontal component 1) perfect diamagnetic
of earth’s field is 5 10-5 Wb/m2, the distance of the 2) perfect paramagnetic
neutral point should be:
3) perfect ferromagnetic
1) 10 cm 2) 20 cm 3) 30 cm 4) 40 cm
4) perfect antiferro magnetic
39. A magnetic needle, suspended horizontally by an
unspun silk fibre, oscillates in the horizontal plane, 45. What is the susceptibility and permeability of a
because of a restoring force originating mainly from: perfectly diamagnetic substance :
1) the torsion of the silk fibre 1) X = –1, = 0
2) the force of gravity 2) X = –1, < 0
3) the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field 3) X = –1, < 1
4) all the above factors 4) X = 1, = -1
40. Which of the following substances have positive Assertion - Reason
permeability and negative magnetic susceptibility:
1) ferromagnetic 1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and
the Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
2) paramagnetic
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
3) antiferro magnetic
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
4) dia magnetic
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
41. The earth’s magnetic field may be considered to be
due to a short magnet placed at the centre of the 4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
earth and oriented along the magnetic south-north
46. Assertion : The poles of magnet cannot be
direction. The ratio of the magnitude of the magnetic
separated by breaking into two
field on the earth’s surface of magnetic equator to
pieces.
that at the magnetic poles is:
Reason : The magnetic moment will be
1) 1: 2 2) 2 : 1
reduced to half when a magnet is
3) 1 : 4 4) 1 : 2 broken into two equal pieces.
42. Which of the following is diamagnetic: 47. Assertion : When radius of circular loop carrying
1) copper sulphate current is doubled, its magnetic
moment becomes four times.
2) liquid oxygen
Reason : Magnetic moment depends on area
3) water
of the loop.
4) air
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48. Assertion : A paramagnetic sample displays 1) A - q; B - p; C - r
greater magnetisation (for the same
magnetising field) when cooled 2) A - r; B - q; C - p
Reason : The magnetisation does not depend
on temperature. 3) A - q; B - r; C - p
Statement
4) A - p; B - r; C - q
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false Integer
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false 52. The workdone in turning a magnet of magnetic
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true moment M by an angle of 90o from the meridian is
‘n’ times the corresponding workdone to turn it
49. Statement I : The ferromagnetic substances do through an angle of 60o, where n is given by
not obey Curie’s law.
Statement II : At Curie point a ferromagnetic 53. Two bar magnets of the same mass, same length
substance starts behaving as a and breadth but having magnetic moments M and 2
paramagnetic substance. M are joined together pole to pole and suspended by
a string. The time period of assembly in a magnetic
50. Statement I : The susceptibility of diamagnetic field of strength H is 3 seconds. If now the polarity
materials does not depend upon of one of the magnets is reversed and the combination
temperature. is again made to oscillate in the same field, the time
Statement II : Diamagnetic materials have of oscillation is n 3 sec, where n is
permanent magnetic dipole moment.
54. The coercivity of a magnet is 3 × 103 Am–1. What
Match the following
current should be passed through a solenoid of length
10 cm and number of turns 50 such that magnet is
51. Match the terms of Column I with the items of
demagnetised when inserted in it (in A)
Column II and choose the correct option from the
codes given below.
Column I Column II
A) Diamagnetic p) , 1
0 r
and 1
B) Paramagnetic q) 1 0, r 1
and 0
C) Ferromagnetic r) 0 , 1 r , 1
and 0
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 4 d
2. 1 13. 1 mB sin ; mB cos ; This is maximum
d
3. 3 when = 00
14. 4 W = mB (cos 0 - cos 45)
FG 1 IJ F 2 1 I
= mB 1 2 mB
H K GH 2
JK
;
4. 4 When a magnet is cut into two equal parts,
magnetic moments of each part becomes half mB
mB sin mB sin 45
of the original value. When the magnet is cut in 2
lengthwise, pole strength becomes half and when W
cut in breadth wise, pole strength remains the
2 1
same but length becomes half.
5. 3 15. 4 W = MB [cos 1 – cos 2]
6. 2 1 = 0, 2 =
MB
16. 2 FL MB, L
F
Magnetic moment M' = P × 2r; r = L; r = L/;
2L 2M I
M / P. 17. 3 T 2
MB
m1m 2 0 6 M 1M 2
7. 3 F 18. 3 F ;
r2 4 x4
19. 4
8. 4
20. 2
net magnetic moment is zero
0 2M M
9. 4 Baxial . 3 if l x; Bequitorial 0 . 3
4 x 4 x Equating the torque about the point of suspension,
mB l + mB l = Mg.l
0 2 Mx 2mBl = Mg.l;
10. 4 Baxial .
e
4 x 2 l 2
j 2
Bv
50x 10 3 x 981
0.25 gauss
B = Mg/2m; 2 x 98.1
11. 4 Force between two magnetic dipoles placed and
on end. is 21. 2 mB sin
6M 1 M 2 22. 1 B BH tan
F 0. ; where ‘x’ is the separation
4 x4
0 2M 4 d 3
between the points. BH tan ; M BH tan
If magnets are placed broad-on position 4 d 3 0 2
0 3M 1 M 2 23. 4
F . 24. 4 At the position of stable equilibrium, potential
4 x4
energy of the system is minimum
12. 2 = MBsin = max when = 90
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I 0 2M
38. 3 Neutral point, . BH , x dis tan ce
T 2 ; M M2
/
25. 3 4 x 3
MB
39. 3
I1 / I 40. 4
T / 2 I
M/ B 8
41. 4 If the earth is considered as a short bar magnet,
26. 2 equator will be at the equitorial line of the magnet
27. 2 PE = –mB cos ; m = niA, = 0 for stable and pole will be at the axial line of the magnet;
equilibrium
28. 2 Dipole moment of the coil M = n i A = ni ( r 2) Baxial
2
Bequitorial
I
29. 4 T 2
MH 42. 3
pole strength I B B
30. 4 I , susseptibility ; r
Area H 43. 4 H 0H
0 1
44. 1
31. 3
45. 1
32. 1 I H r 1
46. 2
Magnetic moment = I V
when I = magnetisation,V = volume of the rod 47. 1
33. 2 Both paramagnetic and ferromagnetic 48. 3
substances are attracted by a magnetic field. But 49. 1
there is no ferromagnetic liquid. Hence liquid is
paramagnetic. 50. 3
34. 2 51. 3
35. 2 52. 2 W mB cos 1 cos 2
36. 2
II II
37. 4 At neutral point net magnetic field is zero. That 53. 3 T1 2 ; T2 2
M1 M 2 M1 M 2
mean the fields of magnet and the earth are equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction
N HL
54. 6 H ni i i
L N
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CHAPTER - 06
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Introduction
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force (voltage) across an electrical
conductor in a changing magnetic field. Micheal Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of
electromagnetic induction in 1931 and James Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it as Fraday’s law of
induction. The e.m.f lasts so long as this change continues. This phenomenon of generating an e.m.f by
changing the number of magnetic lines of force associated with the conductor is called Electromagnetic
induction (E.M.I). The emf so developed is called induced e.m.f. If the conductor is in the form of a closed
circuit, a current flows in the circuit. This is called induced current.
Magnetic flux
The magnetic flux through any surface held in a magnetic field is measured by the total number of
magnetic lines of force crossing the surface. Suppose a surface S is held in a uniform magnetic field.
Consider a small element of area S on this surface. The total magnetic flux over the entire surface S is
the algebraic sum of the magnetic flux over all such area elements of the surface i.e., B. A
As S 0 ,
B.dA
When the surface is plane has a total area A, represented by A n̂A .
B.A BA cos
Where is the smaller angle between B and A i.e., is the angle which normal to the surface area makes
with B
When the magnetic field is touching the surface tangentialy, = 900 BAcos900 0
When the field is normal to the surface, = 00, = BA cos 00 = BA = maximum value.
This means B i.e. magnetic field intensity B is magnetic flux per unit area and is called magnetic
A
flux density or magnetic induction.
Note : If the coil has N turns, total amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil is, N ( B.A ) NBA cos
Units of magnetic Flux : The S.I unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb). One weber is the amount of magnetic
flux over an area of 1 metre2 and normal to a uniform magnetic field of one tesla. 1 weber = 1 tesla 1m2
The C.G.S unit of flux is maxwell (Mx), where, 1 weber = 108 maxwell
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity
F (MLT 2 )(L2 )
The dimensional formula of = BA cos or A cos [ML2T 2 A 1 ]
qv (AT)(LT 1 )
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Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
First law : Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f is induced in the
circuit. The induced e.m.f lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
Second law : The magnitude of e.m.f induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
If 1 is the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil at any time and 2 is the magnetic flux linked with the
2 1
coil after t sec, then, Rate of change of magnetic flux
t
k(2 1 )
According to Faraday’s second law, induced e.m.f,
t
2 1
where k = 1; e
t
d
If d is small change in magnetic flux in a small time dt, then
dt
Negative sign is taken because induced e.m.f always opposes any changes in magnetic flux associated
with the circuit.
Lenz’s law
This law gives us the direction of current induced in a circuit.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced e.m.f is such that it opposes the change in magnetic
flux which produces it.
S N N S
(Coil face behaves as (Coil face behaves as
N S N S south pole to oppose the
north pole to oppose
v the motion of magnet) v motion of magnet)
d
where negative sign indicates the Lenz’s law..
dt
Motional emf
The emf induced across the ends of a conductor due to its motion in a magnetic field is called motional
emf. Consider a straight conductor MN moving with constant velocity vector v towards right as shown in
the figure. Due to magnetic field, free electrons will accumulate at the lower end and positive charge at the
upper end. The end M acquires a positive potential as compared to N. The potential difference which
appears across the ends of the straight conductor is called induced emf. When equilibrium is reached the
flow of electron stops and the force due to electric field is equal to the magnitude of magnetic force.
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In steady state or equilibrium position, net force on the electron is zero.
M
M
FE Fm ; qE q v B ; E v B VM VN E . dl ;
VM VN v B .dl
N N
Straight rod translating perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field and its velocity vector is
perpendicular to the length of the rod.
0, v M v N v B .
vM v N vB
Straight rod translating perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field and its velocity vector is along
the length of the rod
90; v M v N v B d cos 90 0
Effect of Motional emf Developed in a Circuit
• For a given circuit, if the metal rod moves with uniform velocity v by an external agent then all the
induced parameters are possible in the circuit. Induced emf in the circuit Blv
B2 2 v
Fext
R
• For uniform motion of metal rod, mechanical power delivered by external source is given as
B2 2 v B2 2 v 2
Pext Pmech Fext .v .v
R R
• Thermal power developed across resistor
2
Bvl B2 l 2 v 2
Pth I R
2
R Pth
R R
It is clear that Pth = Pmech which is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.
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Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Fleming’s right hand rule gives us the direction of induced e.m.f/current, in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field.
MOTION
FIELD
CURRENT
Eddy currents
Eddy currents are loops of the currents induced in the body of a conductor when the amount of magnetic
flux linked with the conductor changes. These were discovered by Foucault in the year 1895 and hence they
are also called Foucault currents
induced emf d d / dt
The magnitude of eddy current is i , where , ; i
resistance R dt R
The direction of eddy currents is given by Lenz’s law or Fleming’s right hand rule.
Applications of Eddy Currents
Some of the important applications of eddy cuurents are :
(a) Electro-magnetic damping.This is used in designing dead beat galvanometers.
(b) Induction Furnace. It makes use of the heating effect of eddy currents.
(c) Electro-magnetic Brakes.They are used in controlling the speed of electric trains.
(d) Induction Motor
(e) In speedmeters of automobiles and energy metres.
Undesirable effects of eddy currents :
(i) They oppose the relative motion. (ii) They involve loss of energy in the form of heat.
(iii) The excessive heating may break the insulation in the appliances and reduce their life.
To minimise the eddy currents, the metal core to be used in an appliance like dynamo, transformer,
choke coil, etc. is taken in the form of thin sheets. Each sheet is electrically insulated from the other by
insulating varnish. Such a core is called a laminated core. The planes of these sheets are arranged parallel
to the magnetic flux.
SELF INDUCTION
Self Induction is the property of a coil by virtue of which, the coil opposes any change in the strength of
current flowing through it by inducing an e.m.f. in itself. For this reason, self induction is also called the inertia
of electricity.
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CELL CURRENT
M
B
K
Coefficient of Self Induction or Self Inductance
When current through a coil changes with respect to the time then magnetic flux linked with the coil
also changes with respect to time. Due to this an emf and a current is induced in the coil. According to
Lenz’s law induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux. This phenomenon is called self induction
and a factor by virtue of which the coil shows opposition for change in magnetic flux is called self inductance
of the coil
When current through a coil is constant, I B constant
No electromagnetic induction
Total flux of coil N current through the coil, N I or N LI
N NBA total
L , where L is self inductance of the coil.
I I I
When current through the coil changes with respect to time.
d dI
N L
dt dt
dI d
s L Induced emf, N is the number of turns of the coil is the rate of change of magnetic
dt dt
dI
flux when the current changes at .
dt
If dI 1 , then L 1 or L
dt
Hence coefficient of self induction of a coil is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the coil when rate of change
of current through the coil is unity.
The S.I. unit of L is henry.
L / I , 1 henry1 weber/ ampere
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Self inductance of a long solenoid
The magnetic field inside a large solenoid.
o NI N
B = 0 nI where n
l l
o - permeability, - length of solenoid; N - no. of turns of solenoid.
o N 2 A
Self inductance L 0 n 2 Al 0 n 2 V
l
0 nI
Magnetic field B at the ends of a solenoid B
2
Mutual Inductance
Whenever the current passing through a primary coil or circuit changes with respect to time an emf
and a current is induced in the neighbouring coil or circuit. This phenomenon is called mutual induction.
dI
When current through primary coil changes an emf m is induced in the secondary m M
dt
m - coefficient of mutual induction.
dI
If 1 , then M 1 or M
dt
Thus coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is equal to the e.m.f. induced in one coil when the rate
of change of current through the other coil is unity.
The S.I. unit of M is henry.
1henry = 1 weber/ampere =1 volt sec/ampere.
Mutual - inductance of two long solenoids
S2
S1
I2 I1
l
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0 N1 N 2 A
For two coils of same area and length , M
l
Coefficient of coupling (K) of two coils is a measure of the coupling between the two coils. It is given by
M
K
L1L 2 , where L1 and L2 are coefficient of self induction of the two coils and M is the coefficient of
mutual induction of the two coils.K is always less than one.
(a) Coils in Series: If two coils of inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series with coefficient of
coupling K = 0, then, LS L1 L 2
(b) Coils in Parallel :
1 1 1 L1L2
i.e., L P
L P L1 L 2 L1 L 2
R 1R 2
This is similar to resistances R S R1 R 2 ; R P
R1 R 2
In case of series grouping of two inductors, if mutual inductance is also taken into account with K = 1, then
L L1 L 2 2M
The plus sign occurs if windings in the two coils are in the same sense, while minus sign occurs if
windings are in opposite sense.
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Generators
One of the most important applications of Faraday’s law of EM induction is to generators and motors.
A generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy, while a motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
A coil of N turns is placed in side a magnetic field of inductance B, when the coil is rotated in the
magnetic field an emf is induced in the coil.
d B
N NBA sin t 0 sin t
dt
THe current through the resistor
| | NBA
I sin t I0 sin t , the current is alternating.
R R
NBA
2
Power delivered P I| | sin 2 t
R
AC generator
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AC generators are commonly known to as alternators which work on the principle of Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. The movement of a conductor in a uniform magnetic field changes the magnetic
flux linked with the coil, thus inducing an emf.
AC generator consists of a coil, slip rings, brushes, and a strong magnetic field as its main components.
The simple AC generator has two main parts – Rotor and Stator. The rotor is a rotating component and
the stationary part of a machine is a stator. Due to the rotation of the rotor, the magnitic field is changing and
e.m.f. will be induced in the coil.
d
Induced emf NBA sin t 0 sin t
dt
Since t varies between +1 and –1, so that the output voltage is alternating.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 7. Two coils A and B have 200 and 400 turns
respectively A current of 1A in coil A causes a flux
1. A car moves on a plane road. Induced emf produced
per turns of 10-3 Wb to link with A and a flux per
across the axle is maximum when it moves
turn of 4 10 3 Wb through B. The ratio of mutual
1) at the poles inductance of A and B is:
2) at the equator 1) 0.625 2) 1.25 3) 1.5 4) 0.125
3) remains stationary 8. A magnet is moved towards a coil (i) quickly (ii)
4) no emf is induced at all slowly. The induced e.m.f is:
2. A cylindrical bar magnet is kept along the axis of a 1) same in both
circular coil. The magnet is rotated about its axis
2) more in (i) than in (ii) case
such that north pole faces the coil. The induced
current in the coil: 3) smaller in (i) than in (ii) case
1) is zero 4) nothing can be said
2) is clock-wise from magnet side 9. The mutual inductance between two coils depends
3) may be clock-wise or anticlockwise on:
4) is anticlockwise from magnet side 1) medium between the coils
3. A loop of area 0.1 m2 rotates with a speed of 60 rev/ 2) separation between the two coils
s with the axis of rotation perpendicular to magnetic
3) orientation of the two coils
field B = 0.4 T. If there are 100 turns in the loop, the
maximum voltage induced in the loop is: 4) all the above factors
1) 15.07 V 2) 150.7 V 10. When a wire loop is rotated in a magnetic field, the
3) 157 V 4) 1507 V direction of induced e.m.f changes in every:
4. A metallic ring is attached to the wall of a room. 1) 1 revolution 2) 1/2 revolution
When the north pole of a magnet is brought near the 3) 1/4 revolution 4) 2 revolutions
ring, the induced current in the ring is:
11. The magnetic flux through a circuit of resistance R
1) zero changes by an amount in a time t. Then the
2) infinite total quantity of electric charge Q that passes any
3) in clock-wise direction point in the circuit during the time t is:
4) in anticlockwise direction
5. According to Faraday’s law, the total charge induced 1) Q 2) Q R
t t
in a conductor that is moved in a magnetic field is
1) initial magnetic flux 1
3) Q 4) Q
2) final magnetic flux R t R
3) rate of change of magnetic flux 12. A metal rod of length ‘l’ is palced horizontally along
4) change in magnetic flux the magnetic meridian and allowed to fall freely. If
earth’s magnetic induction is B and the rod hits the
6. A conductor is moving in the magnetic field B, the ground with a velocity the e.m.f induced in the rod
induced current is I. If the magnetic field is doubled is:
the induced current will:
1) zero 2) B/
1) remain the same 2) be half
3) be double 4) be four times 3) 1/2 Bl 4) 2 B/
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13. A coil of copper having 500 turns is placed in a 20. A magnet NS is placed along the axis of a circular
magnetic field ( B = 4 10–5T) perpendicular to its coil The magnet is moved away from the coil as
axis. The cross sectional area of the coil is 0.05m2. shown in fig. The induced current in the coil is:
If it turns through 1800 in 0.01 seconds, find the
induced emf in the coil.
1) 0.4V 2) 0.2V
3) 0.04V 4) 4V
14. The current in a coil of L = 40mH is to be increased 1) zero
uniformly from 1A to 11A in 4 milli sec. The induced
e.m.f will be: 2) clockwise
1) 100 V 2) 0.4 V 3) anticlockwise
3) 440 V 4) 40 V 4) cannot be estimated
15. The self inductance of a straight conductor is: 21. Two coils of self inductance L 1 and L2 are placed
1) zero 2) infinity close to each other such that the effective flux in
one coil is completely linked with the other. The
3) very large 4) very small mutual inductance of coils is:
16. An axle of truck is 2.5m long. If the truck is moving 1) L1 L2
due north at 30 m/s at a place where the vertical
component of the earth’s magnetic field is 90T, the 2) (L1 + L2)/2
potential difference between the two ends of the axle
3) L1 L 2
is:
1) 6.75 m V with west +ve 4) L1/L2
2) 6.75 m V with east +ve 22. A copper ring having a cut such as not to form a
complete loop is held horizontally and a bar magnet
3) 6.75 m V with north +ve is dropped through the ring with its length along the
4) 6.75 with south +ve axis of the ring. Then acceleration of the falling
17. The particle accelerator that uses the phenomenon magnet is:
of e.m. induction is the:
1) cyclotron
2) betatron
3) Van de Graff generator
4) Cockroft - Walton generator
18. The flux linked with a coil at any instant ‘t’ is given 1) g 2) less than g
by 10t 2 50t 250 . The induced emf at t = 3s 3) more than g 4) 0
is 23. Two coils X and Y are placed in a circuit such that a
1) –190 V 2) 20 V 3) –20 V 4) –10 V current changes by 2 amp. per sec. in coil X and the
magnetic flux change of 0.4 weber occurs in Y. The
19. If the coils of a transformer are made up of thick value of mutual inductance of the coils and its unit
wire, then: are:
1) eddy current loss will be more 1) 0.5 henry
2) magnetic flux leakage is reduced 2) 5 henry
3) Joule’s heating loss is increased 3) 0.8 henry
4) Joule’s heating loss is reduced 4) 0.2 henry
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24. In fig. the magnet is moved towards the coil with a 28. A conducting square loop of side L and resistance R
speed v. The induced emf in coil is e. The magnet moves in its plane with a uniform velocity V
and coil recede away from one another each moving perpendicular to one of its sides. A magnetic induction
with speed v. The induced emf in the coil is: B constant in time and space, pointing perpendicular
and into the plane of the loop exists everywhere.
The current induced in the loop is:
1) e 2) 3e 3) e/2 4) 2e
25. A rectangular coil pqrs is moved away from an
infinite, straight wire carrying a current as shown in
fig. Which of the following statements is correct? 1) BLV/R clockwise
2) BLV/R anticlockwise
3) 2 BLV/R anticlockwise
4) zero
29. A plane rectangular coil of one turn and area A is
spun at a frequency n about one of its sides, which is
placed at 900 to a uniform magnetic field having flux
1) there is no induced current in coil pqrs
density B. The peak e.m.f. induced in the coil is:
2) the induced current in coil pqrs is in the clockwise
sense
3) the induced current in the coil pqrs is in
anticlockwise direction
4) none of the above 1) BAn 2) BA n
26. A magnetic field of 2 10–2 T acts at right angles to 3) 2BA n 4) 2 BAn
a coil of 100cm2 with 50 turns. The induced emf in
the coil is 2V when it is removed from the field in 30. If the rotational velocity of a dynamo armature is
time ‘t’. The value of ‘t’ is doubled, then the induced emf will:
1) 5 ms 2) 0.01s 1) become half
3) 1s 4) 0.1s 2) become double
3) become quadruple
27. A rectangular coil is placed in a region having a
uniform magnetic field B, perpendicular to the plane 4) remain unchanged
of the coil An e.m.f. will not be induced in the coil if 31. Fig. shows two inductances connected in parallel.
the: Neglecting the mutual inductance, the equivalent
inductance between points P and Q is:
1) magnetic field increases uniformly
2) coil is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the coil and passing through its centre
1) L1 + L2 2) L1 ~ L2
O, the coil remaining in the same plane
3) coil is rotated about the axis OX L1L 2
3) L1L2 4) L L
4) magnetic field is suddenly switched off 1 2
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32. A coil having n turns and resistance R is connected 36. A varying magnetic flux linking a coil is given by
with a galvanometer of resistance 4R . This Xt 2 . If at time t=3s, the emf induced is 9V, then
combination is moved in time t second from a
the value of X is
magnetic field W1 weber to W2 weber. The induced
current in the circuit 1) 0.66 Wb.s-2 2) 1.5 Wb.s-2
3) -0.66 Wb.s-2 4) -1.5 Wb.s-2
W W1
1) 2 37. A coil having 500 square loops each of side 10 cm is
5Rnt
placed normal to a magnetic field which increases
n W2 W1 at a rate of 1 T/s. The induced emf in volt is:
2)
5Rt 1) 0.1 2) 0.5
3) 1 4) 5
W2 W1
3) 38. The magnetic field of 2 10-2 tesla acts at right angles
Rnt to a coil of area 100 cm2 with 50 turns. The average
emf induced in the coil is 0.1 V when it is removed
W2 W1 from the field in time t. The value of t is:
4) n
Rt 1) 0.1 s 2) 0.01 s
33. Lenz’s law: 3) 1 s 4) 20 s
39. A solenoid has 2000 turns wound over a length of
1) is the same as the right hand palm rule
0.3 m. The area of its cross-section is 1.2 10-3 m2
2) determines the magnitude of an induced emf . Around its central portion a coil of 300 turns is
wound. If an initial current of 2 amp in the solenoid
3) bears no relation to the law of conservation of is reversed in 0.25 sec, the emf induced in the coil is
energy equal to:
4) is useful in deciding about the direction of an 1) 6 10-4 V 2) 48 m V
induced emf 3) 6 10-2 V 4) 48 kV
34. When a non-magnetic metallic strip is moved away 40. A metallic rod falls under gravity with ends pointing
from between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet there in the direction east and west. Then:
is:
1) an emf is induced in it as it cuts H
1) a force acting on the strip to oppose the motion 2) no emf is induced at all
2) a force acting on the strip to help the motion 3) two emfs of equal but opposite signs are induced
giving no net emf
3) no force acting on the strip
4) the gravitational field opposes its downwards
4) a couple acting on the strip so as to rotate it motion
35. A small piece of wire is passed through the gap 41. An aeroplane with 20 m wing spread is flying at
between the poles of a magnet in 0.1 sec. An emf of 250 m/s straight south parallel to the earth’s surface.
4 × 10–3 volt is induced in the wire. The magnetic The earth’s magnetic field has a horizontal component
flux between the poles in weber is: of 2 × 10–5 Wb/m2 and the dip angle is 60o. Calculate
the induced emf between the plane tips.
1) 10 2) 8 10-4 1) 0.173 V 2) 1.73 V
3) 4 10-2 4) 4 10-4 3) 17.3 V 4) 0.0173
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42. A conducting loop of resistance R and radius r has 45. Assertion : In the phenomenon of mutual
its centre at the origin of the co-ordinate system in a induction, self induction of each of
magnetic field of induction B. When it is rotated about the coils persists.
Y-axis through 90o, net charge flown in the loop is
directly proportional to Reason : Self induction arises when strength
of current in same coil changes. In
mutual induction, current is changing
in both the individual coils.
46. Assertion : An induced emf is generated when
magnet is withdrawn from the
solenoid.
1
1) 2) R Reason : The relative motion between magnet
B
and solenoid induces emf
3) r 2 4) r
47. Assertion : Only a change in magnetic flux will
43. When the number of turns and the length of the maintain an induced current the coil.
solenoid are doubled keeping the area of cross-
section same, the inductance: Reason : The presence of large magnetic flux
through a coil maintains a current in
1) remains the same the coil if the circuit is continuous.
2) is halved Statement
3) is doubled
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
4) becomes one-fourth
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
44. A coil having an area A0 is placed in a magnetic field
which changes from B0 to 4B0 in time interval t. The 3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
emf induced in the coil will be
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
3A 0 B0 4A 0 B0
1) 2)
t t 48. Statement I : Self-inductance is called the inertia
of electricity.
3B0 5A 0 B0
3) 4) Statement II : Self-inductance is the phenomenon,
A0 t t according to which an opposing
induced emf is produced in a coil as
Assertion - Reason a result of change in current or
magnetic flux linked in the coil.
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
49. Statement I : When two coils are wound on each
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the other, the mutual induction between
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion the coils is maximum.
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false Statement II : Mutual inductance does not depend
on the orientation of the coils.
4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
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Match the following. Integer
50. Three coils are placed infront of each other as shown. 51. The current passing through a choke coil of 5 H is
Currents in 1 and 2 are in same direction, while that decreasing at the rate of 2 As–1. The emf developed
in 3 is in opposite direction. Match the following table. across the coil is ....... V
52. The coil of area 5 square cm and 20 turns is placed
in a uniform magnetic field of 103 gauss. The normal
to the plane of the coil makes an angle of 60o with
the magnetic field. The flux through the coil is ...... ×
104 Wb.
53. A square wire loop 3 m on a side is perpendicular to
a uniform magnetic field of 2 T. A 6-V light bulb is in
Column I Column II series with the loop. The magnetic field is reduced
A) When current in 1 is p) Current in 1 will steadily to zero over a time t . t is equal to ......
increased increase
second. [assume that bulb glows brightly for t ]
B) When current in 2 is q) Current in 2 will
increased increase 54. A 100 mH coil carries a current of 1 ampere. Energy
C) When current in 3 is r) Current in 3 will stored in its magnetic field is .... ×10–3J
increased increase
s) None
1) A - r; B - r; C - p, q 2) A - p; B - p; C - q
3) A - q; B - q; C - r 4) A - r; B - q; C - p, q
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 1 At the pole 90 o e = VBl 10. 2 The direction of induced emf is reversed after
every half revolution of the loop.
So, when the car moves on a plane road at poles,
the induced emf produced across the axle is e R
11. 4 i Q it
maximum R tR R
2. 1 On rotating the magnet, no change in flux is linked 12. 1 v is parallel to B . No field is intercepted
with the coil. Therefore induced emf/current is
zero. 2BAN
13. 2 E=
t
3. 4 Vm nBA 100 0.4 01 b
. 60 2 g dI
14. 1 e L
1507.2 V dt
4. 4 When the north pole of a magnet is brought near 15. 1 Magnetic field at the axis of a straight conductor
the ring , current induced in the ring must be is zero. Hence its self inductance is zero
anticlockwise so as to develope N-pole that will 16. 1 While moving due north , the truck intercepts
oppose inward motion of N pole of magnet. vertical component of earth’s field e = Blv
According to Lenz’s law west end of the axle
e 1 d d
5. 4 i ; dq i dt will be positive.
R R dt R
17. 2 Betatron is used two accelerate - particles. It
e 1 d A dB
6. 3 i uses the principle of e.m induction
R R dt R dt
M 1 1
d
Mi;
3
= 10 200 0.125 18. 4 e
7. 4 M 2 2 4 10 3 400 dt
8. 2 EMF is induced in a circuit when the magnetic 1
flux through the circuit changes with time. d/dt 19. 4 R ; Heat loss = I2R
a
is more in first case.
20. 2 When the magnet is moved away from the coil
0 r N i N 2 R 2 the flux associated with the coil decreases.
9. 4 M 2
Induced emf in the coil tries to oppose the
2R 1
decrease in flux. It has to attract the magnet
The above equation gives the mutual inductance towards the coil. So south pole must be induced
of two plane circular coils placed near each other in the magnet’s side of the coil. Therefore current
coaxially. induced will be clockwise.
Mutual inductance is zero when two coils are Mdi p L1di p di p ep
placed perpendicular to each other. That mean 21. 3 es , ep ,
dt dt dt L1
mutual inductance depends on orientation of the
two coils. dis di di e
ep M , es L 2 s , s s
dt dt dt L 2
N 2 21
M
l1 Me p Mes M 2 es e p
es , ep ; es ep
L1 L2 L1 L 2
21flux linked with secondary coil due to the
passage of current in first coil. It depends on the
distance between two coils M 2 L1 L 2 ; M = L1L 2
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22. 1 Because of the cut in the ring, there is no induced
di1 e di e
current in the ring. and 2
dt L1 dt L 2
0.4
23. 4 M 0.2 henry
i 2
e e e e
e L L
24. 4 Initially, relative velocity between the coil and
L1 L 2 L1 L 2
the magnet is v and induced emf is ‘e’. When
the relative velocity between the coil and the
magnet becomes 2v, induced emf will become e e e 1 1 1
ie
2e. L L1 L 2 L L1 L 2
25. 2 There will be induced current from p to s in the
segment PS and from q to r in QR. But the L1 L 2
or or L
current through PS is greater than current L1 L 2
through QR, because magnetic field intensity is
maximum at the point of PS, so induce current
will be in the direction PSRQ, ie clockwise. n d W2 W1
32. 2 I=
R dt 5Rt
BAN
26. 1 E 33. 4 Gives the direction of emf in a circuit
t
34. 1 Knowledge based
27. 2 There is no induced current, if the flux change is
zero. There won’t be any flux change, if the coil
is rotated about an axis passing through O and 35. 4 e
t
perpendicular to the plane of the coil
36. 4 induced emf d / dt .
28. 4 Since the coil is moving through the uniform field,
there is no flux change and has no induced emf Therefore, –2Xt = 9 when t = 3s
29. peak = BAN, when N = number of turns, here so that –6X = 9, from which X = –1.5
N=1
d d
2 n, n frequency 37. 4 e
dt dt
b
BAN ANgdB
dt
30. 2 V = NBA sint; V
BAN BAN
38. 1 e ;t
31. 4 For a parallel combination, total current i = i1+i2. t t e
Hence induced e.m.f
d dI N N A
39. 2 M ; M 0 1 2 ;
dt dt l
b g
dI 2 2 4A
di d i i di di
c L L 1 2 L 1 2 40. 1 earths magnetiffield is
dt dt dt dt
directed along N – S direction. Here conductor
L1di1 di falls along east–west direction. hence an emf is
But e = and e L 2 2
dt dt induced in it as it cuts H.
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41. 1 As the plane is flying horizontally it will cut the 48. 1 Self-inductance of a coil is its property by virtue
vertical component of earth’s field BV. So the of which the coil opposes any change in the
emf induced between its tips, eBVRV current flowing through it.
But by definition of angle of dip 49. 3 The manner in which the two coils are oriented
determines the coefficient of coupling between
Bv
tan ie, BV BH tan them.
BH
M K L1L 2
So e Bn tan V 2 105 3 250 20
When the two coils are wound on each other,
the coefficient of coupling is maximum and hence
3 101 V 0.173V
mutual inductance between the coils is maximum
d 50. 1 In loops the current will change so as to minimize
42. 3 E ; E dt the effect of a change in flux linked with that
dt
particular loop.
The total charge flown in the loop,
51. 10
E Br 2
q Idt dt q r 2
R R R
dI
e L. 5 2 10V
dt
0N 2A
43. 3 L 0 NnA
52. 5 BAN cos
dB 1
44 1 E A0 20 101 5 104
dt 2
45. 2 Mutual inductance is the phenomenon according = 5 × 10–4 Wb
to which an opposing emf produces flux in a coil
as a result of change in current or magnetic flux d
linked with a neighbouring coil. But when two 53. 3 From Faradays law, E
dt
coils are inductively coupled, in addition to
induced emf produced due to mutual induction,
induced emf is also produced in each of the two dBA 18
dt 3 second
coils due to self-induction. E 6
46. 1 1 1
54. 50 u LI2 100 103 12
2 2
47. 3 Presence of magnetic flux cannot produce
current. = 50 × 10–3
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CHAPTER - 07
ALTERNATING CURRENT
A current which periodically changes direction while its magnitude may or may not change is alternating
current (AC).
AC can be represented by I I0 sin t
I
I0
t
–I0
2
T
In an AC generator an induced emf is generated 0 sin t
Thus, we see that emf is alternating i.e., emf varies sinusoidally just like a sine curve.Now the coil in an
AC generator has completed one rotation and AC has completed one cycle. The AC voltage is graphically
represented as follows.
E
E0
O
/2 3 /2 2 t
–E0
is the angular frequency. The current, I I0 sin(t )
The current may not be in phase with emf, represent the phase constant.
Mean or average value of AC
The average value of AC current in one cycle is zero.
< i >one cycle = < i >T = 0
Ordinary Instruments will indicate zero deflection.
In an AC the average value of current is defined as its average taken over a half cycle.
The mean or average value of AC over any half cycle is defined as the value of steady current which
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in the time of half cycle (i.e., T/2) as sent by the AC
through the same circuit, in the same time,
Let an alternating current be represented by, Let I I0 sin t is the current and dq is the charge
flowing in a time dt. then dq = Idt
T /2
2I 0
Let q be the total charge sent by the AC in the first half cycle (i.e., 0 T / 2) . q Idt
0
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Im T
Let Im is the mean value of AC in a half cycle q
2
2
Im I0 0.637I0
Mean value of AC is 63.7% of peak value.
Root mean Square value of Alternating Current
The root mean square (r.m.s) value of AC is defined as that value of steady current, which would
generate the same amount of heat in a given resistance in a given time, as is done by AC when passed
through the same resistance for the same time.
The r.m.s value is also called effective value of AC or virtual value of AC.
DC: H dc Idc
2
Rt I rms
2
R t
H dc H ac [According to definition]
t2
I dt
2
t2
t1
I 2rms R t I I rms
2
R dt
t1
t 2 t1 = root of mean (average) of square of current.
We use hot wire ammeters and voltmeters in AC circuits which are based on heating effect of current.
They measure rms values.
Phasor Diagrams
Currents and voltages in AC circuits are represented in the form of phasors. The length of arrow
represents the peak value of the quantity and its projection on x or y axis gives its instantaneous value.
Length of arrow is I0 which represents the peak value of I. Its projection on y - axis is I0 sin t which
represents the instantaneous value, t is the phase angle which increases with time.
y
I0 sin t I0
t
x
I0 cos t
The effect of imposing an alternating emf on various circuit components.
In general, we would have a combination of R, L and C connected to an AC source and we would be
finding current in the circuit. For this we draw phasor diagram where we represent emf and current as
projections of rotating vectors(phasors).
Combination of
R, L, C
I I0 sin t
~
E E 0 sin t
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Both I0 and are dependent upon the combination of R, L and C
But in such situations in general we say that the current leads(for ‘+’) or lags (for ‘–’) by radians to the
applied emf and in phasor diagram.
positive for phase angle
measurement
I0
I0 sin (t + )
t E0
reference line for phase
angle measurements
Here t is the common phase angle and their relative phase does not change with respect to time,
hence for convenience we can rotate both the current and voltage phasor by t in anticlockwise direction,
as below.
I0
E0 reference line
Now, we will apply alternating emf to R, L and C and see how the current changes
AC Circuit containing Resistance only
Let an alternating e.m.f is applied to a resistanec R
E E 0 sin t
E0
The instantaneous current, I sin t I 0 sin t
R
Y
E&I t
E
R E E0
I I0
I
t t
O O
X X
(a) Y' (b) Y' (c)
In the AC circuit contanining R only, current and voltage are in the same phase. The instantaneous
values of alternating current and voltage i.e., I I0 sin t and E E 0 sin t
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AC Circuit containing Inductance Only
Let a source of alternating e.m.f be connected to a circuit containing a pure inductance L only, Fig. (a).
Suppose the alternating e.m.f supplied is represented by
Y Y
L E&I E
E t E0
I
t t
O O
X t 90
o
X
I0
I
Y'
Y'
(a) (b) (c)
Alternating emf E E 0 sin t
The current in the circuit is I I 0 sin t / 2)
E0
I0
L
The current lags the emf by or emf leads the current by .
2 2
The inductive reactance, X L L 2L , where is the frequency of AC supply
In DC circuits 0 , XL = 0, a pure inductance offers zero resistance to DC. The units of inductive
1
reactance is given by: X L L henry
sec
AC Circuit containing Capacitance Only
Alternating emf E E 0 sin t
Y Y
E&I
C E E t E0
I0 I
o
90
t t t
O
X O X
I
Y'
Y'
(a) (b) (c)
If I is the instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant t, then,
E0 E0
I sin(t / 2) ; I0 , then I I0 sin t
1/ C 1/ C 2
XC is the capacitive reactance.
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1 1
Thus X C C 2 C
In a DC cicruit, 0 , X C i.e., a condenser will block DC
The current leads the emf in a capacitive circuit.
Series RC circuit
VR VC
C
R +q –q(t)
I
E = E0 sin t
q dq q
Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, E IR 0; E 0 sin t R 0
C dt C
VR I0
VC
E0
VC I 0 X C X C 1
tan
VR I0 R R CR
E0 E0
E 02 VC2 VR2 I0 X C I 0 R ; I0
2 2
R X
2 2
C
Z
where Z R 2 X C2 = impedance of RC circuit
E0 E0
I0 , I0 = 0 for 0 ; I 0 for
2
1 R
R2
C
i0
E0
R
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Series RL circuit
VR VL
E0
R L VL
I
VR I0
E = E0 sin t
Keeping current phasor along the reference line, we plot the phasors VR and VL.
E0
for 0
E0 E0 R
E 02 I 0 R I0 X L ;
2 2
E 02 VR2 VL2 I0
R 2 X L2 Z 0 for
where Z R 2 X L2 = impedance of series LR circuit
i0
E0
R
VL X L
From phasor diagram, tan
VR R
Series LCR Circuit (Acceptor Circuit)
VR VL VC
Phasor diagram
VL
R L C VR i0
I
VC
E = E0 sin t
Now, either amongst VC I0 X C or VL I 0 X L will be larger and will therefore decide whether current
will lead the applied emf or lag the applied e.m.f. Let VC VL
E 02 VR2 VC VL I0 R I0 X C I0 X L
2 2 2
for 0
E0
1
I0 , where, Z = R 2 XC XL
2
= R for 0 when X L X C
Z LC
for
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VC VL X C X L
tan If X L X C 0
VR XR ;
This is the condition when the current through the circuit is found to be in phase with the source emf,
is said to be the condition of resonance and the frequency at which this happens is called the resonant
1
frequency 0 .
LC
i0
E0
Z Imax =
R
0
Zmin = R
XC > XL XL > XC
0
I leads emf I lags emf
For X C X L nature of the circuit is overall capacitive, X C X L nature of the circuit is overall resistive
X L X C nature of the circuit is overall inductive
If the circuit is operated at resonant frequency, Z = R hence it readily allows the current to pass through
as if L and C were not present, hence is known as acceptor circuit.
E0 X XL
I sin t tan 1 C
R 2 XC X L
2
R
Series resonant circuit
A circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and resistance R are connected in series, and the
circuit admits maximum current corresponding to a given frequency of AC is called series resonant circuit
1 2
The impedance (Z) of an LCR circuit is given by Z R (L
2
)
C
At very low frequencies, inductive reactance (XL = L) is negligible, but capacitive reactance
1
XC is very high.
C
At a particular frequency r , as XL = XC; Z R 2 0 R minimum
E0 E0
i.e., impedance of LCR circuit is minimum and hence the current I 0 becomes maximum.
Z R
This frequency is called resonant frequency. From graph it is same that for frequencies greater than or less
than r the values of current are less than the maximum value.
Further, at r , current is maximum.
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Average power associated with resistance or non inductive circuit
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In a DC circuit, power is given by the product of voltage and
current. In an AC circuit, values of voltage and current change every instant. Therefore, power in an AC
circuit at any instant is the product of instantaneous voltage (E) and instantaneous current (I).
Instantaneous power = EI E 0I0 sin 2 t
Total work done or energy spent in maintaining current over one full cycle.
T
W E 0 I0 sin 2 t dt
0
E 0 I0
W T
2
W E 0 I0
Hence average power supplied to R over a complete cycle P
t 2 2
P E vIv
Hence average power over a complete cycle of AC through the resistor is the product of virutal voltage
and virtual current.
Energy stored in an inductor
Total work done by the external source in building up current from zero to I0 is
I0
1 1 2
W LIdI LI02 ; EW LI0
0
2 2
Power Dissipation in AC circuits
In any circuit if we have source emf E E 0 sin t then current is of the form i(t) = I I0 sin t
where may have positive or negative value depending upon instantaneous power supplied by source,
dW
Power at instant t , EI
dt
T
W E 0 I0 cos
2
Average power in the inductive circuit over a complete cycle
W E 0 I0 cos T E 0 I0
P cos E rms I rms cos ; P E V I V cos
T T 2 2 2
Hence average power over a complete cycle in an inductive curcuit is the product of virtual e.m.f.,
virtual current and cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.
Z
XC – XL
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XC XL R
For a series LCR circuit, tan ; cos = power factor
R Z
R E rms E rms
P E rms I rms Z Z I rms R ; P I 2 rms R where I rms
Z
The average power supplied by the source is equal to the power consumed by the resistor alone.
Therefore inductors and capacitors are said to be lossless components of a circuit.
E rms I rms Virtual power
Actual power
Power factor
Virtual power
XL R R
(i) In RL circuit, Z R X L , tan and cos
2 2
R Z R 2 X L2
(ii) In RC circuit, Z R 2 X C2 , tan
XC R R
and cos
R Z R X 2C
2
XL XC R R
(iii) In RLC circuit, Z R 2 X L X C , tan
2
and cos
R Z R 2 XL XC
2
R Resistance
Power factor cos
Z Impedance
In a non-inductive circuit, XL=XC
R R
Power factor cos 1, 0 0
R2 R
This is the maximum value of power factor. In a pure inductor or an ideal capacitor, 900 ,
Power factor cos cos 900 0
Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal capacitor, P E I cos 90 0 0
Therefore, current through pure L or pure C, which consumes no power for its maintenance in the circuit is
called Idle current or Wattless current.
Choke Coil
A choke is used to reduce current in a given circuit with minimum energy wastage. When a resistance
is used in DC circuits the energy wasted per sec is I2R. Similarly if a resistance is used in AC circuits the
wastage of energy per sec is I2R itself. However if an inductance is used in AC, the wastage of energy will
be minimum and the current will be reduced in the circuit. The inductance sets up a back emf which
opposes the applied emf. So the current in the circuit is reduced. When the resistance of the inductance is
negligible, no power is dissipated. Such an inductance coil used in AC circuits to limit the current is called
choke coil.
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For a choke coil having an inductance L and low resistance R, the power factor of such a coil is
R R
cos { as R << L }
R 2 2 L2 L
when R << L , cos is very small. Thus the power absorbed by coil Vrms . Irms cos is very small. On
account of the large impedance Z R 2 2 L2 , the current passing through the coil will be very small.
Thus the current in the circuit is reduced without wastage of energy. The only loss of energy is due to
hysterisis in the core of the inductor which is negligible compared to the loss in resistance.
TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device which is used to transform AC voltages.
Transformer which increases the AC voltages is called a step up transformer and which decreases the AC
voltages is called a step down transformer,
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction. A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made of laminated sheets, well insulated
from one another. Two coils primary and secondary are wound over the same core and the AC is applied to
the primary and output is received at secondary.
P1 S1
INPUT
A.C. R OUTPUT
P2 S2
LAMINATED CORE
In step up there are more number of turns in secondary and in step down secondary has less number
of turns.
Theory and Working. As current in primary varies, the magnetic flux linked with primary and hence with
secondary changes. Due to self induction, an e.m.f. is induced in primary and due to mutual induction, an
e.m.f. is induced in secondary.
Ep and Es are emf in primary and secondary and Np and Ns are number of turns in secondary.
E N
thne E N K
s s
p p
where K is a constant, called Transformation Ratio.
For a step up transformer, Es > Ep K > 1. Hence Ns> Np
In a step down transformer, Es < Ep K < 1. Hence Ns < Np.
Ip and Is are primary and secondary current.
ES Ip
If we assume that there is no loss of power, then Es Is = Ep Ip or K
Ep Is
In a step up transformer. As K>1 Ip>Is
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output power EI
i.e. input power E I
s s
p p
In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss, = 1 (i.e. 100%). However, practically there are
many energy losses. Hence efficiency of a transformer in practice is less than one (i.e. less than
100%).
ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:
1 Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a transformer. This is due to
Joule heating of conducting wires.
2 Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the transformer. This is due to
formation of eddy currents in the iron core. It is minimised by taking laminated cores.
3 Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best insulations.Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with each turn of S1 S2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of
P1 P2
4 Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the
iron core when AC is fed to it.
5 Magnetostriction i.e. humming noise of a transformer.Therefore, output power in a transformer is roughly
90% of the input power.
USES OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer is used in almost all AC operations e.g.
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator, computer, air conditioner etc.
(ii) In the induction furnaces.
(iii) A step down transformer is used for welding purposes.
(iv) In the transmission of AC over long distances.
The loss of power in the transmission lines is I2R, where I is the strength of current and R is the
resistance of the wires. To reduce the power loss, AC is transmitted over long distances at extremely high
voltages. This reduces I in the same ratio. Therefore I2R becomes negligibly low. As I has been reduced
sufficiently, I2R remains negligible even when R is not very small. This means we can use even thin line
wires of large resistance R instead of thick ones. This saves us a lot of material (copper). Therefore, cost
of transmission is reduced considerably.
Normally, at the generating station, we use a step up transformer, which raises AC voltage to about
132000 V. Thin line wires carry the power to the receiving station. The voltage is reduced in steps using a
number of step down transformers. For the domestic consumers, the voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 9. The voltage of an A.C. source varies with time
according to the equation V = 120 sin 100 t volt,
1. If an alternating current of frequency 50 Hz is flowing
then:
through a conducting wire; then how many times
does the current become zero in one second? 1) the peak voltage of the source is 120 volt
1) 125 times 2) 100 times 2) the peak voltage of the source is 60 volt
3) 75 times 4) 25 times 3) the frequency of the source is 50 Hz
2. The instantaneous current in a circuit is given by
4) Both 1 & 3
1 = 2 cos (t + ) ampere. The r.m.s value of the
current is: 10. A coil having an inductance of 15/16 henry is
connected in series with a resistance of 300 ohm. If
1) zero 2) 2A 3) 2A 4) 2 2 A 20 volts from 200 cycle source are impressed across
the combination, the value of the phase angle between
3. Alternating voltage V = 400 sin (500 t) is applied the voltage and the current is:
across the resistance 0.2 k. The r.m.s value of
current will be equal to: a f
1) tan 1 5 / 4 a f
2) tan 1 4 / 5
1) 14.14 A 2) 1.414 A 3) 0.1414 A 4) 2.0 A
4. Current in a circuit is wattless, if
3) tan 4 a3 / 4 f 4) tan 1 a4 / 3f
1) current is alternating 11. With increase in frequency of an a.c. supply, the
capacitative reactance:
2) resistance in circuit is zero
1) varies inversely with frequency
3) inductance in circuit is zero
4) resistance and inductance both are zero 2) varies directly with frequency
5. A pure resistance and a pure inductance are 3) varies directly as square of frequency
connected in series across a 100 volts A.C. line. A 4) remains constant
voltmeter gives same reading whether connected
across resistance or inductance. What does it read? 12. An increase in the resonant frequency can be
brought about by:
1) 50 V 2) 70.7 V 3) 88.2 V 4) 100 V
1) decreasing R 2) increasing L
6. In an oscillating system, a restoring force is a must.
But in an L-C circuit, restoring force is provided by 3) decreasing L 4) increasing R
a/an : 13. The peak volage of 220 V ac mains in volt is:
1) capacitor 2) inductance
1) 155.6 2) 220 3) 311.0 4) 440
3) resistance 4) both 1 and 2
14. A pure resistive circuit element X when connected
7. When the frequency of A.C is doubled, the impedance to an a.c. supply of peak voltage 200 V gives a peak
of an R-C circuit: current of 5 A which is in phase with the voltage. A
1) is doubled 2) is halved second circuit element Y, when connected to the
3) increases 4) decreases same a.c. supply also gives the same value of peak
current but the current lags behind by 900. If the
8. When the frequency of A.C is doubled, the impedance
series combination of X and Y is connected to the
of an L-C-R circuit:
same supply what will be the r.m.s. value of the
1) is halved current:
2) is doubled
1) 10 / 2 amp 2) 5 / 2 amp
3) increases
4) may increase or decrease 3) 5/2 amp 4) 5 amp
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15. In general, in an alternating current circuit: 21. In a series combination of R, L and C to an ac source
1) the average value of current is zero at resonance, if R = 20 ohm, then impedance Z of
the combination is:
2) the average value of square of current is zero
1) 20 ohm 2) zero 3) 10 ohm 4) 400 ohm
3) average power dissipated is zero
22. The power factor of a series LCR circuit when at
4) the phase difference between voltage and current resonance is:
is zero 1) zero 2) 0.5 3) one
16. A direct current of 5 A is superimposed on an 4) depends on the values of L.C. and R
alternating current I = 10 sin t flowing through a
23. In an ac circuit V0, I0 and cos are voltage amplitude,
wire. The effective value of the resulting current
current amplitude and power factor respectively, the
will be:
power consumption is:
1) (15/2) A 2) 5 3 A 3) 5/ 3A 4) 15 A 1 FG 1 IJ V I cos
17. The reactance of a capacitor XC in an ac circuit
1)
2
V0I 0 cos 2) H 2K 0 0
varies with frequency ‘f’ of the source voltage.
Which one of the following represents this variation 3) V0 I 0 cos
F1I
4) GH JK V I sin
0 0
correctly: 2
24. If a current I given by I0 sin [ t – (/2)] flows in an
ac circuit across which an ac potential of E0 sin ( t)
1) 2) has been applied, then the power consumption P in
the circuit will be:
E 0I 0 E 0I 0 EI
1) 2) 3) 4) zero
2 2 2
3) 4)
25. The PD V across and the current I flowing through
an instrument in an ac circuit are given by V = 5 cos
18. An alternating voltage E (in volt) = 200 2 sin (100
t volt and I = 2 sin t amp. The power dissipated in
t) is connected to a 1 F capacitor through an ac
the instrument is:
ammeter. The reading of the ammeter shall be:
1) 1 watt 2) 10 watt 3) 5 watt 4) zero
1) 10 mA 2) 20 mA 3) 40 mA 4) 80 m A
26. The average power dissipated in a pure inductance
19. An alternating emf 100 cos 100 t volt is connected in
is:
series to a resistance of 10 ohm and inductance 100
mH. What is the phase difference between the 1) (1/2) L i2 2) 2 L i2
current in the circuit and the emf? 3) (L i2)/4 4) zero
1) /4 2) zero 3) 4) /2 27. A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are connected
20. An inductance has a high resistance to ac and low in series to an A - C supply. A voltmeter reads 40
to dc. When a dc voltage source having some ac virtual volt across the resistor, 60 virtual volt across
component superimposed on it sends current through the inductor and 30 virtual volt across the capacitor,
an inductance to a load resistance: then the supply voltage is:
1) the dc voltage falls appreciably across the load 1) 130 volt 2) 90 volt 3) 50 volt 4) 70 volt
and ac component falls only a small amount 28. An A.C. ammeter is used to measure current in a
circuit. When a given direct current passes through
2) the ac and dc voltage fall by the same small
the circuit, the A.C. ammeter reads three ampere,
percentage
when another alternating current passes through the
3) the ac voltage falls appreciably across the load circuit, the A.C. ammeter reads 4 ampere. Then
and dc voltage falls by only a small amount\ the reading of this ammeter if D.C. and A.C. flow
4) both ac and dc voltage fall to nearly zero through the circuit simultaneously, is:
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1) 3 ampere 2) 4 ampere 37. In the above question, the output voltage and current
3) 7 ampere 4) 5 ampere is:
29. A 20 volt A.C. is applied to a circuit consisting of a 1) 40 V, 9 A 2) 40 V, 3 A
resistance and a coil with a negligible resistance. If 3) 40 V, 7.2 A 4) 360 V, 1 A
the voltage across the resistance is 12 volt, the voltage 38. If in a transformer the number of turns of primary
across the coil is: coil and secondary coil are 5 and 4 respectively and
1) 16 volt 2) 10 volt 3) 8 volt 4) 6 volt 240 V is applied to primary coil, then the ratio of
current in primary and secondary coils is:
30. In an A.C. circuit, the instananeous values of e.m.f.
and current are e = 200 sin 314 t volt and 1) 4 : 5 2) 5 : 4 3) 5 : 10 4) 8 : 12
FG 314 t IJ 39. The back emf in a dc motor is maximum when:
i = sin H 3K
ampere. The average power 1) the motor has picked up maximum speed
consumed in watt is: 2) the motor has just started moving
1) 200 2) 100 3) 1.25 4) 50 3) the speed of the motor is still on the rise
31. A generator develops an e.m.f of 120 V and has a 4) the motor has just been switched off
terminal potential difference of 115 V when the 40. A steady voltage is applied to a dc motor. The
armature current is armature winding resistance is equal to R. The
25 A. The resistance of the armature is: maximum useful power of the motor is:
1) 2 KW 2) 2 3) 0.2 4) 20 1) V2/R 2) V2/2R 3) V2/4R 4) 3V2/4R
32. A transformer is used to light 140 W, 24 V lamp 41. A choke coil has:
from 240 V a.c. mains. The current in the mains is
0.7 A. The efficiency of transformer is nearest to: 1) high inductance and low resistance
1) 90 % 2) 83% 3) 70% 4) 60% 2) high resistance and low inductance
33. A transformer connected to 220 V line shows an 3) high inductance and high resistance
output of 2A at 11000 V. The efficiency of the 4) low inductance and low resistance
transformer is 100%. The current drawn from the 42. A choke is used for limiting current in:
line is:
1) dc circuit only
1) 100 A 2) 200 A 3) 22 A 4) 11 A
2) ac circuit only
34. If the coils of a transformer are made up of thick
wire, then: 3) in both ac and dc circuit
1) eddy current loss will be more 4) electronic valves
2) magnetic flux leakage is reduced 43. A step-up transformer operates on a 230 volt line
and a load a current of 2 ampere. The ratio of the
3) Joule’s heating loss is increased primary and secondary windings is 1 : 25. The current
4) Joule’s heating loss is reduced in the primary is:
35. A transformer has an efficiency of 80%. It works at 1) 25 amp 2) 50 amp
4 kW and 100 V. If secondary voltage is 240 V, the 3) 15 amp 4) 12.5 amp
current in primary coil is:
44. In an AC generator, a coil with N turns, all of the
1) 0.4 A 2) 4 A 3) 10 A 4) 40 A same area A and total resistance R. rotates with
36. A stepdown transformer of transformation ratio 1/3 frequency in a magnetic field B. The maximum
has an efficiency of 80%. The input power of 360 value of emf generated in the coil
W is at a voltage of 120 V. The input current is: 1) NAB 2) NABR
1) 3 A 2) 0.33 A 3) 2.4 A 4) 0.24 A 3) NAB 4) NABR
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Assertion - Reason Match the following.
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the 50. Consider all possibilities (L, R, C are non-zero)
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the Column I Column II
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion A) In L-R series ac p) Current lags
circuit inductor voltage
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false by / 2
4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true B) In R-C series ac q) Current lags
circuit voltage by an
45. Assertion : A capacitor of suitable capacitance angle less than
can be used in an ac circuit in place /2
of the choke coil. C) In L-C-R series ac r) Current leads
Reason : A capacitor blocks dc and allows ac circuit (consider voltage by an
only. all possibilities) angle less than
/2
46. Assertion : If the frequency of alternating D) In purely resistive s) Current and
current in an ac circuit consisting of ac circuit voltage are in
an inductance coil is increased then phase
current gets decreased.
Reason : The current is inversely proportional 1) A - q; B - p; C - r, s; D - s
to frequency of alternating current. 2) A - p, q; B - p, q; C - p, q, r, s; D - s
47. Assertion : For an electric lamp connected in 3) A - p, q; B - r; C - p, q, r, s; D - s
series with a variable capacitor and
ac source, its brightness increases 4) A - p, r; B - p, q; C - p, r; D - s
with increase in capacitance. Integer
Reason : Capacitive reactance decreases with
51. An alternating voltage is connected in series with a
increase in capacitance of capacitor.
resistance R and an inductance L. If the potential
Statement drop across the resistance is 200 V and across the
inductance is 150 V, the applied voltage is ........V
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
52. In the circuit shown in figure., the rms value of e is 5
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false V and rms value of voltage drop across L is 3 V.
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false The rms value of voltage across R will be ......... V
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
48. Statement I : The alternating current lags behind
the emf by a phase angle of / 2 ,
when ac flows through an inductor.
53. A resistor and an inductor are connected to an A-C
Statement II : The inductive reactance as the supply of 120 volt and 50 Hz. The current in the
frequency of ac source decreases. circuit is 3 ampere, if the power consumed in the
49. Statement I : When capacitive reactance is circuit is 108 watt then the resistance in the circuit is
smaller than the inductive reactance ..... ohm.
in LCR circuit, emf leads the current. 54. A transformer steps up an ac supply from 220 to
Statement II : The phase angle is the angle between 2200 V. If the secondary coil of the transformer has
the alternating emf and alternating 2000 turns, the number of turns in its primary coil
current of the circuit. will be
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 2 Twice in each cycle , the current becomes 200
zero. Therefore , in 1 sec , 14. 3 RX 40;
5
current becomes zero 50 × 2 = 100 times 200
Zy 40 ( X L inductor )
5
I0 2
2. 2 I rms 2 A
2 2 V 200
i peak
Z R 2 X 2L
3. 2 E0 = 400 volt; R 0.2 k 200
200 200 5
E rms E0 400 402 40 2 40 2 2
I rms 1. 414 A
R 2 R 2 200
i peak 5/ 2 5/ 2 5
4. 2 i rms amp
2 2 2 2
5. 2 VR = V L 15. 1 In one cycle of AC, current increases from zero
to a maximum, then decreases to zero and
V VR2 VL2 ; reverses direction, increases to maximum in the
reverse direction and then decreases to zero. So
V average value of current is zero.
V 2 VR ; VR 70.7V
2 16. 2 Idc = 5 A; Iac (peak) = 10;
6. 2 a f
I ac rms
10
2
5 2;
7. 4 Z R2 XC b g 2
; XC
1
C I I 2dc I 2ac 52 5 2 e j 2
5 3
8. 4 b
Z R 2 X L XC g 2
R 2 (L 1 / C ) 2
17. 4 XC
1
1 1
; XC .,
C 2 fC f
9. 4 V V0 sin t of V 120sin100 t hyperbolic graph
E rms
Peak voltage = 120 V, t 100t . 18. 2 i rms E rms C =
Xc
f = 50 Hz. 200 100 10 6 20mA
XL 2 fL X L L
10. 1 tan 19. 1 tan
R R R R
20. 1 DC voltage does not drop across the inductor
1 but ac component falls appreciably across the
11. 1 Capacitative reactance X C & =2f inductor
C
2
1
impedence z R L
2
1 21. 1
12. 3 Resonance frequency f r C
2 LC
1
At resonance L ;
c z R R 20
2
13. 3 Peak voltage = Vrms 2
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R P0 80
22. 3 Powerfactor cos 37. 3
1
2 Pi 100 ;
R 2 L .
C 80 80
P0 Pi 360 36 8W
100 100
At resonance L C
ES 1 E 120
23. 1 P Vrms .I rms cos ; ES P 40V
EP 3 3 3
V0 I0 1
cos Vo Io cos P0 36 8
2 2 2 P0 E S I S ; I S 7.2 A
ES 40
24. 4 P = VrmsIrmscos Here ; cos 0 ES nS
; E S 192V
2 2 38. 1 EP nP
1
25. 4 P V0 I 0 cos ; cos 0; 900 I P ES
2 E P I P ESI S ; 4/5
IS E P
26. 4 Power factor for an inductor or a capacitor is
zero. So there is no power dissipation across the 39. 1 when speed is maximum induced e.m.f is
inductor or capacitor maximum
40. 3 The power usage will be maximum, when the
27. 3 V VR2 VL VCb g 2
load resistance is equal to the armature resistance
28. 4 I I 2dc I 2ac
P i2 R
FG V IJ 2
V2
H 2R K xR
4R
29. 1 V VR 2 VL2
41. 1 Choke coil is used to control ac with out large
30. 4 P E V I V cos power loss. Hence it has high inductance and
low resistance
EV 120 115
31. 3 R 0.2
I 25 42. 2 X L L; for dc 0; X L 0
32. 2 Pi = 240 × 0.7 = 168 W; P0 = 140 W hence choke coil is used for limiting current in
ac circuit only.
P0 140 250
100 % 100 83%
Pi 168 3 ES nS n
43. 2 ; E S E P S 230 25
EP nP nP
33. 1 E P I P ESIS
E S I S 230 25 2
1 E P I P E SI S ; I P 50A
34. 4 R ; Heat loss = I2R EP 230
a
44. 1 E NBA sin t; E 0 NBA
P
35. 4 E P I P Pi ; IP i
EP 45. 2 We can use a capacitor of suitable capacitance
as a choke coil because average power
36. 1 Transformation ratio ES/EP = 1/3 consumed per cycle in an ideal capacitor is zero.
P 360 Therefore, like a choke coil, a condenser can
Pi E P I P ; I P 3A reduce ac without power dissipation.
E P 120
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46. 1 When frequency of alternating current is (D) In purely resistive circuit, current and voltage
increased, the effective resistance of the are in same phase.
inductive coil increases.
Current X L L 2fL in the circuit
V V
containing inductor is given by I X .
L 2fL
As inductive resistance of the inductor increases,
current in the circuit decreases.
1
47. 1 Capacitive reactance X C .
C
51. 250
When capacitance (C) increases, the capacitive
reactance decreases. Due to decrease in its V VR2 VL2
values, the current in the circuit will increases
52. 4 V = 5 V, VL = 3 V, VR = ?
E
I
2
R X C and hence brightness of source
2 As VL2 VR2 V 2
(or electric lamp) will also increase.
VR V 2 VL2 52 32 4V
48. 3 X L L, X L
53. 12 P E v I v cos 108
X L XC 108 108 3
49. 1 tan cos
R E v I v 360 10
50. 3 (A) For LR series circuit, the phasor diagram is
as shown below, I lags voltage by an angle V 120 R
Z 40 ; cos
I 3 Z
/ 2 . I lags VL by an angle / 2
(B) For RC series ac circuit, I leads V by an 3
R cos Z 40 12
angle less than / 2 10
(C) Depending on the value of L, C and R, circuit 54. 200
would be either capacitive, inductive or purely
resistive. All possibilities can be there. Es ns 2000 220
n 200 turns
Ep np ; p 2200
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CHAPTER - 08
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
MAXWELL’S DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
According to Ampere’s circuital law, the magnetic field B is related to steady current i as
B.dl 0i -----------------(1)
C
where i is the current threading the surface bounded by closed path C.
Maxwell in 1864, showed that the relation (1) is logically inconsistent. He accounted this inconsistency
as follows :
C1 P C2 Q
Consider two loops C1 and C2 parallel to the plates P and Q of the capacitor. C1 is enclosing only the
connecting wire attached to the plate P of the capacitor and C2 lies in the region between two plates of
capacitor. Since the loop C1 has a current i flowing across it, hence Ampere’s circuital law for loop C1 gives
B.dl 0i -----------------(2)
C1
Since the loop C2 lies in the region between the plates of the capacitor, no current flows in this region.
Hence Ampere’s circuital law for loop C2 gives
B.dl 0 -----------------(3)
C2
The relations (2) and (3) continue to be true even if two loops C1 and C2 be infinitesimally close to the
plate P of the capacitor. On the other hand, as the loops C1 and C2 are infinitesimally close, it is expressed
that
B.dl B.dl -----------------(4)
C1 C2
Thus the relation (4) is in contradiction with the relation (2) and (3).
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To avoid this contradiction, Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law for varying currents as follows:
d
l 0 i 0 dtE --------(5) where E electric flux across the loop and 0 dE id
B.d
dt
displacement current.
i.e., B.dl 0 i id ------------(6) is known as Ampere-Maxwell law..
Here, i is the conduction current which arises due to conduction of electrons and id the displacement
current which exists so long as the electric field changes with time. This shows that time varying
electric field produces magnetic field,
Continuity of current
In a circuit involving a capacitor, the conduction current in the connecting wires is equal to the
displacement current between the plates of capacitor.
dq
Ic
dt
dE dE.A d q dq
Id 0 . 0 0 .A
dt dt dt A0 dt
Ic I d
dq
Outside the capacitor plates I c , Id 0
dt
dE dq
In between the plates, I c 0, Id 0
dt dt
Maxwell’s Equations
1. Gauss’s law for electrostatics
(i) This law gives the total electric flux in terms of charge enclosed by the closed surface
(ii) This law states that the electric lines of force start from positive charge and end at negative
charge ie, the electric lines of force do not form a continuous closed path.
q
Mathematically, E.ds
S 0
------(7)
2. Gauss’s law for magnetism
(i) This law shows that the number of magnetic lines of force entering a closed surface is equal to
number of magnetic lines of force leaving that closed surface. i.e., magnetic lines of force form a
continuous closed path.
(ii) This law also predicts that the isolated magnetic monopole does not exist.
Mathematically, B.ds 0 ------(8)
S
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3. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
(i) This law gives a relation between electric field and a changing magnetic flux.
(ii) This law tells that the changing magnetic field is the source of electric field.
d B
Mathematically, E.dl dt
------(9)
4. Ampere- Maxwell’s law
(i) This law states that the magnetic field can be produced by a conduction current as well as by
displacement current.
(ii) This law also states that the conduction current and displacement current together have a property
of continuity.
(iii) At an instant, in a circuit, the conduction current is equal to displacement current.
d E
B.dl 0 ic 0
dt
------(10)
Electromagnetic Waves
The variation in electric and magnetic field vectors perpendicular to each other leads to the production
of electromagnetic disturbances in space. These disturbances have the properties of wave and can
travel in space even without any material medium. These waves are called electromagnetic waves.
Speed of Electromagnetic Waves
1
The speed of EM waves in vacuum is c 0 0 ------- (11)
1 1 1 1 c
In an isotropic medium their speed v
0 0 r r
rr
.
00
n ---------- (12)
Here n r r refractive index of the medium
r relative permeability of the medium ;
r relative permitivity of the medium
0 4 10 7 Wb A 1m 1 ; 0 8.85 10 12 C 2 N 1m 2
Characteristics of EM Waves
1. The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature whose speed is same as that of speed of light.
2. The two fields E and B have the same frequency of oscillation and they are in phase with each other.
If the electromagnetic wave is travelling along positive direction along x- axis, the electric field is
oscillating parallel to the y axis and that the magnetic field is then oscillating parallel to the z- axis.
Then, we can write the electric and magnetic fields as sinusoidal functions of position x and time t
E y E0 sin kx t
BZ B0 sin kx t
In this, E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the fields.
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E 1
Further, c = B
0
0 0 0 = speed of light in vacuum. ------- (13)
3. The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area in an electromagnetic wave is described by the vector
called the poynting vector, which is defined by the expression.
1
S E B -------- (14)
0
Its magnitude S is related to the rate at which energy is transported by a wave across a unit area at
any instant.
Since E and B are mutually perpendicular hence E B EB
EB E2 c
Thus, S = B2 ------(15)
0 0 c 0
The SI unit of poynting vector S is Js–1m–2 or Wm–2
Energy Density of Electromagnetic Waves
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along X- axis. The electric and magnetic fields in
a plane electromagnetic wave can be given by E = E 0 sin kx t and B B0 sin kx t
1
In any small volume dV, the energy of the electric field is U E 0 E 2 dV and the energy of the
2
1 2
magnetic field in volume dV is U B B dV
2 0
a) The average energy density of electric field is
1 1
1
2
UE 0 E 2 0 E 0 / 2 0 E o2 ------(16)
2 2 4
b) The average energy density of magnetic field is,
B
2
0 / 2 B02
2
B
UB ------(17)
20 2 0 4 0
c) Total average energy density
1 1 B02
U A u E u B 2u E 2u B 0 E 20
2 2 0
The units of u E and u B are Jm–3
Note: In vacuum total energy density
1 1
2
UA 0 E 2 0 0 E 0 E 2 ; E c
Since, B
2 2 0 c 0 0 E
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d) Intenstity
The energy crossing per unit area per unit time, perpendicular to the direction of propagation of EM
wave is called intensity
total EM energy
i.e, intensity, I =
surface area time
1 1 B02 c
u av c 0 E 02 c Wm 2 -------- (18)
2 2 0
B2rms
I c 0 E 2rms c
0
p 1
Intensity of em wave of a distance r from isotropic point source, I i.e., I 2
4r 2
r
Electromagnetic spectrum
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations according to their wavelength or frequency is
called the electromagnetic spectrum.
The whole electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different parts and sub parts in order of
increasing wavelength, according to their type of excitation.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Radio Waves:
Electromagnetic waves whose frequency is in the range of 500 kHz to 1000 MHz are known as
radiowaves. Radio waves are used in communication system such as radio, television, and cellular
phones.
Microwaves:
The shortest wavelength radio waves are called microwaves, because even though their wavelengths
are much longer than those of visible light, they are of the order of magnitude smaller than the
wavelengths used for radio broadcasting.
- Microwaves are used in radar system for aircraft navigation.
- A radar using microwaves can be used to detect speed of a tennis ball, cricket ball, or automobiles
in motion.
Infrared waves:
Electromagnetic waves having frequency range 3 1011 to 4 1014 Hz are known as infrared waves.
Some of important uses of infrared waves are
- In infrared lamps, which are used for physical therapy
- In infrared detectors, used in Earth satellites
- In light-emitting diodes, which emit infrared waves and used in remote switches to TV, CD player
and air conditioner.
- In solar water heaters and solar cookers.
- In green houses, which work on basis of greenhosue effect to maintain constant temperature
inside the green house, that is adequate for a plant to grow properly.
Visible rays
Electromagnetic waves that are visible to the human eye are known as visible rays. They have a
wavelength ranging from 400 to 700 nm and a frequency range of 4 1014 Hz to 7 1014 Hz . Important
uses of visible rays are in electric bulbs and tube lights, lasers and movie screen in cinema hall.
Ultraviolet rays
Electromagnetic waves which have wavelength in the range 0.6 – 400 nm and frequency in the range
of 8 1014 Hz to 5 1017 Hz are known as ultraviolet rays.
UV rays are used:
- For sterilizing surgical instruments.
- To kill germs in water purifiers.
- In LASIK (Laser - assisted in situ Keratomileusis) eye surgery.
- For checking mineral samples due to their property of causing fluorescence.
- In burglar alrams
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X-Rays
The electromagnetic waves lying beyond the ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum and having
wavelength in the range of 104 nm to 10 nm are known as X-rays.
X-rays are used:
- For detection of fractures in bones.
- By engineers for detecting faults, cracks, holes, and flaws in metals.
- For investigation of crystal structure
- To detect foreign bodies like diseases organs, stones and bullets in the human body.
Gamma rays
The electromagnetic waves which have wavelength in the range 10–14 m to 10–10 m and frequency
range 3 1018 Hz to 3 1022 Hz are known as gamma rays.
Gamma rays are used:
- In cancer therapy to destroy cancer cells.
- To preserve food items for long time by exposing them to gamma rays which kill harmful
microorganisms.
- To study structure of atomic nucleus.
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QUESTIONS
1. A radio wave of frequency 90 MHz (FM) enters a 6. The unit of displacement current is:
ferrite rod. In r 103 and r 10 then the velocity 1) Ampere 2) Maxwell
and wavelength n ferrite are 3) Hertz 4) Faraday
1) 3 10 ms , 3.33 10 m
6 1 2
7. The amplitude of electric field in a parallel light beam
of intensity 4 Wm–2 is
2) 3 106 ms1 , 3.33 10 1 m
1) 35.5 NC–1 2) 45.5 NC–1
3) 3 10 ms , 3.33 10 m
6 1 3
3) 49.5 NC–1 4) 55.5 NC–1
4) none of these
8. A parallel plate capacitor consists of two circular
2. ‘‘A time - varying magnetic field gives rise to an plates each of radius 12 cm and separated by 5.0
electric field.’’ This theory was proposed by: mm. The capacitor is being charged by an external
1) Issac Newton source. The charging current is constant and is equal
2) Michael Faraday to 0.15 A. The rate of change of potential difference
between the plates will be:
3) J.C.Maxwell
1) 8.173 × 107 Vs–1
4) Heinritch Hertz
3. The displacement current flows in a dielectric of a 2) 7.817 × 108 Vs–1
capacitor when the potential difference V across its 3) 1.873 × 109 Vs–1
plates:
4) 3.781 × 1010 Vs–1
1) remains constant
9. If r is the relative permeability and r is the relative
2) changes with thickness of dielectric
permitivity of a medium, the refractive index of the
3) changes with time medium is given by:
4) becomes zero
1 r r
4. If magnetic monopoles existed, which of the 1) r r
following Maxwell’s equations would be modified? r r 2) r 3) r 4)
1) z
E. ds
q
0
10. At a particular instant the electric field intensity in
an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is 3 x 10-3 N/C.
The magnitude of the magnetic induction of the wave
2) z B. ds 0 is then:
1) 1011 tesla
3) z
E. ds
d
dt z
B. ds 2) 10-11 tesla
3) 3 108 tesla
4) z
B . ds 0 0
d
dt z
E . ds 0 I 4) 9 105 tesla
5. Which of the following equations was found to be 11. The vectors E and B of any e.m. wave in vacuum :
inconsistent and corrected by Maxwell?
z z
1) along the same direction but out of phase by 90o
q
1) E. ds 2) B. ds 0
0 2) along the same direction and in phase
z z z
3) perpendicular to each other and in phase
d
3) B . ds 0 I 4) E. ds B. ds 4) perpendicular to each other and out of phase by 90o
dt
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12. What physical quantity is the same for X-rays of 18. Which of the following pairs of space and time
wavelength 10 -10 m, red light of wavelength 6800 varying E and B would generate a plane
A0 and radiowaves of wavelength 500 m? electromagnetic wave travelling in y -direction
1) velocity, 3 108 m/s 1) Ex, By 2) Ey, Bz 3) Ez, Bz 4) Ex, Bz
2) frequency 19. Consider an electromagnetic wave that propagates
3) refractive index in the Z direction with an electric field strength of 1
v/m pointing in the Y direction. Then the direction
4) energy and magnitude of magnetic field pulse that travels
13. In a wave E = 100 Vm–1. Find the Poyting vector along with electric field is :
magnitude 1) 3.33 × 10-9 T in y direction
1) 13.25 Wm–2 2) 26.5 Wm–2 2) 3.33 × 10-9 T in z direction
3) 18.25 Wm–2 4) 19.7 Wm–2 3) 3.33 × 10-9 T in x direction
14. Speed of e.m. waves through a medium depends 4) 6.66 × 10-9 T in x direction
upon:
20. If v , x , m represent the wavelengths of vision, x-
1) only electric properties of the medium
ray and microwaves respectively then
2) only magnetic properties of the medium
3) both electric and magnetic properties of the 1) m x v 2) m v x
medium 3) v x m 4) v m x
4) mechanical and thermal properties of the medium
21. An observer is at a distance of 36 metre from a
15. E.M. waves travel in a medium which has relative point source of light of power 250 watt. The rms
permeability 1.3 and relative permittivity 2.14 speed value of the electric field at the position of the
of electromagnetic wave in this medium will be observer in volt/metre is:
1) 13.6 106 m / sec 1) 2.4 2) 24 3) 240 4) 2400
22. Which of the following electromagnetic radiations
2) 1.8 10 6 m / sec has the smallest wave length?
3) 1.8 108 m / sec 1) microwaves 2) ultraviolet
3) X-rays 4) gamma rays
4) 3.6 108 m / sec 23. ‘Green House Effect’ is due to:
1) UV radiations
1
16. Diminsion of 2) infrared radiations
0 0 where symbols have the usual
3) X-rays
meanings are
4) - rays
1) L-1T 2) L-2T2 3) L2 T-2 4) LT-1
24. A standing em wave frequency 2.2 1010 Hz is
17. A electromagnetic ratiation of frequency ,
produced in a certain material and nodal planes of
wavelength , travelling with velocity C in air, enters magnetic field are 3.5 mm apart. Find the speed of
a glas slab of refractive index . The frequency,, the wave in this material
wavelength and velocity of light in glass slab will be 1) 2.81108 ms 1 2) 1.79 108 ms 1
respectively.
3) 3.08 108 ms1 4) 1.54 108 ms 1
C C
1) , and 2) , and 25. Which among the following electromagnetic waves
are employed in ‘Radio Wave Detection and
Ranging?
C 1) microwaves 2) X-rays
3) , , C 4) and
3) millimetre waves 4) metre waves
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26. Ultra violet rays can be produced by: 34. E.M. waves transport:
1) nuclear deexcitation
1) energy only
2) sudden decelerations of high energy electron
3) excitation of valency electrons 2) momentum only
4) excitation of atom, spark and arc lamp 3) both energy and momentum
27. Visible light is emerged from:
4) neither energy nor momentum
1) excitations of atom, spark and arc lamp
2) excitations of atoms and molecules Assertion - Reason Type
3) hot bodies 1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
4) oscillating current in special vacuum tube Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
28. Radio waves are produced by:
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
1) nuclear orgin Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
2) sudden decelerations of high energy electron
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
3) hot bodies
4) oscillating circuits 4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
29. Which among the following is harmful to living
organisms: 35. Assertion : In ampere’s law B. d 0 I, B
1) uv rays also includes the contribution from
current not enclosed by the loop.
2) violet light
3) red light Reason : A moving charge produces magnetic
4) infra red rays field, but no electric field.
30. Which of the following rays is emitted by a human 36. Assertion : When variable frequency ac source
body ? is connected to a capacitor,
1) x-rays displacement current increases with
2) visible rays increase in frequency.
3) uv rays Reason : As frequency increases, conduction
4) IR rays current also increases.
31. Which of the following waves is used in Raman
Statement Type
spectroscopy ?
1) uv 2) x-rays 3) -rays 4) IR 1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
32. Which of the following frequency ranges includes 2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
most of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the
ultraviolet tubes used in a sunbed ? 3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
1) 5 × 105 to 5 × 108 Hz 4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
2) 5 × 108 to 5 × 108 Hz
3) 5 × 1011 to 5 × 1014 Hz 37. Statement I : Displacement current goes through
the gap between the plates of a
4) 5 × 1014 to 5 × 1017 Hz capacitor when the charge of the
33. The photon energy in units of eV for electromagnetic capacitor change.
waves of wavelength 2 cm is
1) 9.9 × 10–24 Statement II : The displacement current arises in
2) 3.2 × 10–19 the region in which the electric field
3) 6.2 × 10–5 and hence the electric flux does not
change with time.
4) 0.62
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38. Statement I : In an electromagnetic wave, Integer Type
magnitude of magnetic field vector
40. In an apparatus, the electric field was found to
is much smaller than the magnitude
oscillate with amplitude of 18 V/m. The magnitude
of electric field vector.
of the oscillating magnetic field will be ...... × 10–8 T.
Statement II : Energy of electromagnetic waves is
41. EM waves travel in a medium with a speed of
shared equally by the electric and
1 × 108 m/sec. The relative permeability of the
magnetic fields.
medium is 1. Then relative permittivity of the medium
Match the following. is
39. 42. A parallel plate capacitor made of circular plates,
each of radius R = 6.0 cm, has a capacitance C =
Column I Column II 100 pF. The capacitor is connected to a 230 V ac
A) Infrared i) to treat muscular strain
supply with an angular frequency of 300 rad s–1. The
rms value of the conduction current is ..... .... 101 A
B) Radio waves ii) for broad casting
C) X-rays iii) to detect fracture of
bones
D) Ultraviolet rays iv) absorbed by the ozone
layer of the atmosphere
1) A - iii; B - ii; C - i; D - iv
2) A - i; B - ii; C - iii; D - iv
3) A - iv; B - iii; C - ii; D - i
4) A - i; B - ii; C - iv; D - iii
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KEY WITH HINTS
c 3 108 1
ferrite 3 106 ms1 14. 3 V
1. 1 r r u
103 10
C
ferrite 3 106 15. 3 V 1.8 108
ferrite 3.33 10 2 m 1.3 2.14
f 90 106
2. 2 1 1
16. 3 C; C2
U 0 0 U 0 0
cdV
3. 3 Id 17. 2
dt
18. 4
4. 2 Gauss Theorm in magnetism
5. 3 0
19. 3 B0 3.38 10 9 T
C
6. 1
Selection of B is r to and velocity
1 2I 20. 2
7. 4 I 0 E 02 c or E 0
2 0 c
Energy P
21. 1 Intensity =
2 4 Area t Area
=
8.85 1012 3 108 For point source the wave front is sphere.
Therefor area enclosed by sphere at r distance
dV I Id
8. 3 from point is 4r 2
dt C 0A
P
c 1 / 0 0 ie, I
9. 4 n r r 4 r 2
v 1 / 0 0 0
Energy Energy density ACt
0 Also I
Area t At
10. 2 In vacuum B C
0
= Energy density C U avT C
0 3 10 3
B0 1011 T P
C 3 108 = 0 Erms C
2
4r 2
11. 3
22. 4
12. 1 Velocity is same in same media
23. 2
E EB E 2
13. 2 B p 24. 4 3.5mm ;
c 0 c 0 = 7.0 mm
2
104 f 2.2 1010 0.7 102
= 26.5Wm 2
3 10 4 107
8
1.54 108 ms 1
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25. 1 38. 1
26. 4
39. 2
27. 2
28. 4 E
40. 6 C
29. 1 B
30. 4 IR because temperature of the body is 37oC
and it emits heat radiation which falls in IR and E 18
B 6 108 T
microwave region C 3 108
31. 4
3 108
2
32. 4 c2
41. 9 r 9
v r 1 108 1
2
c
33. 3 Eh
42. 69
34. 3
35. 3 V 1
I ; Xc
Xc C
36. 1
37. 3 Displacement current is not the current produced
I V C 230 300 100 10 12
to charge carriers but it is due to varying electric
flux with time. It is the current in the sense that it
produces a magnetic field. = 6.9 × 10–6 A
The displacement current is given by:
69 10 1 A
d E
Id 0
dt
It will happen when charge on capacitor does not
remain constant but changes with time.
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CHAPTER - 09
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection of Light is the phenomenon of change in the path of light without any change in medium.
Properties of reflection
(i) i r i.e., angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
(ii) After reflection, velocity, wave length and frequency of light remains same but intensity decreases.
Plane mirror
The image formed is virtual, erect, laterally inverted, equal in size.
Note: When two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle , number of images formed is n.
360 360
(i) n 1 . If is even integer..
360
(ii) If = odd integer there are two possibiles.
360
(a) n 1 when object placed symmetrically..
360
(b) n when object placed asymmetrically..
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A spherical mirror is a part of a hollow sphere, whose one side is reflecting and other side is opaque.
FOCAL LENGTH AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR
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The distance between principal focus and pole of the spherical mirror is called focal length (f) of the
mirror
The distance between the centre of curvature C and pole of the spherical mirror is called Radius of
curvature of the mirror. It is represented by R.
R
The relation between f and R, f or R 2f
2
MIRROR FORMULA FOR CONCAVE MIRROR
Mirror formula is a relation between focal length of the mirror and distances of object and image from
the mirror. u is the object distance from mirror and v is the image distance, f is focal length of the mirror.
For real image as well as virtual images and for concave and convex mirrors, the mirror formula is
1 1 1
v u f
LINEAR MAGNIFICATION OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR
(1) Transverse magnification
size of image(h 2 ) I
Linear magnification m
size of object(h1 ) O . Magnification is +ve for erect images and negative
for inverted images.
h2 v f v f
m
h1 u f f u
(2) Longitudinal magnification
I v 2 v1
When object lies along the principal axis, then its longitudinal magnification m
O u 2 u1
2
dv v
If object is small, m
du u
2
f
Also length of the image, Li Lo
u f
(3) Areal magnification
If a 2D object is placed with its plane perpendicular to principal axis, Its areal magnification
A Area of image ma mb
M i m
2
=
A
o Area of object ab
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When an object is moved from infinity towards pole of a spherical mirror, the image formed moves
v2
accordingly. i.e., speed of image 2 speed of object.
u
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of change in the path of light, when it goes from one medium to
another.
Refraction through a glass slab
K i
A L AIR B
GLASS
r
L
M
i' N'
D C
O
r'
o
M' N 90
P
Laws of refraction
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal, all lie in one plane.
2. Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for the pair of media in
contact.
sin i
i.e., a
g (where g is refractive index of glass with respect to air.. ) (Snell’s law)
a
sin r
t sin i r
Lateral shift in reactangular glass slab d
cos r
REAL AND APPARENT DEPTHS OF A TANK
I When object is in denser medium and observer is in rarer medium
Re al Depth h 1
, Since 1 ,
h h ; Shift d h h 1 h
Apparent Depth h
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II Object is in rarer medium and observer in the denser medium
Apparent Height h
; h < h' ; d 1 h
Re al Height h
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When light ray goes from denser to rarer medium, if the Angle of Incidence exceeds the critical angle
then light ray comes back in to the same medium after reflection from interface. This phenomenon is called
Total internal reflection(TIR). In fig. (ii) r 90o , i = C
sin 90o 1
cos ec C
sin C sin C
TIR applications
Mirrage: Brilliance of diamond, optical fibre.
Field of vision of fish (or swimmer) : A fish (diver) inside the water can see the whole world through a
cone with.
(a) Apex angle = 2C = 98o (For water C = 49o)
h
(b) Radius of base r = htan C =
2 1
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h 2
(c) Area of base A = 2 1
Porro prism: A right angled isosceles prism, which is used in periscopees or binoculars. It is used to
deviate light rays through 90o and 180o and also to erect the image.
Refraction at a spherical or curved surfaces
(i) For refraction from rarer to denser medium
2 1 2 1 1 2
R v u u v
This relation holds whether the refracting surface is convex or concave and image is real or virtual.
(ii) For refraction from denser to rarer medium
1 2 1 2 2 1
R v u u v
LENSES
Lens formula (convex / concave lens)
It is a relation between focal length of the lens and distance of object and image from optic centre of
lens.
1 1 1
f v u
v h2
(i) Linear magnification; m
u h1
The transverse magnification, longitudinal magnification and real magnification, the formulas are same
for spherical mirrors.
In convex lens m is positive or negative depending on its image.
LENS MAKER’S FORMULA
Lens Maker’s formula is a relation that connects focal length of a lens to radii of curvature of the two
surfaces of the lens and refractive index of the material of the lens.
1 1 1
i.e., 1
f R1 R 2
Lens in a liquid
f1 a g 1
Focal length of a lens in a liquid (f1) can be determined by the following formula f 0 l g 1
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POWER OF A LENS
Power of a lens is defined as the ability of the lens to converge a beam of light falling on the lens.
1
P D
f m
Combination of lenses
1 1 1 ff
(a) F 1 2 and P = P1 + P2
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
(b) If two lens of equal focal length but of opposite nature are in contact then combination will behave as
a plane glass plate and Fcombination =
(c) When two lenses are placed co- axially at a distance d from each other then equivalent focal length
(F)
1 1 1 d
F f1 f 2 f1f 2 and P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2
Silvering of One of the Surfaces of Lens
A silvered lens is equivalent to a mirror. Focal length (F) of equivalent mirror is given by:
1 n m
F f1 f m ; where n is number of refractions taking place.
f1 is focal length of lens in unsilvered condition, m is number of reflections taking place and fm is focal
length of mirror.
(i) When plane surface of a plano convex lens is silvered.
1 2 1 2 1 R
0 or F
F f1 f m R 2 1
(ii) When curved surface of plano convex lens is silvered,
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 R
; F
F f1 f m R R R 2
In both the above cases, the equivalent mirror is concave (i.e., converging). Therefore, F is negative
Defects of lenses
(i) Chromatic aberration: Refractive index for different colours are different; due to this the image of a
white object formed by a lens will be coloured and blurred. The defect is called chromatic aberration.
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v R so f R f v
Chromatic aberration f R f V f y ; fy fR f v
This can be removed by two or more lenses in contact in place of single lens.
1 2
0 or f = f , Achromatic combination
f1 f2 1 2 2 1
(ii) Spherical aberration: Inability of a lens to form the point image of a point object on the axis is called
Spherical aberration.
In this defect all the rays passing through a lens are not focussed at a single point and the image of a
point object on the axis is blurred.
Removal: To reduce spherical aberration stop can be used before and infront of the lens.
(iii) Astigmatism: The spreading of image (of a point object placed away from the principal axis) along
the principal axis is called Astigmatism.
Removal : Cylindrical lenses are used to correct Astigmatism.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
The deviation of the ray on account of two refractions is given by i1 i 2 A ; where A r1 r2
angle of prism.
A Q
N1
P N2
L M
i1
r1 i2
r2
O
K B C N
r1 r2 A ; or 1 A
Prism Formula.
A
In the minimum deviation position, i1 i 2 i , r1 r2 r; r r 2A; r
2
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Y
A Q
N1 M
P
N2
L M
m i1
r1 i2
r2
O
K B C N
O i1 r i2 X
A m
Minimum deviation, m = i + i – A or i
2
sin A m / 2
If is refractive index of the material of the prism, then according to Snell’s law,
sin A / 2
Dispersion of Light
Dispersion of Light is the phenomenon of splitting of a beam of white light into its constituent colours on
passing through a prism.
ANGULAR DISPERSION
HT r
E LIG
IT
WH
B C v Y
V
DISPERSIVE POWER
The dispersive power of a prism is defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the mean deviation
produced by the prism. It is represented by .
angular dispersion v r
As dispersive power =
mean deviation
v r 2
1
1 2
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Combination of prisms
Two prisms (made of crown and flint material) are combined to get either dispersion only or deviation
only.
Dispersion without deviation. (Chromatic combination)
A 1
A 1
Deviation without Dispersion. (Achromatic combination)
A V R
A V R
Scattering of Light
1
1) According to scientist Rayleigh : Intensity of scattered light
4
2) Some phenomenon based on scattering: (i) Sky looks blue due to scattering
(ii) At the time of sunrise or sunset it looks reddish.
(iii) Danger signals are made from red because red is least scattered.
Rainbow
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light due to refraction and TIR in the droplets present in the
atmosphere.
1) Primary rainbow: (i) Two refraction and one TIR. (ii) Innermost colour is violet and outermost is red.
(iii)Subtends an angle of 42o at the eye of the observer.
2) Secondary rainbow: (i) Two refraction and two TIR. (ii) Innermost arc is red and outermost is violet.
(iii) It subtends an angle of 52.5o at the edge.
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OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE OR MAGNIFYING GLASS
A simple microscope is used for observing magnified images of tiny objects.
Magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of the angles subtended by the
image and the object on the eye, when both are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye. m
d
When the image is formed at the least distance of distant vision (d). m 1
f
d
When the image is formed at infinity m
f
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope is an optical instrument used for observing highly magnified images of tiny
objects.
Magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended on the
eye by the final image to the angle subtended on the eye by the object, when both the final image and the
object are situated at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
v0 v0 d
Magnifying power, m where m m e m o and m 0 m u 1 f
u 0 ; 0 e
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L d
Length of microscope tube L d v 0 u e ; u 0 f e , v 0 L ; m 1
| f0 | f e
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
Telescope : It is an optical instrument used to increase the visual angle of distant large objects such as a
star, a planet or a cliff, etc. Astronomical Telescope consists of two converging lenses. The one facing hte
object is called objective or field lens and has large focal length and aperture while the other facing the eye
called eye-piece or ocular has small focal length and aperture. The distance between the two lenses is
adjustable.
As a telescope is used to see distant objects, in it object is between and 2F of objective and hence
image formed by objective is real, inverted and dimnished and is between F and 2F on the other side of it.
This image (called intermediate image) acts as an object for eye-piece and by shifting the position of eye-
piece, it is brought within its focus. S’o final image I, with respect to intermediate image, is erect, virtual,
enlarged and at a distance D to from the eye. This in turn implies that final image with respect to object
is inverted, enlarged and at a distance D to from the eye.
Reflecting Telescope: If in an astronomical telescope, field lens is replaced by converging mirror as
shown in figure, the telescope is called Reflecting telescope. The reflecting telescope is light, portable,
cheap and easy to handle. Also the image formed by it is more bright and free from chromatic aberration
and can be made free from spherical aberration by using parabolic reflector instead of spherical.
Magnifying Power of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment is defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle subtended at the eye, by the object directly, when the
final image and the object both lie at infinite distance from the eye.
f o f e f o
Magnifying Power, md 1 (final image is at d - near point) and m
fe d f e (final image is at
infinity - far point).
Length of the tube L d f o u e (near point) and L f o f e (far point)
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 8. One of the refracting surfaces of a prism of angle
30o is silvered. A ray of light incident at an angle of
1. An object of length 10cm is placed at right angles to
60o retraces its path. The refractive index of the
the principal axis of a mirror of radius of curvature
material of the prism is
60 cm such that its image is erect and has a length 6
cm. Find the position of the object 3
1) 2 2) 3 3) 4) 2
2
1) 10 cm 2) 20 cm 3) 30 cm 4) 40 cm
2. A virtual image larger than the object can be 9. The image of an object formed by a device is always
produced by: virtual and small. The device may be:
1) concave mirror 1) a glass plate
2) convex mirror 2) concave lens
3) plane mirror 3) convex lens
4) concave lens 4) concave mirror
3. On heating a liquid, the refractive index generally: 10. Two thin lense are in contact and the focal length of
1) decreases the combination is 80 cm. If the focal length of one
lens is 20 cm, then the power of the other lens will
2) increases
be:
3) does not change
1) –1.00 D 2) 4.00 D
4) increases or decreases depending upon rate of
heating 3) 1.66 D 4) –3.75 D
4. A man standing in a swimming pool looks at a stone 11. An achromatic combination of lenses is formed by
lying at the bottom. The depth of the swimming pool joining:
is h. At what distance from the surface of water is 1) two concave lenses
the image of the stone formed?
2) two convex lenses
1) h/ 2) h 3) /h 4) h
3) convex and plane mirror
5. A fish in water sees an object 24 cm above the
surface of water. The height of object above the 4) one convex and one concave lens
surface of water that will appear to fish is: (= 4/3) 12. The plane surface of a plano convex lens of focal
1) 32 cm 2) 8 cm 3) 24 cm 4) 18 cm length f is silvered. It will behave as:
6. Total internal reflection can take place when light 1) plane mirror
passes from:
2) convex mirror of focal length 2f
1) air to water
3) concave mirror of focal length f/2
2) a crystalline material to glass
4) convex mirror of focal length f
3) a medium of low refractive index to medium of
high refractive index 13. A convex lens is making full image of an object. If
4) a medium of high refractive index to a medium of half of the lens is covered by an opaque object, then:
low refractive index 1) half image of same intensity is seen
7. A prism whose angle is 60o produces a minimum 2) full image is seen and of decreased intensity
deviation of 30o. What is the refractive index of the
medium of the prism? 3) full image is seen and of same intensity
4) half image is not seen
1) 1.4 2) 2 3) 1.5 4) 1.68
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14. A concave lens of glass, refractive index 1.5, has 20. The magnifying power (M) of a simple microscope
both surfaces of same radius of curvature R. On is given by:
immersion in a medium of refractive index 1.75, it
v F
will behave as a: 1) M 2) M 1
u D
1) convergent lens of focal length 3.5 R
D u
3) M 1 4) M
2) convergent lens of focal length 3.0 R F v
3) divergent lens of focal length 3.5 R 21. The velocity of light in diamond, glass and water
decreases in the following order:
4) divergent lens of focal length 3.0 R
1) water > glass > diamond
15. A person cannot see the objects clearly placed at
2) diamond > glass > water
distance more than 40 cm. He is advised to use lens
of power: 3) diamond > water > glass
1) – 2.5 D 2) + 2.5 D 4) water > diamond > glass
3) – 6.25 D 4) + 1.5 D 22. Green light has a speed of 3 108 m/s in air. Its
speed in glass of refractive index 1.5 will be:
16. Astigmatism can be corrected by using:
1) 2 108 m/s
1) bifocal lenses
2) 3 108 m/s
2) concave spherical lenses
3) plane - convex lenses 3) 1.5 108 m/s
4) cylindrical lenses 4) 4.5 108 m/s
17. In compound microscope of large magnification, the 23. If the velocity of light in vacuum is C cm/s, then the
eyepiece should have a focal length: velocity of light in medium of refractive index 1.3 is:
1) equal to the objective 1) 1.3 C
2) greater than the objective 2) C
3) less than the objective 3) can have any velocity
4) of any value 4) C/1.3
18. Four convergent lenses have focal lengths, 100 cm, 24. A beam of light enters from air into water. Which of
10 cm, 4 cm and 0.3 cm. For a telescope with the characteristics of light will not change :
maximum possible magnification we choose the
lenses of focal length: 1) wavelength 2) frequency
1) 100 cm, 0.3 cm 3) phase 4) Both 2 and 3
2) 10 cm, 4 cm 25. A container is filled with water (n = 1.33) upto a
3) 100 cm, 4 cm height of 33.25 cm. A concave mirror is placed 15
cm above the water level and the image of an object
4) 10 cm, 0.3 cm placed at the bottom is formed 25 cm below the water
19. If magnification of a telescope in relaxed state is 19 level. Focal length of the mirror is
and length of telescope is 100 cm then calculate the
1) 15 cm 2) 25 cm
focal length of objective and eye piece:
3) 20 cm 4) 10 cm
1) f0 50cm, fe 50cm
26. A point object is placed at the centre of a glass sphere
2) f p 80 cm, fe 20 cm
of radius 6cm and refractive index 1.5. The distance
3) f0 5cm, fe 95cm of virtual image from the surface is
4) f0 95cm, fe 5cm 1) 6cm 2) 4 cm 3) 12 cm 4) 9 cm
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27. A convex lens ‘A’ of focal length f1 and a concave 35. An object is placed on the principal axis of a concave
lens ‘B’ of focal length f2 are kept along the same mirror of focal length 15 cm, at a distance of 40 cm.
axis with a distance d between them. For what value The position of the image from the pole of the mirror
of ‘d’ does a parallel beam of light incident on A is:
leave B as a parallel beam?
1) 12 cm 2) 24 cm 3) 40 cm 4) 20 cm
1) d = f1 + f2 2) d = f1 – f2
36. What would be the size of the image formed by a
3) d = f1/2 4) d = f2/2 concave mirror of focal length 15 cm, when an object
of height 1.5 cm is placed perpendicular to the
28. A person cannot see distinctly any obect placed
principal axis at a distance of 10 cm from the mirror:
beyond 40cm from his eye. Calculate the power of
the lens needed by him? 1) 1.5 cm 2) 3 cm 3) 6 cm 4) 4.5 cm
1) –1.5 D 2) –2.5 D 3) –3.5 D 4) –4.5 D 37. A real image formed by a concave mirror is
29. An object 5 cm tall is placed 1 m from a concave magnified three times and is formed at a distance of
spherical mirror which has a radius of curvature 20 16 cm from the object. Find the distance of the object
cm. The size of the image is: from the mirror:
1) 0.11 cm 2) 0.50 cm 1) 8 cm 2) 16 cm 3) 4 cm 4) 32 cm
3) 0.55 cm 4) 5 cm 38. At what distance from a concave mirror of focal
length 20 cm should an object be placed so that the
30. A concave mirror of focal length f produces an image image formed is magnified four times when it is real:
n times the size of the object. If the image is real,
then the distance of the object from the mirror is: 1) 15 cm 2) 10 cm 3) 20 cm 4) 25 cm
39. An object placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror
1) (n – 1) f
F n 1I
2) GH n JK f is found to given an errect image 30 cm from the
mirror. The focal length of the mirror is:
FG n 1IJ f 1) 15 cm 2) 30 cm 3) 20 cm 4) 17.5 cm
3) H nK 4) (n + 1) f
40. A square wire of side 3 cm is placed 25 cm away
31. An object of length 4 cm is kept on the principal axis from a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. What
of convex mirror at a distance f. The size of the is the area enclosed by the image of the wire? The
image formed is: centre of the wire is on principal axis with its two
sides normal to the axis:
1) 2 cm 2) 8 cm 3) 6 cm 4) 10 cm
1) 9 cm2 2) 16 cm2
32. A concave mirror forms an errect image of twice its
size, object distance from the mirror is: 3) 4 cm2 4) 25 cm2
1) f/2 2) f/4 3) 3f/2 4) 2f Assertion - Reason
33. A concave mirror has radius of curvature of 1 m. 1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
Light from a distanct star is incident on the mirror. Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
The distance of the image of the star from mirrror
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
is:
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
1) 2 m 2) 1 m 3) 0.25 m 4) 0.5 m
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
34. A dentist has a small concave mirror of focal length
16 mm. He views the cavity in the tooth of a patient 4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
by holding the mirror at a distance of 8 mm from the 41. Assertion : The air bubble shines in water.
cavity. The magnification is:
Reason : Air bubble in water shines due to
1) 1 2) 1.5 3) 2 4) 3 refraction of light.
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42. Assertion : Blue colour of sky appears due to Match the following.
scattering of blue colour. 47.
Reason : Blue colour has shortest wave length
in visible spectrum. Column I Column II
A) Glass slab p) Dispersion without
43. Assertion : The refractive index of diamond is deviation
6 and that of liquid is 3 . If the B) Hollow prism q) Deviation without
light travels from diamond to the dispersion
liquid, it will totally reflected when C) Achromatism r) Absence of chromatic
the angle of incidence is 30o. aberration
D) Inverted crown s) Deviation
1
Reason : , where is the refractive glass prims
1
sin C
dispersive power
index of diamond with respect to
liquid. 1) A - p, B - r, C - r, D - p, q, r
Statement 2) A - q, B - q, C - r, s; D - p
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true 3) A - r, B - s, C - p, D - q
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false 4) A - s, B - r, C - p, D - q
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false Numerical
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true 48. A point source of light is placed 4m below the surface
44. Statement I : The fluorescent tube is considered of water of refractive index 5/3. The minimum
better than an electric bulb. diameter of the disc, which should be placed over
the source, on the surface of water to cut off all light
Statement II : Efficiency of fluorescent tube is more
coming out of water, is ..... m
than the efficiency of electric bulb.
49. If focal length of one lens if -40 cm and of the other
45. Statement I : A concave mirror and convex lens
+20 cm, what will be the focal length of the
both have the same focal length in
combination is .... cm
air. When they are submerged in
water, they will have same focal 50. Focal length of a convex lens of refractive index 1.5
length. is 2 cm. Focal length of lens when immersed in a
liquid of refractive index 1.25 will be ...... cm
Statement II : The refractive index of water is
greater than the refractive index of 51. If the tube length of astronomical telescope is 105
air. cm and magnifying power is 20 for normal setting,
the focal length of the objective ...... cm
46. Statement I : The mirrors used in search lights are
parabolic and not concave spherical.
Statement II : In a concave spherical mirror the
image formed is always virtual.
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KEY WITH HINTS
hi f 6 30 f0
m 18. 1 M is maximum for 100 cm and 0.3 cm
1. 2 ho f u ; ; u = 20 cm fe
10 30 u
2. 1 Only in a concave mirror size of the objectis
f0 19 f 0 ; f 19f
larger and virtual. 19. 4 As L f0 fe and M ; fe
0 e
fe
3. 1
20. 3
4. 1
21. 1
4 96
5. 1 h 24 cm cm 32cm
3 3 22. 4 velocity in medium = vel. in air/.
6. 4 Total internal reflection takes place only when
light travels from a denser medium to a rarer c c
23. 4 C med
medium. 1.3
F 60 30 I 1 24. 4
sin
H 2 K sin 45 2
2
7. 2 60 sin 30 1 real depth
sin 25. 3 n
2 2 apparent depth
sin 60 33.25
8. 2 r2 0 ; r1 A 30o ; n 3 ie, 1.33 =
x
ie, x = 25
sin 30
9. 2 Concave lens gives always a virtual and small u = –40 v = –40
size image
1 1 1
10. 4 F = 80 cm P = 1.25 D ie, f 20cm
f 40 40
f1 = 20 cm P1 = + 5D
26. 1 The rays are normal to the surface
P P1 P2 P2 P P1 125 b
. 5 D 3.75D g
11. 4 n 2 n 1 n 2 n1
v u R
12. 3 It will behave like a concave mirror of focal
f 1 1.5 1 1.5
length
2 v 6 6
13. 2 Intensity becomes half
27. 2 d = f1 – f2
1 FG IJ FG 1
2 1 1 IJ 28. 2
14. 1 Using f H KH R
R2 K f 3.5 R
1 1
v I 1 1 1
15. 1 Since u , and 40cm f 40cm 29. 3 u = 1 m ; f = 0.1 m, m ;
u O f u v
100
P D 2.5D f f
40 30. 3 m ; n ; nf + nu = –f
f u f u
16. 4 Non spherical cornea is made spherical using
cylindrical lenses f n 1 f n 1
17. 2 Object to be seen is close and just beyond the u ; u
n n
focus of the objective
focal length of eye piece should be more than v 1
31. 1 hi h0 4 2 cm
the focal length of the objective u 2f
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f 45. 4 If a mirror is placed in a medium other than air
-1 1 1
32. 1 v 2 u, u its focal length does not change as f = R/2. But
f u v 2 for the lens
33. 4 Object is at infinity, at focus f = R/2
1 1 1
a g 1
1 1 1 v f0 R1 R 2
34. 3 ; m = ; m =2
f u v u
35. 2 f = –15cm, u = –40 cm 1 1 1
g 1
f0 R
1 R 2
1 1
1/ f , v 24cm
u v As g a g ,
v hi hence focal length of lens in water increase.
36. 4 m
u h0 The refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of
air is 1. Hence, a
u 16
37. 1 b g
m 3; v u 16 ; m
v
u
3
u
; u 8 cm
46. 3 In search lights, we need an intense parallel beam
of light. If a source is placed at the focus of a
f 20 concave spherical mirror, only paraxial rays are
38. 4 m ;4 ; u 25 cm
uf u 20 rendered parallel. Due to large aperture of mirror,
marginal rays give a divergent beam.
1 1 1 1 31 1
39. 1 ; ; f 15 cm But in case of a parabolic mirror, when source is
u v f f 30 15
at the focus, beam of light produced over the
50 v 2 h 2 entire cross-section of the mirror is a parallel
40. 3 v cm; m ; i m ; h i 2 cm ;
3 u 3 h0 3 beam.
area 2 2 4 cm2 47. 2
41. 3 Shining of air bubble in water is on account of 48. 3 Since r = h tan ic and
total internal reflection.
sin i c 1 3 tan i c 3 r 4 3 3 m
1 5 4 4
42. 1 I (scattering of light) 4 , blue light has small
wavelength and order of wavelength of blue light f f
1 2 40 20 800
is nearly equal to size of scattered particle of 49. 40 F f f 40 20 cm 20 cm 40 cm
1 2
sky and blue scattered most not violet even violet
has smallest wavelength in visible spectrum.
50. 5
Fw
d
g 1
i
Fw 05
. 125
.
43. 4 For total internal reflection the angle of incidence Fa FG
g
1
Fa IJ025
.
should be greater than the critical angle. As lH K
critical angle is 35o. Therefore, total internal
reflection is not possible. So, assertion is not true Fw = Fa x 2.5
but reason is true.
Fw = 2 x 2.5 = 5cm
44. 1 The efficiency of fluorescent tube is about 50
lumen/watt, whereas efficiency of electric bulb f0
51. 5 L f0 fe 105cm and M 20
is about 12 lumen/watt. Thus for same amount fe
of electric energy consumed, the tube gives
nearly 4 times more light than the filament bulb. f0 100cm and fe 5 cm
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CHAPTER - 10
WAVE OPTICS
In 1680 Huygens and Young suggested wave nature of light which can explain interference, diffraction,
polarisation etc.
Different theories of Light
Newtons corpuscular theory
(i) It is based on Rectilinear propagation of light
(ii) Light propagates in the form of tiny particles called Corpuscles.
Huygen’s wave theory
(i) Light travels in a hypothetical medium ether (high elasticity very low density) as waves
(ii) He proposed that light waves are of longitudinal nature.
Maxwell’s EM wave theory
1
(i) Light travels in the form of EM waves with speed in free space c 00 .
(ii) EM waves consists of electric and magnetic field oscillations and they do not require a material
medium to travel.
Einstein’s quantum theory
(i) Light is produced, absorbed and propagated as packets of energy called photons.
hc
(ii) Energy associated with each photon E h , h = plancks constant = 6.6 × 10–34 J-sec.
de-Broglie’s theory of dual nature of light
(i) Light propagates both as particles as well as waves.
(ii) Wave nature of light dominates when light interacts with light. The particle nature of light dominates
when the light interacts with matter (microscopic particles).
Wave front
A wave front is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a medium, which are vibrating in
the same phase.
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Types of wave front
(i) Spherical wave front : When the source of light is a point source, wave front is a
sphere with centre at the source.
(ii) Cylindrical wave front : When the source of light is linear, all the points equidistant from the source lie
on a cylinder. Therefore, the wave front is cylindrical.
(iii) Plane wave front : When the point source or linear source of light is at very large distance, a small
portion of spherical or cylindrical wave front appears to be plane. Such a wave front is called a plane
wave front.
The rays are always normal to the wave front. According to Huygen, light energy flows along rays.
Diverging Converging
PWF SWF SWF
RAYS RAYS
(d) (e) (f)
Figure (d), (e), (f) gives rays and wave fronts of plane wavefront, converging and diverging SWF.
Huygens’ Principle
1. Every point on the given wave front (called primary wave front) acts as a fresh source of new disturbance,
called secondary wavelets, which travel in all directions with the velocity of light in the medium.
2. A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in the forward direction at any instant gives
the new wavefront at that instant. This is called secondary wave front.
A1 A2 A A1
A
A2 1
1
2 2
PROPAGATION
S 3 OF 3
LIGHT WAVE
B2
4
B
B1
B2 B B1
(a) (b)
AB is the primary wavefront and A1B1 is the secondary wavefront.
Particles in the same wavefront have zero phase difference
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Superposition Principle
According to this principle, when two or more wave motions travelling through a medium superimpose,
a new wave is formed in which the resultant displacement y at any instant is equal to the vector sum of
the displacements due to individual waves (y1, y2, y3.......) at that instant.
i.e, y y 1 y 2 y 3.......
For displacement y a sin t ; term t = phase or instantaneous phase.
(ii) Phase difference : y1 a1 sin t and y 2 a 2 sin t so phase difference .
Path difference : is the difference in path travelled by two waves meeting at a point,
2
Coherent sources
The sources of light which emits continuous light waves of the same wavelength, same frequency and
in same phase or having a constant phase difference are called coherent sources. Two independant sources
cannot be coherent.
Two sources whose frequencies are different and phase difference changes w.r.t to time are called
non-coherent.
The average time interval in which a photon or a wave packet is emitted from an atom is defined as the
time of coherence.
L Distance of coherence
It is c
c Velocity of light
Coherent sources are produced from a single source of light by following methods.
Division of wave front
Light is passed through a narrow slit and the wavefront is divided into two parts by two fine slits. Fresnel’s
biprism, Llyod’s mirror Young’s double slit etc. can act as coherent sources.
Young’s double slit experiment
Division of amplitude
The amplitude of wave emitted by an extended source of light is divided into two parts by partial reflection
and partial refraction. The coherent sources obtained are real e.g. Newtons rings, Michelson’s interferometer,
colours in thin films etc.
Michelson’s interferometer
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Reflection using Hygens principle
Look at the figure, AA’ is the wavefront incident on a reflecting surface XY having an angle of incidence i.
Following Huygen’s principle, every point on AA’ will act as a source of secondary wavelets.
Time taken from A’ to D = time taken from B’ to C
AD BC
v v
AD BC
ACsin i ACsin(r)
Thus, i = r
Hence, the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are both equal. This is also stated by the first law
of reflection. Additionally, as the incident wavefront AB, the normal and reflected wavefront are on the same
plane, we can also verify the second law of reflection.
Refraction using Hygens principle
Let the angle of incidence be i and the refraction is r.
From the A1BB1 , we get
BB
sin BA1B1 sin i
AB1
From the A1CB1 , we get
A1C
sin A1B1C sin r
AB1
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sin i BB v1t
sin r A1C v2 t
sin i v1 1
2 (constant)
sin r v 2
This proves Snell’s law of refraction. The constant 1 2 is called the refractive index of the second
medium w.r.t the first medium.
Interferance of Light
When we have two coherent sources of light emitting continuous waves the distribution of light energy
does not remain uniform in all the directions.
At some points, resultant amplitude is a maximum. Hence the intensity of light is maximum; constructive
interference. At certain other points, resultant amplitude becomes minimum (zero) and hence intensity of
light is minimum (zero); destructive interference. This kind of modification in energy distribution is called
Interference.
Interference of light is the phenomenon of redistribution of light energy in a medium on account of
superposition of light waves from two coherent sources.
Conditions for constructive and destructive interference.
Let the waves from two coherent sources of light be represented as
y1 a sin t , ; y 2 b sin t
where a and b are the respective amplitudes of the two waves and is the phase angle by which second
wave leads the first wave.
According to superposition principle, the displacement (y) of the resultant wave at time (t) would be
given by
y y1 y 2
y = sin t (a + b cos ) + cos t .b sin
Put a + b cos = R cos ; b sin = R sin
y = R sin ( t + )
or R a 2 b 2 2ab cos
As resultant intensity I R 2
I a 2 b 2 2ab cos
For constructive interference
I should be maximum, cos 1 0, 2, 4, ..... ; 2n ; n = 0, 1, 2, .....
If x is the path difference between the two waves corresponding to phase difference , then x
2
i.e., x n
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For destructive interference,
I is minimum cos 1 , ,3,5,....; 2n 1 , n 1, 2,3.....
The corresponding path difference between the two waves x 2n 1
2 2
For constructive interference
R max a b As I max R 2 max ; I max (a b) 2
For destructive interfernce, R = (a – b); As I min R 2 min I min a b 2
I max a b
2
Imin a b 2
I1I 2 I max I min
Fringe visibility V 2 where I1 and I2 indicate the intensity of respective waves; V
I1 I2 Imax I min
When b = a; R max 2a, R min 0, I min 0, V 1 and visibility is maximum, fringe visibility is the best.
When Imax = 0, V = –1 and when Imax = Imin, V = 0
Constructive interference
Phase difference 2n , n = 0, 1, 2, ...., path difference n
2
Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be maximum I max I1 I2
If I1 I 2 I0 I max 4I0
Destructive interference
2n 1 ; n 1, 2,...
Path difference 2n 1
2
Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be minimum.
A min a1 a 2 ; If a1 a 2 A min 0
2
Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be minimum. I min I1 I 2
If I1 I 2 I0 Imin 0
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Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities:
2 2
I max I1 I2 a1 / a 2 1
Imin I1 I 2 a1 / a 2 1
I max
1
I1 a1 I min
also I2 a 2 I
max 1
I min
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Young, in 1802, demonstrated the phenomenon of interference of light by a simple experiment. The set
up used is shown.
S is a narrow slit (of width about 1mm) illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. At a suitable
distance (about 10 cm) from S, there are two fine slits A and B about 0.5 mm apart placed symmetrically
parallel to S. When a screen is placed at a large distance (about 2m) from the slits A and B, alternate bright
and dark bands running parallel to the lengths of the slits appear on the screen. These are the interference
bands or interference fringes. The bands disappear when one of the slits A or B is covered.
Interference and energy conservation
In the interference pattern, if we take Imax = (a+b)2 and Imin = (a-b)2, then average intensity of light in the
interference pattern.
I max I min
I av a 2 b2
2
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If there were no interference, intensity of light from two sources at every point on the screen would be.
I = I1 + I2 = (a2+b2), which is the same as Iav in the interference pattern.
Expression for fringe width in interference or theory of interference of light
Suppose A and B are two fine slits, a small distance d apart, illuminated by a monochromatic source
of light of . MN is a screen at a distance D from the slits. The two waves starting from A and B
superimpose upon each other, resulting in interference pattern on the screen, placed parallel to the slits
A and B.
The intensity at a point on the screen will depend upon the path difference between the two waves
arriving at that point. The point C on the screen is at equal distance from A and B. Therefore, the path
difference between two waves reaching C is zero and the point C is of maximum intensity. It is called
central maximum.
M
P
A Ex
dO C
‘ B F
D
C
The path difference between two waves arriving at P, at a distance x from C = BP – AP
d d
Let O be the mid-point of AB, and AB = EF = d, AE = BF = D; PE = x ; PF = x
2 2
xd
BP – AP
D
Now the intensity at point P is maximum or minimum according as the path difference (BP-AP) is an
integral multiple of wavelength or an odd integral multiple of half wavelength.
Thus for bright fringes (Maxima)
xd D
Path difference = n ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .....; or x n
D d
nD th
xn ; n bright fringe
d
D
Distance between the bright fringes (width of a dark fringe) 1 x n x n 1
d
D
Similarly separation between two dark fringes (width of bright fringe) 2
d
D
1 2
d
Hence, all drak and bright fringes are of equal width.
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a b a constant , Hence all bright bands have
2
At sites of constructive interferece, I max R max
2
the same intensity
a b a constant 0 , where a=b i.e., all dark
2
At sites of destructive interference, I min R min
2
bands have same (zero) intensity. The intensity distribution in the interference pattern in Young double slit
experiment is shown in fig.
Y
INTENSITY
X' C X
Sustained interference:
Sustained interference of light indicates that the positions of the maxima and minima of light intensity
stay constant throughout the screen. The phenomenon of sustained interference of light is permanent
in the event of continuous interference.
1. An interference pattern constitutes constructive interference, which produces a maximum intensity,
and destructive interference, which produces a minimum intensity.
2. Sustained interference occurs when the interference pattern does not change with respect to time.
3. The resultant intensity at any point is given as I A12 A 22 2A1A 2 cos , where A1 and A2 are the amplitude
of the first and second wave respectively, and is the phase difference between them.
4. For sustained interference, the two waves must have equal amplitudes.
5. Their phase difference should also be constant.
6. When the phase difference is not constant we do not get an interference pattern.
7. Coherence is related to the definite phase relationship at different points in time and space.
8. For a source to be coherent it must emit radiation of a single frequency or the frequency spread must
be very small.
9. This can be obtained by having light from the same source pass through two slits.
10. The wavefront must have a shape that remains constant in time.
11. Therefore, for sustained interference, the sources must be coherent.
Hence, for sustained interference, we need two sources that emit waves of constant phase difference.
Interference in thin films
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when their thickness is comparable to
wavelength of incident light. Thin layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles shows various colours in
white light due to interference of waves reflected from the two surfaces of the film.
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DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light around edges of an obstacle or aperture in the
path of light. This deviation becomes much more pronounced when the dimensions of the aperture or the
obstacle are comparable with the wavelength of light.
According to Fresnel, diffraction occurs on account of mutual interference of secondary wavelets starting
from portions of the wavefront which are not blocked by the obstacle or from portions of the wavefront
which are allowed to pass through the aperture.
Types of diffraction: The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types.
Fresnel diffraction
(i) If either source or screen or both are at finite distance from the diffracting device (obstacle or aperture),
the diffraction is called Fresnel type.
(ii) Common examples: Diffraction at a straight edge, narrow wire or small opaque disc etc.
Fraunhofer diffraction
(i) In this case both source and screen are effectively at infinite distance from the diffracting device.
(ii) Common examples: Diffraction at a single slit, double slit and diffraction grating
Diffraction of light at a single slit
S is a monochromatic light source, A wavefront WW' from the lens falls on single slit AB. AB = d is of
the order of , diffracts light and the diffraction pattern in seen on the screen XY..
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X P
WA
x
C
S O
K
N
W' B Y
L1 L2
D
The diffraction pattern obtained on the screen consists of a central bright band, having alternate dark
and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity on both sides.
Theory : A set of parallel rays falls on the slit form a plane wave front WW 1. The plane wave front AB sends
out secondary wavelets in all the directions.
The secondary waves, CA and CB of wave front in reaching O, the path difference between them is zero.
These secondary waves reinforce each other, resulting in the maximum intensity at point O.
Positions of secondary minima : The secondary waves travelling in a direction making an angle with
CO. reach a point P on the screen. The intensity at P will depend on the path difference between the
secondary waves
Path difference BN ABsin d sin .
If this path difference is , then P will be a point of minimum intensity..
Similarly if path difference BN = 2 , the point P will be the position of second secondary minimum, and so
on.
In general, therefore, we have for nth secondary minimum
n
Path difference = d sin n n or sin n
d
where n gives the direction of the nth secondary minimum and n = 1, 2, 3........, an integer..
Positions of secondary Maxima. If any other point P1 (not shown) is such that the path difference
3
BN d sin
2
then P1 will be the position of first secondary maximum.
Similarly, if BN = 5 / 2 , we get second secondary maximum of lower intensity, and so on.
d sin n 2n 1 ; where n = 1, 2, 3, ........., an integer.
2
The diffraction pattern due to single slit consists of a central bright maximum at O along with secondary
minima and maxima on either side.
If intensity at O is Io, then the intensity at first secondary maximum is found to be Io/22 and at second
secondary maximum is Io/61 and so on.
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Width of central maximum
If P is the positions of the Ist secondary minimum then OP = x,
D
x
d
2D 2f
Width of central maximum = 2x
d d
f = D is the focal length of the lens L2
Diffraction and optical instruments: The objective lens of optical instrument like telescope or microscope
etc. acts like a circular aperture. Due to diffraction of light at a circular aperture, a converging lens cannot
form a point image of an object rather it produces a brighter disc known as Airy disc surrounded by alternate
dark and bright concentric rings.
1.22
The angular half width of Airy disc (where D = aperture of lens)
D
The lateral width of the image f (where f = focal length of the lens)
Note: Diffraction of light limits the ability of optical instruments to form clear images of objects when they are
close to each other.
Doppler effect in light.
According to Doppler effect, whenever there is a relative motion between a source of light and an
observer, the apparent frequency of light received by the observer is different from the true frequency of
light emitted actually from the source of light.
Expression for apparent frequency of light.
Suppose a source of light emits waves of frequency and wavelength . If c is velocity of light in
vacuum, then
c
Let the source and observer approach each other with a velocity v along the direction of propagation of
light. In one second, the two come closer by a distance v.
Apparent frequency
v v
1 ; clearly,
c
similarly, when the source of light and observer are moving away from each other with a velocity, v,
then the apparent frequency.
v
1 clearly 1 ,
c
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v
In general 1
c
In terms of wavelength, we can rewrite
v
or v c
c
When source and observer approach each other, is + ve. i.e. apparant frequency increases or
apparant wavelength decreases, this is called Blue shift.
When source and observer recede away from each other, is negative i.e., apparent frequency
decreases or apparent wavelength increases. This is called Red shift.
POLARISATION OF LIGHT
Light is an electromagnetic wave whose electric and magnetic field vectors vary sinusoidally,
perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
Ordinary light is unpolarised light having vibrations of electric vector distributed in all the directions in a
plane, say XY, perpendicular to direction of propagation of light. The magnitude of electric field is much
larger as compared to magnitude of magnetic field.
Unpolarised light and plane polarised light
The light having electric field oscillations in all directions in the plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is called Unpolarised light.
The light having oscillations only in one plane is called plane polarised light.
Polaroids
It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It is based on the principle of selective absorption
. It is a thin film of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine iodosulphate with their optic axis parallel to each
other.
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When unpolarised light is incident on the polariser, the intensity of the transmitted polarised light is half
the intensity of unpolarised light.
Malus law This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser varies as
the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyser and the plane of the
polariser
(i) I I0 cos 2 and A 2 A 02 cos 2 A A 0 cos
I0 A
If 0o , I I 0 , A A 0 , If 45 , I , A 0 , If 90o , I 0, A 0
o
2 2
(ii) If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light.
Ii
So I 0 i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light (say by passing it through a
2
polaroid or a Nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half. and on passing through the analyser, the intensity
Ii
I cos 2 .
2
I max Imin 100
Percentage of polarisation
I max Imin
Polorisation by reflection: Brewster discovered that when a beam of unpolarised light is reflected from a
transparent medium (refractive index ) , the reflected light is completely plane polarised at a certain
angle of incidence (called the polarising angle or Brewster’s angle p ).
Brewster’s law: When a ray is incident on a medium at an angle called polarising angle, the reflected
and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other. Then the tangent of the polarising angle is the refractive
index of the medium with respect to the surroundings.
tan p ; For i P or i P . Both reflected and refracted rays becomes partially polarised.
In calculators and watches, numbers and letters are formed by liquid crystals through polarisation of
light called crystal display (LCD).
In CD player polarised laser beam acts as needle for producing sound from compact disc which is an
encoded digital format.
It has also been used in holograms for recording and reproducing three-dimensional pictures.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 9. Huygen’s idea of secondary wavelets is used to:
1. For a line source, intensity varies with distance r as: 1) find the velocity of light
1) r0 2) r1 3) r2 4) r-1 2) find the wavefront
2. If light is coming from a distant source of unknown 3) explain the polarisation
shape, then wavefront are: 4) explain the refraction
1) elliptical 2) cylindrical 10. LASER light is considered to be coherent since it
3) spherical 4) plane consists of ...
3. Two coherent source of light having intensities ratio 1) divergent beam
100:1 interfere. The ratio of intensities of maxima to 2) different wavelengths
minima in the interference pattern will be
3) co-ordinated waves of same wavelength
1) 121 : 81 2) 101 : 99
4) unco-ordinated wavelengths
3) 100 : 1 4) 10 : 1
4. If two slits of Young’s double slit experiment are 11. The path difference equivalent to a phase difference
covered with two transparent sheets of glass having of 270o (given wave length l) is
different absorption, then in the interference pattern:
1) zero 2) 2 3) 3 4 4)
1) dark fringes becomes more bright
2) bright fringes become more bright 12. Yellow light is used in a single slit diffraction
3) both type of fringes beccome equally bright experiment with slit width of 0.6 mm. If yellow light
is replaced by X-rays, then central maxima will
4) both type fringes become equally dark
show:
5. Phase difference between two waves having same
frequency (n) and same amplitude (A) is 2p/3. If 1) less number of fringes
these waves superimpose each other, then resultant 2) more number of fringes
amplitude will be: 3) central maxima narrows
1) 2A 2) 0 3) A 4) A2
4) no diffraction pattern
6. Two slits separated by a distance of 1mm are
13. In YDSE, if one slit is covered with red filter and the
illuminated with light of wavelength 6.0 107 m . The other slit is covered with green filter, then interference
interference fringes observed on a screen placed 1m pattern will be
from the slits. The distance between third dark fringe
1) red 2) green 3) yellow 4) invisible
and the fifth bright fringe is equal to
1) .60 mm 2) 1.50mm 14. Two waves of same frequency but of amplitudes in
the ratio 1:3 are superimposed. The ratio of maximum
3) 3.00 mm 4) 4.50 mm to minimum intensity is
7. The inverse square law of intensity is valid for ....
1) 4:1 2) 1:4 3) 3:1 4) 1:3
1) plane wavefront
15. The phenomenon of diffraction can be treated as
2) conical wavefront
the phenomenon of interference, if the number of
3) spherical wavefront coherent sources are ..
4) cylindrical wavefront 1) one 2) two 3) three 4) infinite
8. Which of the following phenomenon is not explained
16. The golden view of sea-shell is due to
by Huygen’s construction of wavefront ?
1) Reflection 2) Refraction 1) diffraction 2) dispersion
3) Interference 4) Origin of spectra 3) polarisation 4) reflection
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17. The equations of two interfering waves are 25. If Young’s double slit experiment is performed in a
y1 a sin t and y2 a sin t respectively.. medium of refractive index 1.33, then:
Constructive interference will take place at point of 1) fringes will come nearer
observation if value of is 2) fringes will move away
1) 2) 2 3) 3 4) 5 3) fringes will be brighter
18. In the interference pattern by two identical slits, 4) fringes will be sharpened
intensity of central maxima is I. If one of the two 26. A polaroid is placed at 45o to an incoming light of
slits is closed, the intensity of light at the same spot intensity I. Then intensity of light after passing
will be through the polaroid will be:
1) I 2) I/4 3) 2 I 4) 4 I 1) I 2) I/2 3) 2 I 4) zero
19. Interference may be seen using two independent 27. In YDSE, a third slit is made in between the double
1) sodium lamps slits. Then
2) fluorescent lamps 1) intensity of fringes totally disappears
2) only bright fringe is observed on the screen
3) LASER
3) fringes of unequal width are formed
4) mercury vapour lamps 4) contrast between bright and dark fringe is reduced
20. Which of the following process can not convert the 28. Light of wavelength l is allowed to fall through a slit
unpolarised light into partially or plane polarised light? of width d. Then angular width of principle maxima
1) scattering 2) diffraction is:
3) polarisation 4) reflection d 2 2d
1) 2) 3) 4)
d d
21. The maximum number of possible interference 29. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a distant
maxima for slit-separation equal to twice the
source falls on a single slit 1.00 mm wide and the
wavelength in YDSE is
resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen
1) infinite 2) five 3) three 4) zero 2 m away. Then distance between the first dark
22. In YDSE the slit separation is made three fold. The fringes on either side of the central bright fringe is:
fringe width becomes 1) 1.2 mm 2) 2.4 mm 3) 3.6 mm 4) 2.4 cm
1) 1/3 times 2) 1/9 times 30. If monochromatic source in Youngs’ experiment is
replaced by a torch then:
3) 3 times 4) 9 times 1) no fringe appears
23. In two set ups of Young’s double slit experiment, if 2) only bright fringes appear
lights used have the ratio of wavelengths as 1 : 2, 3) fringe pattern remains unchanged
then fringes of equal width are observed. If the ratio 4) fringes becomes brighter
of slit separation is 2:1 then ratio of the distances
31. Four independent waves are represented by
between slit and screen (D1: D2) will be:
equations
1) 1 : 1 2) 1 : 4 3) 2 : 1 4) 4 : 1
i) y1 A1 sin t
24. In YDSE, a dark fringe is observed on the screen
directly opposite to one of the slits. The wavelength ii) y 2 A1 sin 2t
of light is ii) y3 A1 sin 1 t
D2 d2 iv) y4 A1 sin t
1) 2)
2d 2D Interference is possible between waves represents
by equations
D2 d2 1) iii and iv 2) i and ii
3) 4)
d D 3) ii and iii 4) none of these
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32. In YDSE, intensity at central maxima is I0. If one of 39. In diffraction of light, when blue light is used in the
the slits is covered, then intensity at central maxima experiment instead of red light, then
will be
1) fringes will become narrower
I0 I0 I0
1) 2) 3) 4) I0 2) fringes will become broader
2 2 4
33. In Young’s double slit experiment, fringe width is 3) no change in fringe width
found to be 0.4 mm. If the whole apparatus is 4) fringe width exponentially increases
immersed in water of refractive index 4/3 without
distubring the geometrical arrangement, new fringe 40. The device used in sun glasses to protect the eye
width will be: from glare is:
1) 0.30 mm 2) 0.40 mm
1) Nicol prism
3) 0.50mm 4) 0.45 mm
2) Lioyd’s mirror
34. Critical angle of glass is 40o. Calculate the polarising
angle: 3) Calcite crystal
1) 32.7o 2) 40o 3) 60o 4) 57.3o
4) Poloroid
35. A beam of light is partially refracted and partially
reflected from a surface. If angle of refraction of Assertion - Reason
light is 30o, then angle of incidence is:
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
1) 50o 2) 60o 3) 75o 4) 87o Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
36. A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wave-
length 5000A0 is incident normally on a single narrow 2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
slit of width 0.001 mm. Light is focussed by a Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
convexlens on the screen placed on the focal plane. 3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
First minimum will be formed for the angle of
diffraction: 4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
1) 15o 2) 30o 3) 45o 4) 60o 41. Assertion : Coloured spectrum is seen when we
37. In YDSE, the distance between slits is increased 10 look through a muslin cloth.
times whereas their distance from screen is halved,
then what is fringe width ? Reason : It is due to the diffraction of white
light on passing through fine slits.
1) It remains same
42. Assertion : When a tiny circular obstacle is
1 placed in the path of light from some
2) becomes 10
distance, a bright spot is seen at the
centre of shadow of the obstacle.
1
3) becomes 20
Reason : Destructive interference occurs at
the centre of the shadow.
1
4) becomes 90 43. Assertion : Thin films such as soap bubble or a
thin layer of foil on water show
38. Which of the following cannot be polarized beautiful colours when illuminated
1) radiowaves by white light.
2) U.V. rays Reason : It happens due to the interference
3) infrared rays of light reflected from the upper
4) ultrasonic waves surface of the thin film.
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Statement 1) A - s; B - p; C - q; D - r
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
2) A - p; B - q; C - r; D - s
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
3) A - q; B - r; C - s; D - p
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true 4) A - r; B - p; C - q; D - s
44. Statement I : The cloud in sky generally appears Numerical
to be whitish.
Statement II : Diffraction due to clouds is efficient 48. In YDSE, if fringe width is 0.4 mm, the distance
in equal measure at all wavelengths. between fifth bright and third dark band on same
side ..... mm
45. Statement I : The pattern and position of fringes
always remain same even after the 49. In a fixed region of a thin film, 10 fringes are observed
introduction of transparent medium in the reflected beam if wavelength of the incident
in the path of one of the slits. light is 4200 Ao. If wavelength of incident beam is
Statement II : The central fringe is bright or dark changed to 6000 Ao then number of fringes observed
depend upon the initial phase in the same region will be:
difference between the two
coherence sources. 50. A thin mica sheet of thickness 2 10 6 m and
refractive index 1.5 is introduced in the path of one
46. Statement I : Like light radiation,thermal radiations
of the waves in Youngs double slit experiment. The
are also electromagnetic radiation.
o
Statement II : The thermal radiations require no central bright maximum will shift by (l = 5000 A )
medium for propagation. ........... fringes
Match the following 51. Distance between two slits is 0.03 cm. A screen is
47. Column I shows the changes introduced in Young’s placed at a distance of 1.5 m. Interference pattern
double slit experiment while column - II tells the shows that fourth bright fringe is at 1 cm from the
changes in the fringe pattern while performing the central maximum. Wavelength of light used is ......
experiment. Match each situation given in Column-I Ao
with the results given in Column - II.
52. In YDSE, using red light 6600A o 60 fringes
Column I Column II
are seen in the field of view. How many fringes will
A) If sodium light is p) All fringes are coloured
(p) replaced by except central fringe be seen by using violet light 4400A o ?
B) red light of same q)
Monochromatic Fringe width will be
light is replaced come quadrupled 53. On introducing a thin mica sheet of thickness
C) by white light
Distance r) The bright fringe will 2 10 6 m and refractive index 1.5 in the path of one
between slits become less bright of the waves, central bright maxima shifts by n
o
D) and
If screen
one of theisslits s) The fringe width will fringes. Wavelength of the wave used is 5000 A , then
is covered by increase n is:
cellophane
paper
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 4 In case of a line source wave front is cylindrical 13. 4 Red and Green colours are complementary
in shape. Hence at a distance r total normal area colours.
will be 2 r .
I max A1 A 2 1 3 4 :1
2 2
14. 1
I ; I
1 I min A1 A 2 2
1 3
2
A 2 r l r
2. 4 A small portion of a huge sphere is plane 15. 4 Diffreaction is due to superposition of infinite
number of secondary wavelets from infinite
2 number of coherent sources contained in the slit
a1
1 16. 3 When white light incident on sea-shell, then its
I1 100 a12 a1 10 I max a 121
3. 1 ; ; 2 2 small component first gets refracted (slightly
I2 1 a 2 2 a 2 1 I min a1 81 polarised) and then reflected back (fully
1
a2 polarised)
17. 2 For constructive interference,
4. 1 Amplitude of two coherent superimposing waves
become unequal. 2n where n = 0, 1, 2, ...............
5. 3 A R A12 A 22 2A1 A 2 cos
18. 2 For two waves in phase, intensity will be
maximum
A1 A 2 A; =
2
3
; A R 2A cos 2 ; A R A a f a 2a f
i.e., I a a 2 2
4a 2
D
and for a single wave I / a af 2
a2
6. 2 ; 0.60 103 m 0.60mm . The fifth
d I I
/
4 or I /
bright fringe is separated from 3rd dark fringe I 4
by 2.51.50mm 19. 3 Laser light is almost monochromatic with little
spreading.
1
7. 3 For spherical wavefront, I 20. 2 Light can be polarised by reflection and
r2
scattering and not by diffraction.
8. 4 Origin of spectra can be explained with atomic
theory 21. 2 For maxima, d sin n...........1
9. 2 Huygen’s method helps us to find the new put d = 2
wavefront
2 sin n, 2 sin n
10. 3 LASER is highly coherent, monochromatic and
completely parallel. LASER is coherent since it Maximum value of sin 1, hence
consists of co-ordinated waves of exactly the
same wavelength. Eqn. (1) must be satisfied by 5 integer values
ie, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2
3
3
11. 3 L 2 1
2 2 4
22. 1
d
12. 4 Width of slit is very large as compared to
wavelength of X-rays. Hence no diffraction
pattern. here d 3d ie,
3
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D 35. 2 Given r/ = 30o and r = (angle of reflection)
23. 4 As ; For equal fringe widths
d = 90 – 30 = 60o ; = angle of incidence
1D1 2 D 2 D1 d 1 2 2 2 36. 2 For first diffraction minimum; a sin n
or 4
d1 d2 D 2 d 2 1 1 1
5000 1010 1
D1 4 or sin 30o
a 0.001 103 2
D2 1
D
D d
D
24. 4 2n 1 37. 3 2 2
2d 2 10d 20d 20
d2 38. 4 It is longitudinal
,put n 1
2n 1 D 2f
39. 1 W , W , B R
a
d2
40. 4
D
41. 1 It is quite clear that the coloured spectrum is
seen due to diffraction of white light on passing
25. 1 fringes will come nearer through fine slits made by fine threads in the
muslin cloth.
26. 2 When light passes through a polaroid, it gets
polarised and intensity of light reduces to half of 42. 3 As the waves diffracted from the edges of
the maximum value. circular obstacle, placed in the path of light
interfere constructively at the centre of the
27. 4 shadow resulting in the formation of a bright
28. 3 As sin = /d and if is small = /d spot.
and Angular width of central maxima = /d 43. 3 The beautiful colours are seen on account of
interference of light reflected from the upper
2D and the lower surfaces of the thin films.
29. 2 Width of central maxima 2x
a
44. 3 The clouds consists of dust particles and water
30. 1 Torch is non coherent source and is not suitable droplets. Their size is very large as compared
for producing interference. to the wavelength of the incident light from the
sun. So there is very little scattering of light.
31. 4 To produce interference, two superposing waves
Hence the light which we receive through the
should have same frequency and constant phase
clouds has all the colours of light. As a result of
difference.
this, we receive almost white light. Therefore,
32. 3 I0 I1 I 2 2 I1I 2 the cloud are generally white.
45. 3 If a transparent medium of thickness t and
If I1 I 2 I, then I0 4I refractive index is introduced in the path of one
When one slit is covered, I2 = 0 of the slits, then effective path in air is increased
by an amount 1 t due to introduction of
I0 plate.
I10 I1 I
4
Therefore, the zeroth fringe shifts to a new
33. 1 2 1 / n position where the two optical paths are equal.
In such case fringe width remains unchanged.
1 The central fringe is bright or dark depends upon
34. 4 n 156 . 0
. ; tan n, 573 the initial phase difference between the two
sin c
coherent sources.
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46. 2 Light radiations and thermal radiations both 49. 7 Path difference 2t cos r = n
belong to electromagnetic spectrum. Light
radiation belongs to visible while thermal Path difference is same for both waves
radiation belongs to infrared region of EM
spectrum.
1 10 4200
Also EM radiations require no medium for n 1 1 n 2 2 ; or n 2 n1 6000 7
2
propagation.
D 50. 2
47. 1 Fringe width
d
where D = distance between slits and screen,
y0 1 t 1.5 1 2 106 2
d = distance between slits and 5000 1010
= wavelength of light
51. 5000
(A) increases so also increase.
A s xd xd
As n or
D nD
(B) White light produce coloured fringes
Bp
1 10 2 0.03 10 2 o
(C) If D is doubled and d is halved, becomes or 5 10 7 m 5000 A
4 15
.
four times. C q
(D) If intensity of either slit is reduced, the 52. 90
bright fringes become less bright. D r
n11 n 2 2
nD 5D
48. 1 Position of nth BF ...................... 1
d d
53. 2
Position of nth
2n 1 D 5 D Shift in no. of fringes is given by
DF ............... 2
2 d 2 d
1 2 b g n b 1gt
n 1 t
separation between fifth bright band and third
a1.5 1f 2 10 fringes
6
2
dark band 5000 10 10
D
2.5 2.5 2.5 0.4mm 1mm
d
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CHAPTER - 11
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION
Electron Emission
We know that metals have free electrons responsible for their conductivity. However the free electrons
can not normally escape out of metal surface. If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the positive
charge on the metal surface pulls the electrons back to the metal. Thus, free electrons are thus held inside
the metal surface by the attractive forces of the ions. Consequently, the electron can come out of the metal
surface only if it has obtained sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull. This phenomenon of emission
fo electrons from a metal surface is called electron emission.
The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from metal surface is called work function of
the metal. It is generally measured in eV (electron volt) and it is the energy gained by an electron when it has
been accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
So, 1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J
The work function energy can be supplied to the free electrons by any of the following physical processes.
Thermionic emission : By suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.
Field emission : By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V m–1) to a metal, electrons
can be pulled out of the metal, as in a spark plug.
Photoelectric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light) - generated electrons are called photoelectrons.
Photo electric effect:
Whenever e.m. radiation falls on a metal surface it emits electrons. This process of emission of electrons
from metal plate, when illuminated by light of suitable wavelength is called photoelectric effect, and the
electrons emitted are called photoelectrons.
Laws of photoelectric emission.
1. For every metal there is a particular minimum frequency of the incident light, below which there is no
photoelectric emission. This minimum frequency for photoelectric emission is called threshold
frequency.
2. The strength of the photoelectic current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light
3. The velocity and KE of the photoelectrons emitted depends on the frequency of incident light and
independent of the intensity of light
4. Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.
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Einstein’s photo electric equation
1
When a photon of energy h incident of a surface then h h 0 mv 2
2
1
0 is the threshold frequency, h 0 is the work functions and mv 2 is the energy of the emitted photo
2
electrons.
1
KE max mv 2max eV0 h 0 ; where V0 is the stopping potential.
2
1 1 1 1
KE max hc 12400 eV
0 0
In 1902 Lenard observed that the KE of electrons increased with the frequency of radiation.
Determination of Planck’s constant and work function
According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, K max h W0
h W h h
eV0 h W0 V0 0 0
e e e e
We compare this equation with the straight line equation, y = mx + c
It shows that the V0 versus curve is a straight line with slope (=h/e) as shown in the figure. Slope is
independent of the nature of the material.
1
mv 2max h 0 h
V0 eV0
Slope, tan t 2
0 e 0 e 0 e 0 e
Thus, Planck’s constant h can be determined.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
h h 0
However, the intercept of this curve on the potential axis is at OA OB tan 0 or OA
e e
Thus, work function W 0 can be determined.
Photoelectric cell is an arrangement to convert light energy into electrical energy. There are three types
of photo cells - photo emissive, photo voltaic and photo conductive.
(i) Graph of photoelectric current versus intensity
Photoelectric
Current
O Intensity
(i) Photo current intensity
(ii) The number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
ii) Graph of photoelectric current versus potential for radiation of different intensities (I1 > I2) but
of same frequency.
I1
i I2
–V0 V
iii) Graph of photoelectric current versus potential (V) for frequencies 1 2 but of same
intensity
n1
n2
–(V0)1 – (V0)2 O V
c
Threshold wavelength 0
0 . For photo electric emission 0 .
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iv) Graph of stopping potential versus frequencies of different metals.
stopping potential
A
V0
t al
me
B
tal
me
C
t al
me
O n 0 A n0 B n0C
h h
Stopping potential V0 v0 ; is the slope of graph, which is same for all graph.
e e
The stopping potential is the minimum retarding potential required to be maintained between the two
electrodes in order to prevent the photoelectron from leaving the emitter.
Force due to radiation
When light of intensity I falls on a surface of area A exerts a force on that surface. Let a and r are the
absorption and reflection coefficients assuming no transmission. Let a + r = 1 and 0 < r < 1.
A
I 1 r I
Now pressure due to radiation = P = c = 1 r
A c
I
If r = 0, there is no reflection, P =
c
2I
If r = 1 and a = 0, no absorption, P
c
Particle nature of light: The photon
According to the quantum theory of radiation, emission or absorption of radiant energy takes place in
discrete amount called quanta, each of energy hv. A definite value of energy and momentum strongly
suggests that the light quantum behaves as a particle. This particle was later named photon. The particle-
like behaviour of light was confirmed in photoelectric effect and compton scattering of X-rays. Thus, light
radiation consists of photons. According to this theory, photons possess the following properties.
1. Photons travel at a speed of 3 × 108 ms–1 in vacuum and a photon can never be at rest.
2. The energy of photon is given by E = hv, where v is frequency of light.
3. Photons posses momentum and thus behave like particles. The linear momentum of a photon is given
h
by p , where h is Plack’s constant and is wavelength of light.
4. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
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5. During interaction of radiation with matter, photons behave like particles.
6. In a photon-particle interaction, total energy and total momentum are conserved. But the number of
photons is not conserved.
7. Photons are electrically neutral. Therefore, photons cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
Dual nature of matter
Radiation exhibits dual nature i.e., both the wave and particle properties. Similarly, according to de
Broglie, matter exhibits dual nature i.e., it possesses wave as well as particle properties.
Matter waves
According to de- Broglie a moving particle has wave properties associated with it. The wavelength
h h
associated with any moving particle is given by = where p is the momentum. Such waves
p mv
associated with matter are called matter waves.
h h
Expression for de- Broglie wavelength for a photon,
mc p
h
For a charged particle accelerated through a p.d. V,
2mqV
12.27 o 0.286 o
Note: de Broglie wave length for electron is, A ; for proton A ; for particle,
V V
0.101 o
A
V
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle
It is not possible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle (etc. electron)
h
to any arbitrary accuracy. Mathematically it can be expressed as x . p
2
x and p are the uncertainity in the simultaneous measurement of position and momentum of a
particle and h is the Plancks constant.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 7. A laser used to weld detatched ratinas emits light
with a wavelength 652 nm in pulses that are of 20
1. Gases began to conduct electricity at low pressure ms duration. The average power during each pulse
because: is 0.6 W. Find the energy in each pulse in ev and in a
1) electrons in atom can move freely at low-pressure single photon
2) electron acquire higher K.E. resulting in ionisation 1) 7.5 × 1015 eV, 1.9 eV
of atoms 2) 7.5 × 1015 eV, 1.19 eV
3) 7.5 × 1016 eV, 0.19 eV
3) atoms break up into electrons and holes
4) 7.5 × 1016 eV, 1.9 eV
4) all of these
8. nr and nb are respectively the number of photons
2. Which of the following statements is not true: emitted by a red bulb and blue bulb of equal power in
a given time. Then:
1) photons of visible light have less enegy than infra
red photons 1) nb = nr 2) nb > nr
2) infra red rays are invisible 3) nr > nb 4) nb > nr
3) photographic plates are sensitive to infra red rays 9. The mass of a particle is 400 times than that of an
electron and the charge is double that of an electron.
4) photographic plates are sensitive to ultraviolet rays The particle initially at rest is accelerated by 5 V.
3. Work function of a metal surface is 1.9 eV. If light of Then its final Kinetic energy will be:
wavelength 5000 A0 falls on it, then kinetic energy of 1) 10 eV 2) 5 eV
the photoelectrons emitted will be:
3) 100 eV 4) 2000 eV
1) 1.19 eV 2) 2.52 eV 10. Two metal plates having a P.D. of 800 V are 0.02 m
3) 0.575 eV 4) 5.23 eV apart horizontally. A particle of mass 1.96 10-15 kg
is suspended in equilibrium between the plates. If e
4. If wavelength of incident radiation is changed from is the elementary charge, then charge on the particle
to 3/4. Then velocity of faster electron will change is:
from v to:
1) e 2) 3e 3) 6e 4) 8e
1) v (3/4) 2) v (4/3)
11. The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron of speed
3) v (3/4)1/2 4) v (4/3)1/2 0.5 km s-1 is:
5. K.E. of photoelectrons is E and the wavelength of 1) 1.5 10-6 m 2) 1.5 10-8 m
the incident light is /2. If the energy becomes double
3) 1.5 10-10 m 4) 1.5 10-12 m
when the wavelength is reduced to /3, then the
workfunction of the metal is: 12. The energy E and momentum p of a photon is given
by E = hv and p h / . The velocity of photon will
3hc hc hc hc
1) 2) 3) 4) be:
3 2
1) E/p 2) Ep 3) (E/p)2 4) E/p
6. Photoelectric effect can be explained by:
1) quantum theory 13. Threshold frequency for photoelectric effect on
sodium corresponds to a wavelength 5000 A0 of
2) wave theory sodium. Work function is:
3) corpuscular theory 1) 15 J 2) 16 10-14J
4) all of these 3) 4 10-19 J 4) 4 10-14 J
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14. Neglecting variation of mass with velocity, the 21. Light of wavelength 4000 A0 falls on a sensitive palte
wavelength associated with an electron having the with photoelectric work function of 1.9 eV. Then
kinetic energy E is proportional to : kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted will be:
1) E1/2 2) E-1/2 3) E 4) E-2 1) 1.24 eV 2) 0.58 eV
15. If threshold wavelength for a certain metal is 2000A0; 3) 2.48 eV 4) 1.16 eV
then work function of the metal is: 22. What should be the minimum work function of a metal
so that visible light is able to cause emission (visible
1) 6.2 eV 2) 6 e MeV
light = 400 – 700nm)
3) 13.6 eV 4) 981 MeV 1) 1.77eV 2) 1.87eV
16. If a source is transmitting electromagnetic waves of 3) 1.97eV 4) 2.27eV
frequency 8.2 106 Hz, then wavelength of the
electromagnetic waves transmitted from the source 23. Light of wavelength and amplitude A falls on a
will be: photo cell whose threshold wavelength is 0 . Current
1) 36.6 m 2) 40.5 m flowing through the photo cell is proportional to:
3) 50.9 m 4) 42.3 m 1) A if 0 2) A2 if 0
17. Light of wavelength 4000 A0 is allowed to fall on a
4) A 2 0
2
3) 2 A
sodium surface. If threshold wavelength of
photoelectrons emitted from sodium is 5420 A0, then 24. It is essential to consider light as a stream of photon
work function of sodium is: to explain :
1) 0.55 eV 2) 1.5 eV 1) Rectilinear propagation of light
3) 2.29 eV 4) 4.58 eV 2) Photoelectric effect
18. A proton and an -particle are accelerated through 3) Refraction of light
the same potential difference. Ratio of de-Broglie 4) Diffraction of light
wavelength of the proton to that of -particle will 25. A cathode ray tube has a p.d. of V volts between the
be: cathode and anode. The velocity of cathode ray is
1) 2 : 1 2) 1 : 2 directly proportional to:
3) 2 2 :1 4) 1: 2 2 1) V 2) V2 3) V 4) V-1
19. A photon of energy 10.2 eV collides inelastically with 26. Doubly ionised helium atoms and hydrogen ions are
H-atom in ground state. After a certain time interval accelerated from rest through the same p.d. The ratio
of the final velocities of the helium and the hydrogen
of few s another photon of energy 15eV collides
ions is:
inelastically with the same H-atom, the observation
made by a suitable detector is: 1) 2 2) 2 3) 1/2 4) 1 / 2
1) 1 photon with energy 10.2 eV and and electron 27. An electron and a proton are injected into a uniform
with 1.4 eV magnetic field perpendicular to it with the same
2) Two photon with 10.2 eV momentum. What is the nature of their trajectories?
3) Two photon with 1.4 eV 1) Radius of curvature is less for electrons
2) Radius of curvature is more for electron
4) One photon with 3.4eV and 1 electron with
1.4 eV 3) Radius of curvature is same for both
20. Wavelength associated with an electron beam having 4) Both move along straight lines
kinetic energy 100 eV, will be: (given me= 9.110-31 28. Anode voltage is at +3V. Incident radiation has
kg, h = 6.6 10-34 J-s and 1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J) frequency 1.4 × 1015 Hz and work function of the
photo cathode is 2.8 eV. Find the minimum and
1) 0.2 Ao 2) 1.2 Ao
maximum K.E. of photo electron in eV
3) 6.5 Ao 4) 25.0 Ao 1) 3, 6 2) 0, 3 3) 0, 6 4) 2.8, 5.8
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29. An electron is accelerated at 120 KV. The 37. A proton when accelerated through a potential
momentum of electron emitted by the tube is: difference of V volts has a wavelength associated
1) 6.6 10-34 2) 3.3 10-17 with it. An -particle in order to have the same
3) 6.4 10-23 4) 1.87 10-22 must be accelerated through a potential difference
30. A material particle with a rest mass m0 is moving of:
with velocity of light. The wavelength of de-Broglie 1) V volt 2) 4V volt 3) 2V volt 4) V/8 volt
wave associated with it is:
38. The work function for an aluminium surface is 4.2eV
1) h/m0c 2) m0 c2 3) infinity 4) zero and that for a sodium surface is 2.0eV. The two
31. In a photoelectric emission, photons of energy 5eV metals are illuminated with appropriate radiations so
are incident on a metal surface. The photoelectrons as to cause photoelectric emission. Then,
are just stopped by an electrode at a potential of
1) Both aluminium and sodium will have same
-3.5V with respect to the metal. The work function
threshold frequency
of the metal surface is :
1) 8.5eV 2) 5eV 3) 3.5eV 4) 1.5eV 2) The threshold frequency of aluminium will be more
than that of sodium
32. Mass of proton is about 1840 times the mass of
electron. An electron and a proton are fired 3) The threshold frequency of aluminium will be less
perpendicular to the same magnetic field and with than that of sodium
the same velocity. The ratio of the radius of curvature 4) Threshold wavelength of aluminium will be more
of the electron to that of proton trajectory will be: than that of sodium
1) 1/1840 2) 1/3680 3) 1840 4) 3680 39. A monochromatic source of light is placed at a
33. Light of two different frequencies whose photons distance d from a metal source. Photoelectrons are
have energies 1eV and 2.5eV successively illuminate ejected at the rate n, kinetic energy being E. If the
a metal surface of work function 0.5eV. The ratio of source is brought near to a distance d/2, the rate and
the maximum speeds of the emitted electrons will kinetic energy per photoelectron become nearly:
be: 1) 2 n and 2 E 2) 4 n and 4 E
1) 1 : 5 2) 5 : 1 3) 1 : 2 4) 1 : 1 3) 4 n and E 4) n and 4 E
34. If 5 % of energy supplied to a bulb is radiated as
40. Two ions of same charge and kinetic energy but
visible light. How many visible qantas are emitted
having different masses m1 and m2 are projected into
from a 100 watt bulb (wavelength at visible light is
the same magnetic field. If r1 and r2 be the radii of
5600 A0):
the circular paths followed by the ions, then : r1/r2 =
1) 1.4 1019 2) 1.4 1018
1) m1/m2 2) m2m1
3) 1.4 1020 4) 1.4 1027
3) (m1/m2)½ 4) (m2/m1)½
35. Light of same frequency from two different lamps
of 100W, 250W successively illuminate a metal Assertion - Reason
surface of work function 0.5eV. The ratio of the
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
maximum speeds of the emitted electrons will be :
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion
1) 1 : 5 2) 5 : 1 3) 1 : 2 4) 1 : 1
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
36. Which of the following statement is not correct:
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
1) The magnitude of photocurrent is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation 3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
2) The velocity of the photo electrons can be 4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
increased by increasing the frequency of incident 41. Assertion : The de Broglie wavelength of a
light molecule varies inversely as the
3) Threshold wavelength is the lower wavelength limit square root of temperature.
below which no photoemission is possible: Reason : The root mean square velocity of the
4) To increase the KE there should be an increase in molecule depends on the
frequency temperature.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
42. Assertion : An electron and a proton are
accelerated through the same Column I Column II
potential difference. The de Broglie A) Energy (in J) of incident p) 12
2 × 10
wavelength associated with the photon
electron is longer. B) Work function (in J) of q) –19
3.3 × 10
Reason : de Broglie wavelength associated surface
with charged particles accelerated C) Emission of r) 3.2 × 10
–19
through a potential difference V photoelectrons is
D) Number of photoelectrons s) Possible
h emitted per second is
volts is mqV .
43. Assertion : A photon has no rest mass, yet it
1) A - q; B - r; C - s; D - p
carries defined momentum.
Reason : Momentum of photon is due to its 2) A - q; B - p, s; C - r; D - p, s
energy and hence it has equivalent
mass. 3) A - p, q; B - r; C - s; d - p, s
Statement
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true 4) A - q; B - r; C - s; D - p
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false Numerical
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true 48. A photosensitive plate is illuminated by green light
and photoelectrons are emitted with maximum kinetic
44. Statement I : The de-Broglie equation has energy equal to 4 eV. If the intensity of the radiations
significance for any microscopic or is reduced to one fourth of its original value, then the
submicroscopic particles. maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons will
Statement II : The de-Broglie wavelength is be ..... eV
inversely proportional to the mass of
the object if velocity is constant. 49. Electrons are fired with a velocity 2.55 107 ms–1 at
right angle to the magnetic field of 1.5 10–2 T. The
45. Statement I : An electron microscope is based on
specific charge of the electrons is 1.7 1011 C/kg.
de Broglie hypothesis.
The radius of the circular path of the electron is
Statement II : A beam of electrons behaves as a ........cm
wave which can be controlled by
electric and magnetic lenses. 50. Given that the mass of neutron or proton is
46. Statement I : Photoelectric effect demonstrates approximately 1840 times the mass of electron. The
the wave nature of light. ratio of specific charge of electron to -particle ......
Statement II : The number of photoelectrons is
51. An electron accelerated through a potential difference
proportional to the intensity of light.
of V volts has a wavelength associated with it.
Match the following Mass of proton is nearly 2000 times that of an
47. Light rays of intensity 3.3 × 10 –3 W/m 2 and electron. In order to have the same for proton, it
o
must be accelerated through a potential difference
wavelength 6000 A falls normally on a photosensitive V
surface of area 2 cm2 and work function 2.0 eV. of volt, the value of x is
x
Assuming that there is no light loss due to reflection.
Match the results given in Column II for the physical
quantities given in Column I.
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 2 Due to ionisation of gas molecules 10. 2 E q mg; q = n e
2. 1 Frequency of visible light is more than infra red h
radiations 11. 1
mv
hc
3. 3 E k hv E hv
12. 1 v c
P h/
F 6.6 10 34
3 108 I hc
GH 5000 10 10
16
. 10 19 JK
1.9 eV
13. 3 W hv 0
0
LM19.8 19. OPeV 2.475 19. 0.575 eV F 6.6 10 3 10 I J
34 8
=
N8 Q GH 5000 10 JK 10
2
1 /2 4 v/ 4 4 = 4 ´ 10-19 J
4. 4 v2 ;v ; 2
3 v 3 1 3
h
14. 2
2 mE
v/ 4 4
or or v / v
v 3 3
hc
15. 1 W hv 0
0
2hc
5. 3 E= 1
c 3 10 8
16. 1 C v; = = 36.6 m
v 8.2 10 6
3hc hc
E 2 ; Solving
hc
17. 3 W hv 0
6. 1 Classical theory failed to explain photoelectric 0
effect
h h h
p ;
7. 4 E eV
1240
652
1.9eV (in a single photon)
18. 3 2 m eV b g
2 4 m .2eV 16m eV
Energy in 20 ms h P
=
2 2 m eV 2 2
= 0.6 × 20 × 10–3 = 1.2 × 10–2 J
1.2 102 P: 2 2 : 1
= 19
eV 7.5 1016 eV
1.6 10
19. 1 10.2eV photon will excite it to 2nd orbit which
8. 3 on de-excitation will emit 10.2 eV photon and
P nh , Since P is the same
15 – 13.6 = 1.4 eV
n constant .
electron emitted will have energy 1.4 eV
For red is less, so n is more.
h
20. 2
9. 1 E qV 2 mE
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hc mv m m mp r m
21. 1 Ek W r ; r ; re e ; rp ; e e
32. 1 qB q e e rp m p
6.6 1034 3 108
1.9 eV = 1.29 eV 1 v1 0.5 1
10
4000 10 1.6 10
9
33. 3 h h 0 mv 2 ;
2 v2 2 2
1240 100 5
22. 1 E eV 1.77eV 34. 1 n x h E
700 100
23. 2 Current through the photo cell is proportional to
5 5.6 107
the square of amplitude. n 1.4 1019
6.26 1034 3 108
24. 2 Photoelectric effect is explained by quantum
theory of light 35. 4 Max. K.E. depends on frequency
36. 3
1
25. 3 mv 2 eV; v V
2
h 1
37. 4 ; ; mqV cons tan t
2mqV mqV
V2 1 V
26. 4
1
2
b g b g
4 m V12 2e V; 12 ; 1
V2 2 V2
1
2 v
mp e V 4mp 2e V / ; v
8
mv
27. 3 r radius of curvature is same for both 38. 2
qB
39. 3 There is inversely proportional to square of
6.625 1034 1.4 1015
28. 1 hf 5.8eV 1
1.6 1019 distance n
r2
K.Emax = hf 5.8 2.8 3eV so, the new rate will be 4n.
Since anode voltage is 3V, the electrons emitted Rate of ejection is directly proportional to
with zero K.E. will acquire an energy = 3eV intensity. But K.E. doesnot depend upon intensity
and the electrons emtted with 3eV will acquire
3 + 3 = 6eV m1 v1 mV
40. 3 r1 ; r2 2 2
qB qB
p2
29. 4 E ; p= 2mE; but E = eV; p= 2meV
2m 2 KE
r1 m1 V1
; But V =
r2 m 2 V2 m
m0
m
30. 4 1 v 2 / c 2 , when v = c mass is infinite.
1
since KE is constant V
m
h
zero
mV r1 m1 m2 m1
31. 4 Stoppings Pot = 3.5 V, r2 m 2 m1 m2
K.E = 3.5 eV, h KE 41. 1
42. 1
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
43. 1 50. 3680
44. 1 e 2e
m 4 1840 m
= 3680
45. 1
46. 4 51. 2000
47. 4 h 1
;
48. 4 Max. K.E. is independent of intensity of incident 2mqV mV
light.
Since is the same mV = constant
mv e
49. 1 r ; . 1011 c / kg
17 ie. MV = constant, meV 2000 m
qB m
V
2.55 102 V
r 1102 m 1 cm 2000
1.7 1011 1.5 102
X = 2000
229
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CHAPTER - 12
ATOMS
Atomic Structure
Thomsons Atom model
Thomson suggested that an atom consists of positive and negative charges and the negative charges
are embedded inside the atom in between the positive charges. The mass of the atom is almost due to the
positive charges alone.
The Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
The major components of the alpha scattering experiment were:
Gold foil: A thin sheet of gold foil (100 nm) was selected
α -particles: they are doubly-charged helium ions
Zinc sulfide screen: a fluorescent sheet of zinc sulfide was placed around the foil to study the
deflections.
α -particle emitter: generates a high energy beam of -particles.
In this experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin sheet of gold foil with high-energy streams of
fast-moving -particles from the emitter. He expected that -particles would be deflected by
small angles only as the -particles were much heavier (4 u mass) than the protons of a gold
atom, but it gave unexpected results. He saw that:
some particles are deflected through small angles
Most particles passed straight(undeflected) through the gold foil
Few particles are deflected by large angles, and some even rebound
He gave the Rutherford Atomic Model from these results, which contradicted the Thomson atomic
Model.
Observations of the experiment
The following observations were made from the alpha particle scattering experiment:
Most of the space inside an atom is empty:
Distribution of positive charge is non-uniform: Some -particles were deflected by very small
angles; hence, it was assumed that positive charge occupies little space and is non-uniformly
distributed.
All the positive charge is concentrated in a small volume:
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Rutherford Atomic Model
From the observations, he proposed Rutherford’s atomic model, which indicated the atomic
structure of elements.
Rutherford put forward the nuclear model based on the experiment, which states:
There is a positively charged center of the atom called the nucleus, where all the atom’s positive
charge is concentrated. It is very small and around 105 times less than the atom’s radius. All the
mass of the atom is concentrated here.
The negatively charged particles surround the atom and revolve at a very high speed in fixed
circular paths called orbits.
The positively charged particles (protons) and negatively charged particles (electrons) are held
together by a powerful electrostatic force of attraction.
Bohr atom model
Assuming Rutherford atom model, Bohr tried to overcome the defects of the model.
An atom consists of a nucleus inside which the positivively charged particles are accumulated. To
attain stability the electrons revolves round an atom.
Postulates of Bohr Atom Model
1. The electrons in an atom cannot revolve in all possible orbits, they are in their privilaged orbits. While
they are in their orbits they cannot radiate energy. The angular momentum of these orbits are an
h
integral multiple of .
2
2. An atom radiates energy only when an electron jumps from a stationary orbit of higher energy to an
E 2 E1
orbit of lower energy and the difference of energy will be emitted .
h
Consider an atom whose nucleus have a positive charge Ze and Mass M.
mv 2 1 Ze 2 nh nh
For stability, , By Bohrs postulate mvr ; v
r 4 0 r 2 2 2mr
m n 2h 2 1 Ze 2 0 n 2 h 2
2 ; r
r 4 2 m 2 r 2 4 0 r mZe 2
0 n 2 h 2
For hydrogen atom, the radius of the n possible orbit is,
th rn
me 2
Z 1
0 h 2
a 0 n where
2 a0 is called Bohr radius = 0.0529 nm.; rn n 2
m . e2
In other words atomic radius is quantised.
e2
Velocity in the n orbits is v n
th
2 0 nh
v1
for higher orbits v n
n
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Energy of Electrons in the orbit
Ze 2 1 Ze 2
PE ; K.E. = mv 2
4 0 r 2 8 0 r
Total energy of electron in the nth orbit.
Z2 me4
En
8 20 n 2 h 2
E0
For z = 1, En can be written as E n
n2
e2
The lowest energy state is (n = 1) E1 E 0 13.6 eV ; E0
8 0 a 0
Hydrogen Spectrum
If an electron in the outer orbit n2 jump to an inner orbit of lower energy the difference in energy is
E n 2 E n1
emitted as radiation and the frequency of radiation is given by .
h
1 1 1
Wave number R n 2 n 2
1 2
me 4
R is Rydbergs constant = 1.097 × 107m–1
820 h 3c
Spectral series of hydrogen atom
(1) Lyman Series
When an electron jumps from second, third etc. orbits (n2 = 2, 3, 4....) to the first orbit (n1 = 1)
1 1
R 2 2 ; n 2, 3,4, 5,....
1 n
(2) Balmer Series
When an electron jumps from outer orbits (n2 = 3, 4, 5....) to the second orbit (n1 = 2) the Balmer
series is obtained.
1 1
R 2 2 For n = 3, H line, n = 4 H line.
2 n
n = 5, H line, n = 6 H line
(3) Paschen Series
When a transition of electron takesplace from n2 = 4, 5, 6,..... to an orbit of n1 = 3, Paschen series
1 1
occurs. These lines lie in the IR region. R 2 2 , n 4,5,6.....
3 n
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(4) Bracket Series
When an electron jumps from n2 = 5, 6, 7, ..... to an orbit of n1 = 4, Bracket series occurs. This series
1 1
comes in I.R. region. R 2 2 , n 5, 6, 7,.....
4 n
(5) Pfund Series
If n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8, ...... the Pfund series occurs. This series lies in IR region.
1 1
R 2 2 ; n 6, 7, 8
5 n
Ionisation and Ionisation Energy
When an electron is taken from the ground state to an orbit of n = , the atom is ionised and the
energy supplied for it is ionisation energy. For H atom ionisation energy = 13.6 eV.
13.6z 2
E ionisation E E n E n eV {since E 0 }
n2
Ionisation Potential
Potential difference through which a free electron must be accelerated from rest such that its KE
becomes equal to the ionisation energy of the atom is called ionisation potential of the atom.
E n 13.6z 2
Vionisation volt
e n2
Excited state
When an electron is taken from its lower energy state to a higher energy state is called excitation. For
this the difference of energy is to be supplied to the electron. E excitation E higher E lower
E excitation
Vexcitation
e
For the hydrogen atom, ground state energy is = –13.6 eV and the energy of 1st excited state is = –3.4
eV.
Difference in energy = 10.2 eV. It is called first excitation energy. The energy required to move an
electron from ground state to an excited state is the excitation energy.
Number of spectral lines obtained due to transition of electron from nth orbit to lower orbit is
n n 1
N
2
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 8. Number of spectral lines in hydrogen atom is
1. As per Bohr model, the minimum energy (in eV) 1) 3 2) 6 3) 15 4) Infinite
required to remove an electron from the ground state 9. The first line the Lyman series has wavelength .
of doubly ionized Li atom (Z = 3) is The wavelength of the first line Balmer series is
1) 1.51 2) 13.6 3) 40.8 4) 122.4
2. According to Bohr’s theory the radius of electron in 2 9 2 27
1) 2) 3) 4)
an orbit described by principal quantum number n 9 2 27 5
and atomic number Z is proportional to
10. The energy required to knock out the electron in the
Z 2 2
Z n2 third orbit of a hydrogen atom is equal to
1) Z2n2 2) 3) 4)
n2 n Z 13.6
3. Which of the following statements is true of hydrogen 1) 13.6 eV 2) eV
9
atom?
13.6 3
1 3) eV 4) eV
1) Angular momentum 9 13.6
n
11. When an electron in hydrogen atom is excited, from
1 its 4th to 5th stationary orbit, the change in angular
2) Linear momentum
n momentum of electron is (Planck’s constant: h = 6.6
× 10–34 J-s)
1
3) Radius 1) 4.16 1034 J-s 2) 3.32 10 34 J-s
n
1 3) 1.05 10 34 J-s 4) 2.08 10 34 J-s
4) Energy
n 12. Frequency of the series limit of Balmer series of
4. The Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum lies in the hydrogen atom in terms of Rydberg constant R and
region: velocity of light c is
1) Infrared 2) Visible Rc 4
3) Ultraviolet 4) X-rays 1) Rc 2) 3) 4 Rc 4)
4 Rc
5. In Bohr’s model, if the atomic radius of the first orbit
is r0, then the radius of the fourth orbit is 13. When the electron jumps from a level n = 4 to n = 1,
the momentum of the recoiled hydrogen atom will
r0 be:
1) r0 2) 4r0 3) 4) 16r0
16
1) 6.5 10 27 kg -ms 1
6. When a hydrogen atom is raised from the ground
state to an excited state 2) 12.75 1019 kg-ms 1
1) PE increase and KE decrease
2) PE decreases and KE increases 3) 13.6 10 19 kg-ms 1
3) Both kinetic energy and potential energy increase 4) zero
4) Both KE and PE decrease
14. The ratio of the energies of the hydrogen atom in its
7. The absorption transitions between the first and the first to second excited state is
fourth energy states of hydrogen atom are 3. The
emission transition between these states will be 1 4 9
1) 2) 3) 4) 4
1) 3 2) 4 3) 5 4) 6 4 9 4
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15. The radius of hydrogen atom in its ground state is 22. In any Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom, the ratio of
kinetic energy to potential energy of the electron is
5.3 10 11 m . After collision with an electron it is
found to have a radius of 21.2 × 10–11 m. What is
1 1
the principal quantum number n of the final state of 1) 2) 2 3) 4) –2
the atom? 2 2
1) n = 4 2) n = 2 3) n = 16 4) n = 3 23. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron in 2nd orbit
16. If R is the Rydberg’s constant for hydrogen, the wave of hydrogen atom is : (a0 = Bohr’s radius)
number of the first line in the Lyman series will be
1) 2a 0 2) 4a 0
R 3R R
1) 2) 3) 4) 2R 3) 8a 0 4) 16a 0
4 4 2
24. What would be maximum wavelength of Brackett
17. The wavelength of radiation emitted is 0 when an
series of hyrogen spectrum?
electron jumps from the third to second orbit of
hydrogen atom. For the electron jumping from the 1) 74583 A
o
2) 22790 A
o
fourth to the second orbit of the hydrogen atom, the
wavelength of radiation emitted will be o o
3) 40519 A 4) 18753 A
16 20
1) 0 2) 0 25. The frequency of 1st line of Balmer series in H2
25 27
atom is v0. The frequency of line emitted by singly
27 25 ionised He atom is
3) 0 4) 0
20 16 v0 v0
18. The energy required to remove an electron in a 1) 2v0 2) 4v0 3) 4)
2 4
hydrogen atom from n = 10 state is
26. The wavelength of the first line of Lyman series for
1) 13.6 eV 2) 1.36 eV
hydrogen atom is equal to that of the second line of
3) 0.136 eV 4) 0.0136 eV Balmer series for a hydrogen like ion. The atomic
19. Orbital acceleration of electron is number Z of hydrogen like ion is
1) 4 2) 1 3) 2 4) 3
n2h 2 n 2h 2
1) 2) 27. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6
4 2 m 2 r 3 2n 2 r 3
eV. What is the potential energy of the electron in
this state?
4n 2 h 2 4n 2 h 2
3) 2 2 3 4) 1) 0 eV 2) –27.2 eV
mr 4 2 m 2 r 3
20. Energy of an electron in an excited hydrogen atom 3) 1 eV 4) 2 eV
is –3.4 eV. Its angular momentum will be: 28. An electron revolves round a nucleus of charge Ze.
h 6.626 1034 J-s . In order to excite the electron from the state n = 2 to
n =3, the energy required is 47.2 eV. Z is equal to
1) 1.11 1034 J-s 2) 1.51 1031 J-s
1) 3 2) 4 3) 5 4) 2
3) 2.11 10 34 4) 3.72 10 34
J-s J-s 29. In hydrogen atom, if the difference in the energy of
21. In terms of Rydberg’s constant R, the wave number the electron in n = 2 and n = 3 orbits is E, the ionization
of the first Balmer line is energy of hydrogen atom is
5R 8R 1) 13.2 E 2) 7.2 E
1) R 2) 3R 3) 4)
36 9 3) 5.6 E 4) 3.2 E
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30. The given diagram indicates the energy levels of a 35. The electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from ground
certain atom. When the system moves from 2E level state to the higher energy state where its velocity is
to E, a photon of wavelength is emitted. The reduced to one-third its initial value. If the radius of
wavelength of photon produced during its transition the orbit in the ground state is r, the radius of new
orbit will be
4E
from level to E. r r
3 1) 3r 2) 9r 3) 4)
3 9
36. The ratio of the energies of the hydrogen atom in its
first to second excited state is
1 4 9
1) 2) 3) 4) 4
4 9 4
37. An electron in the n = 1 orbit of hydrogen atom is
3 4 bound by 13.6 eV. If a hydrogen atom is in the n = 3
1) 2) 3) 4) 3 state, how much energy is required to ionize it
3 4 3
31. In which of the following systems will the radius of 1) 13.6 eV 2) 4.53 eV
the first orbit (n = 1) be minimum? 3) 3.4 eV 4) 1.51 eV
1) Single ionized helium 38. The velocity of an electron in the second orbit of
2) Deuterium atom sodium atom (atomic number = 11) is v. The velocity
3) Hydrogen atom of an electron in its fifth orbit will be
4) Doubly ionized lithium 22
1) v 2) v
32. The shortest wavelength in the Lyman series of 5
o
hydrogen spectrum is 912 A corresponding to a
5 2
photon energy of 13.6 eV. The shortest wavelength 3) v 4) v
2 5
in the Balmer series is about
39. The wavelength of the energy emitted when electrons
o o
1) 3648 A 2) 8208 A come from fourth orbit to second orbit in hydrogen
is 20.397 cm. The wavelength of energy for the same
o o transition in He+ is
3) 1228 A 4) 6566 A
1) 5.099 cm–1 2) 20.497 cm–1
33. An electron is in an excited state in a hydrogen atom.
It has a total energy –3.4 eV. The kinetic energy of 3) 40.994 cm–1 4) 81.988 cm–1
the electron is E. What is its de Broglie wavelength? 40. If the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen
1) 6.6 10 10 m atom is 13.6 eV, the energy required to remove the
electron from the first excited state of Li++ is
2) 6.6 10 9 m 1) 122.4 eV 2) 30.6 eV
3) 6.6 10 11 m 3) 13.6 eV 4) 3.4 eV
4) 6.6 10 12 m 41. If is the speed of electron in the nth orbit hydrogen
atom, then
34. The total energy of electron in the ground state of
hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. The kinetic energy of 1
an electron in the first excited state is 1) n1/ 2 2)
n
1) 6.8 eV 2) 13.6 eV
3) 1.7 eV 4) 3.4 eV 1 1
3) 4)
n2 n3
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Assertion - Reason 47. Statement I : Between any two given energy
levels, the number of absorption
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the transitions is always less than the
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion number of emission transitions.
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the
Statement II : Absorption transition start from the
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
lowest energy level only and end at
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false any higher energy level. But
emission transitions may start from
4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true any higher energy level and end at
42. Assertion : In an atom, according to Bohr’s any energy level below it.
theory, the electron revolves around
Match the following
the nucleus in orbits in which the
angular momentum of electron is 48. Regrading transition of electrons match the
integral multiple of . following table.
Reason : In H-atom, mass of electron is equal
to the mass of proton.
Column I Column II
43. Assertion : A laser beam of 0.2 W can drill holes
through a metal sheet whereas a A) n = 5 to n = 2 p) Lyman series
1000 W torchlight cannot. B) n = 8 to n = 4 q) Brackett series
Reason : The frequency of laser light is much
C) n = 3 to n =1 r) Paschen series
higher than that of torchlight.
44. Assertion : Bohr had to postulate that the D) n = 4 to n = 3 s) Balmer series
electrons in stationary orbits around
the nucleus do not radiate..
1) A - s; B - r; C - q; D - p
Reason : According to classical physics all
moving electrons radiate. 2) A - r; B - q; C - p; D - s
Statement 3) A - s; B - q; C - p; D - r
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
4) A - q; B - s; C - r; D - p
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
Numerical
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
49. The shortest wavelength of the Brackett series
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true of a hydrogen-like atom (atomic number = Z) is
45. Statement I : It is not possible to use 35Cl as the the same as the shortest wavelength of the Balmer
fuel for fusion energy. series of hydrogen atom. The value of Z is:
Statement II : The binding energy of 35Cl is too 50. In hydrogen atom spectrum, frequency of 2.7 ×
small. 1015 Hz of electromagnetic wave is emitted when
transmission takes place from 2 to 1. If it moves
46. Statement I : X-rays used for studying the from 3 to 1, the frequency emitted will be ..........
structure of crystals. × 1014 Hz.
Statement II : The distance between the atoms of
crystals is of the order of wavelength
of X-rays.
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 4 10. 2 Energy required to knock out the electron in the
E Z2 13.6eV 2 9 13.6eV
nth orbit
122.4eV
13.6 13.6
So inonisation energy = +122.4 eV 2
eV E 3 eV
n 9
0 n 2 h 2 n2 11. 3 Change in the angular momentum.
2. 4 r ; r
Zme2 Z
n 2 h n 1h
3. 2 We know that angular momentum L L 2 L1
2 2
nh nh
L mvr mv h
2 2r L n 2 n1
2
nh
Now, r n 2 ; mv p ; 6.6 1034
2 n 2 5 4
2 3.14
h 1
p or p
2n n 1.05 1034 J-sec
4. 2 Lyman series lies in the visible region. 12. 2 Series limit of Balmer series is
r 4 16
2 1 1 1 R c Rc
rn n 4
2 R 2 ;
5. 4
r1 1 1 2 4 4
13. 1 Momentum of the recoiled hydrogen atom =
r4 16r1 r4 16 r0 momentum of the emitted photon
1 h h 1 1
6. 1 PE and KE decreases but PE increases hR 2 2
r c ni n f
7. 4 By using
1 1
n n 1 4 4 1 6.6 1034 10 7
NE NE 6 1 16
2 2
8. 4 Infinitely large transitions are possible (in 6.5 1027 kg-ms 1
principle) for the hydrogen atom.
14. 3 First excited state i.e., second orbit (n = 2)
9. 4 For first line in Lyman series
Second excited state i.e., third orbit (n = 3)
4
L1 ------ (i) 13.6 E 3 9
2
3R E 2
2
For first line in Balmer series n E3 2 4
36 2
B1 ----- (ii) r n
5R 15. 2 r n , i.e., f f
2
ri n i
From equations (i) and (ii)
2
B1 27 27 27 21.2 1011 n
B1 L1 B1 ;
5.3 1011 1 n 4 n 2
2
L1 5 5 5
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1 1 1 kZe 2
16. 2 For Lyman series R 2 2 here n 22. 3 KE and
1 n 2r
= 2, 3, 4, 5 .......
kZe 2 KE 1
For first line PE
r PE 2
1 1 1 3R
R 2 2 R 1 23. 2 Radius of nth orbit is rn n 2 a 0 , where a0 is the
1 2 4 4
Bohr’s radius. If is the de Broglie wavelength
1 1 1 of an electron while revolving the nth orbit of
17. 2 R 2 2 radius rn. then,
n1 n 2
2rn
2rn n ; or
1 1 n
22 32 For 2nd orbit, n = 2;
0 1 1
22 42 2r2 2 2 a 0
2
4a 0
2 2
5 16 20 20 24. 3 For Brackett series, n1 4, n 2 5,6,7,....
or 0
36 3 27 27
1 1 1
18. 3 Energy required R 2 2
n1 n 2
13.6 13.6
2 0.136eV where R 1.09678 107 m 1 ,
n2 10
called Rydberg’s constant.
nh nh
19. 1 mvr v 1 1 1
2 2mr R 2 2
4 n2
v2 n 2h 2
For maximum wavelength, n 2 5
r 4 2 m 2 r 3
20. 3 The electron is in the second orbit (n = 2) 1 1 1
1.09687 107 2 2
max 4 5
34
nh 2h 6.6 10
Hence, L o
2 2 max 40519 A
2.1110 34 J-sec vH2 2
1
25. 2 vZ 2
1 1 1 v He 2
21. 3 Wave number R n 2 n 2
1 2
1
v He 4v H2 4v 0
For first Balmer line n1 = 2, n2 = 3. 4
Wave number 26. 3 Lyman series of H-ion
1 1 9 4 5R hc 1 1
R 2 2 R Rhc 2 2
2 3 9 4 36 1 2
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33. 1 PE = – 2× KE = – 2E
hc 1 1
and for H-like ion z 2 Rhc 2 2
2 4 Total energy = –2E + E = – E = –3.4 eV
1 1 1 1 p2
2 2 Z2 Now, E or p 2mE
1 2 4 16 2m
1 21 1 h h
1 Z ; Z = 2 6.6 1010 m
4 4 16 p 2mE
27. 2 PE = 2 × Total energy = 2 × (–3.6) = –27.2 eV 34. 4 Energy of nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given
13.6
13.6 13.6 by: E n eV
28. 3 Z 2
47.2 n2
4 9
For ground state, n = 1,
Z5
13.6
29. 2 E3 E 2 E E1 13.6 eV
12
E1 E1 For first excited state, n = 2 ;
or E
9 4
13.6
or E1 7.2E
E2 3.4 eV
22
Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 7.2 E. Kinetic energy of an electron in the first excited
state is: K = – E2 = 3.4 eV
1
30. 4
E 1 c
35. 2 v
2E E 1 137 n
3
4E / 3 E 1/ 3 Since v is reduced to one-third therefore
3 n = 3.
Now, r n 2
1
31. 4 r , for double ionized lithium (Z = 3) will be
Z r3 n 2 r 9r
maximum. So r will be minimum.
32. 1 In Lyman series 36. 3 First excited state i.e., second orbit (n = 2)
Second excited state, i.e., third orbit (n = 3)
1 4
min L and min B
R R 2
13.6 E 3 9
E 2 2
min B 4 min L n E3 2 4
o 13.6
4 912 3648 A 37. 4 Required energy E 3 1.51eV
32
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42. 3
1 v 2 2 2
38. 4 v n 5 v5 v 2 v
n v2 5 5 5 43. 3
44. 2
2
hc Z 1
39. 1 E 2 2 45. 3
n Z
46. 1
20.397 47. 1
Hence, He 5.099 cm
4
48. 3
13.6 49. 2 The shortest wavelength of Brackett series
40. 2 En Z2 . For first excited state n = 2 and
n 2
corresponds to the transition of electron between
for Li++, n1 = 4 and n 2 and the shortest wavelength
of Balmer series corresponds to the transition of
13.6 electron between n1 = 2 and n 2 . So,
z=3 E 9 30.6eV
4
R RZ2
nh nh
41. 4 Ln I mr 2 4 16
2 2
Z2 4
As r n 2
Z 2
1
2 1 1
n3 50. 32 frequency Rcz n 2 n 2
1 2
241
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CHAPTER - 13
NUCLEI
Nucleus
Rutherford’s -particle scattering experiment revealed the existence of nucleus in an atom. The size
of the nucleus 1014 m in diamter. It consists of charged and neutral particles at the centre of the atom
surrounded by orbiting electrons.
1. Isotopes: They are the neuclei with the same atomic no. Z but different mass no. A.
for eg 14 Si 28 , 14 Si 29 , 14Si30 etc. are isotopes of silicon.
2. Isobars: Nucleus having same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
3. Isotones: They are elements having same number of neutrons.
4. Isomers: Two or more nuclei having the same atomic number and same mass number but different
energy states can be called isomers.
Properties of Nucleus
Size
The size of the atomic nucleus is of the order of 10–14 to 10–15 m and the atoms are of the size
10–10m. So that the nucleus is 104 times smaller than atoms.
For a spherical volume.
4 3
R A ; or R A1/3
3
The radius of the nucleus R = R0 A1/3, A is the mass no.
R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m
Nuclear mass
The mass of proton and neutron together forms the nuclear mass.
M Zm p A Z m n Zm p Nm n
When nuclear mass is determined experimentally it is seen that actual mass is less than those
calculated for constituent particles. The difference of mass is called mass defect.
So, Zmp + Nmn – real mass = m is the mass defect.
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Binding Energy
When neutrons and protons combine to form nucleus some mass disappear and this has been
converted to energy E = mc2. This energy is called Binding energy of the nucleus. The minimum energy
required to disrupt a stable nucleus into its components is called binding energy.
BE Zm p
Nmn M c 2 - where M is the actual value of mass of the nucleus.
Stability of a nucleus
Total BE of nucleus
BE/ nucleon = Total no. of nucleons ; When BE/nucleon is larger the nucleus is stable.
Variation of BE/nucleon with mass no.
BE
A
8.8 MeV
56 A
The heavier nuclei have a tendency to split into smaller nuclei, and is called fission.
Charge of nucleus is due to charge of proton =1.6×1019C.
1
Atomic mass unit, 1 Amu = mass of C12 = 1.66 × 10–27 kg; mp = mn = 1 amu
12
Nuclear force
Nuclear force is the very large force existing inside the nucleus holding the nucleons together inspite
of the repulsion between protons.
1. It is the strongest force existing inside the nucleus.
2. It has very short range of nuclear dimensions.
3. It does not depend on nature of nucleons.
4. It acts between n-n, n-p, p-p, between nucleons.
5. It is not a central force i.e., distributed inside the nucleus.
Natural Radioactivity
Nuclei with mass number A ( 206 ) continuously emit particles. The positively charged particles are
-rays, negatively charged particles are -rays and high energy photons are called -rays. This activity of
elements are called radioactivity and such elements are called radioactive elements. During this activity the
elements disintegrate and this process is a spontaneous process.
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Nuclear Fission
The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavy atom into two or more fragments of almost
equal masses with the release of a large amount of energy is called fission.
When U235 is bombarded with neutron, the uranium captures a slow neutron forming an unstable
compound nucleus. This highly energetic compound nucleus then fissions into two or more parts liberating
some energy.
235
92 U 0 n1
236
92 U *
143
56 Ba 90
36 Kr 3 10 n Q
During each fission an energy of 200 MeV is released which appears in the form of kinetic energy of
the fragments.
Chain Reaction
A chain reaction is a self propagating process in which number of neutrons goes on multiplying
rapidly almost in gemoetrical progression during fission, till whole of the fissile material is disintegrated.
n
n
u nU
n
0n
1 u n n n
U n
n
n n
U U
n n
U n
During each fission a few neutrons are released. These neutrons make subsequent collisions with
atoms making the neutrons multiplied. Such a reaction is self propagating.
Chain reaction can be controlled or uncontrolled. Controlled chain reactions takes place in fission
reactors. Uncontrolled chain reaction takes place in atom bomb.
Atom Bomb
It is a neuclear fission bomb in which uncontrolled chain reaction takes place. In each fission
tremendous amount of energy is released in a short time.
Nuclear reactors
In a nuclear reactor the chain reaction is produced in a controlled manner. In this case we can
generate steady energy output. Slow neutrons causes fission in a fission reactor. The fast neutrons liberated
in fission escapes from reactor.
Fast neutrons can be slowed down by using moderators such as water, heavy water, graphite etc.
These fast neutrons while colliding with moderators slow neutrons are produced. These slow neutrons can
cause fission in a reactor.
A nuclear reactor requires following parts.
1) a fissionable material (fuel) such as U233, U238, Th232.....
2) Moderator - slow down neutrons to cause chain reaction in the reactor (eg, water, D2O.... )
3) Cooling system
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Excess heat will be generated in the system, is removed by proper cooling system. Water, air, steam
etc. can be used as heat transfer agents. They transfer heat from the core to the secondary thermal
system of the reactor.
4) Control and safety system
Control rods introduced into the reactor enables a controlled chain reaction by absorbing excess
neutrons generated. Cadmium or boron rods are generally used for controlling
U 235 0 n1 U 236 143
56 Ba 90
36 Kr 3n1 Q
Diagram shows a nuclear reactor based on thermal neutron fission. Nuclear fission takes place in
the core. Enriched uranium is used as the fuel. [Enriched uranium is the sample of uranium in which U235
is in abundance]. The core contains moderator to slow down the neutrons. The core is surrounded by a
reflector to reduce leakage. The heat generated is removed by the coolant. The whole assembly is shielded
to prevent harmful radiation coming out. The coolant transfers heat to the working fluid which in turn may
produce steam which drives turbines and generates electricity.
Nuclear Fusion
In this process two or more light nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus and some energy is
released during this reactions. This happens for elements with atomic no. less than 20. To fuse two lighter
nuclei some energy is to be supplied, usually in the form of heat. So these reactions are also called
thermoneuclear reactions.
Formation of Helium by fusing two Deuterium is the simplest fusion reaction.
1 H 2 1H 2
2 He 4 23.84MeV
Another possible reaction is
1 H 2 1H 2
2 He3 0 n1 3.3 MeV
1 H 2 1H 3
2 He 4 0 n1 17.6 MeV
Energy released per fusion is less than energy released per fission of a heavy nucleus. But considering
the mass involved in reaction, the total energy released in fusion is very large.
Source of stellar energy
The source of solar energy is supposed to be the thermonuclear reactions. In the sun there exists a
very high temp. At this temperature elements of low atomic number fuse together with the release of a large
amount of energy. Arthur Eddington in 1920 suggested that the process taking place in the sun is p-p cycle
in which 4 hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium with the release of a huge amount of energy
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41 H1
2 He 4 2 1e o 26.7 MeV 2
Also another possible cycle is carbon - nitrogen cycle. In the reaction carbon acts as a catalyst.
41 H1
2 He4 2 1e0
Energy released = (4.031300 – 4.002603 – 2 × 0.001098) c2 = 0.026501 × 931 = 24.672 MeV
Thermonuclear reactions are taking place in stars and also in Hydrogen Bomb.
Hydrogen Bomb makes use of the principle of nuclear fusion. For making a thermonuclear reaction in
a hydrogen bomb, the temperature is attained by detonation of an atom bomb. The fission bomb produces
very high temp., so that hydrogen atoms can fuse together resulting in the formation of Helium with the
release of great amount of energy acting as the hydrogen Bomb.
Energy in stars
When two light nucleii fuse to form a large nucleus energy is released
1 1H 2 e 0.42 MeV
H1 1H1
1 H 2 1H 2
32 He n 3.27 MeV
1 H2 1H2
1H3 11H 4.03 MeV
Fusion is achieved by raising the temperature. In stars heat is sufficiently large to fuse hydrogen
atom. The fusion of hydrogen atom take place in stars and energy is released.
Controlled thermonuclear reactor
In fusion reactors controlled thermonuclear reaction takesplace. Here temperature is raised to about
10 K where the substance is in the plasma state. So for thermonuclear reaction to take place plasma is to
8
be confined, and is usually done by magnetic bottle where plasma is confined into a particular region.
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 9. The mass defect in a particular nuclear reaction is
0.3 grams. The amount of energy liberated in kilowatt
1. A nucleus ruptures into two nuclear parts which have
hours is (Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s)
their velocity ratio equal to 2 : 1. What will be the
ratio of their nuclei size (nuclear radius) 1) 1.5 × 106 2) 2.5 × 106
1) 21/3 : 1 2) 1 : 21/3 3) 31/2 : 1 4) 1 : 31/2 3) 3 × 106 4) 7.5 × 106
2. For a light nuclei, which of the following relation
between the atomic number (Z) and mass number 10. If mass of U235 = 235.12142 amu, mass of u236 =
(A) is valid 236.1205 amu, and mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu,
then the energy required to remove one neutron from
Z A the nucleus of U236 is nearly about
1) A 2) Z = A 3) Z 4) Z = A2
2 2 1) 75 MeV 2) 6.5 MeV
3. Mn and Mp represent mass of neutron and proton
3) 1 eV 4) zero
respectively. If an element having atomic mass M
has N-neutrons and Z-protons, then the correct
11. The mass of a 37 Li nucleus is 0.042u less than the
relation will be
sum of the masses of all its nucleons. The binding
1) M < [NMn + ZMp] 2) M > [NMn + ZMp]
3) M = [NMn + ZMp] 4) M = N[Mn + Mp] energy per nucleon of 37 Li nucleus is nearly
4. Nuclear forces are 1) 23 MeV 2) 46 MeV
1) Short ranged attractive and charge independent 3) 5.6 MeV 4) 3.9 MeV
2) Short ranged attractive and charge dependent
12. The average binding energy per nucleon is maximum
3) Long ranged repulsive and charge independent for the nucles
4) Long ranged repulsive and charge dependent
5. The mean momentum of a nucleon in a nucleus with 1) 2 He 4 2) 8 O16 3) 26 Fe 56 4) 92 U 238
mass number A varies as
13. If the binding energy per nucleon in Li7 and He4 nuclei
1) A3 2) A2 3) A–2/3 4) A–1/3 are respectively 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV, then
6. Which of the following particle when bombards on energy of reaction Li7 + p 2 2He4 is
65
Cu will turn into 66Cu
1) 19.6 MeV 2) 2.4 MeV
1) Proton 2) Neutron
3) 8.4 MeV 4) 17.3 MeV
3) Electron 4) Alpha particle
7. Mark out the incorrect statement. 14. The binding energy per nucleon of 16O is 7.97 MeV
and that of 17O is 7.75 MeV. The energy in MeV
1) A free neutron can transform itself into proton required to remove a neutron from 17O is
2) A free proton can transform itself into neutron
1) 3.52 MeV 2) 3.64 MeV
3) In beta minus decay, the electron originates from
nucleus 3) 4.23 MeV 4) 7.86 MeV
4) All of the above 15. Binding energy per nucleon of 1H2 and 2He4 are 1.1
8. 92
U absorbs a neutron. The product emits an
238
MeV and 7.0 MeV, respectively. Energy released in
electron. This product further emits an electron. The the process 1H2 + 1H2 = 2He4 is
result is
1) 20.8 MeV 2) 16.6 MeV
1) 94
Pu239 2) 90
Pu239 3) 93
Pu237 4) 94
Pu237
3) 25.2 MeV 4) 23.6 MeV
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
17 22. A proton and a neutron are both shot at 100 ms–1
16. In a fission reaction 236
92 U X 117 Y n n ,
the binding energy per nucleon of X and Y is 8.5 towards a 12
6 C
nucleus. Which particle, if either, is
MeV whereas of 236U is 7.6 MeV. The total energy more likely to be absorbed by the nucleus?
liberated will be about 1) The proton
1) 200 KeV 2) 2 MeV 2) The neutron
3) 200 MeV 4) 2000 MeV 3) Both particles are about equally likely to be
absorbed
17. When 92U235 undergoes fission, 0.1% of its original
mass is changed into energy. How much energy is 4) Neither particle will be absorbed
released if 1 kg of 92U235 undegoes fission 23. Consider the following statements and mark the
1) 9 × 10 J 10
2) 9 × 10 J 11 correct statements.
S1 : The nuclear force is independent of the charge
3) 9 × 1012 J 4) 9 × 1013 J
of nucleons.
18. A nuclear fusion reaction is given S2 : The number of nucleons in the nucleus of an
1 H 1 H 2 He 0 n Q (energy). If 2 moles
2 2 3 1
atom is equal to the number of electrons in the atom.
of deuterium are fused, then total released energy is S3 : All nuclei have masses that are less than the
sum of the masses of constituent nucleons.
1) 2Q 2) 4Q
S4 : Nucleons belong to the family of leptons while
3) Q × 6.02 × 1023 4) Q × 2 × 6 × 1023
electrons are members of the family of hadrons.
19. Assuming that about 20 MeV of energy is released 1) S1 only 2) S1 and S4
per fusion reaction
3) S2, S3 and S4 4) S1 and S3
1 H 1H 2 He E
2 2 4
other particles 24. For atoms, which of the following statement is
correct?
then the mass of 1H2 consumed per day in a fusion
reactor of power 1 megawatt will approximately be 1) Heavier nuclei have more neutrons than protons
1) 0.001 g 2) 0.1 g 2) Heavier nuclei have equal number of protons and
neutrons
3) 10.0 g 4) 1000 g
3) Lighter nuclei have more neutrons than protons
20. The mass number of He is 4 and that for sulphur is
4) Lighter nuclei have less number of neutrons than
32. The radius of sulphur nucleus is larger than that
protons
of helium, by times
25. The masses of neutron and proton are 1.0087 a.m.u.
1) 8 2) 4 3) 2 4) 8 and 1.0073 a.m.u respectively. If the neutrons and
protons combine to form a helium nucleus (alpha
21. The incorrect statement is particles) of mass 4.0015 a.m.u. the binding energy
of the helium nucleus will be (1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV)
1) Nuclear density is independent of the mass number
A of the nucleus 1) 28.4 MeV 2) 20.8 MeV
2) Average binding energy per nucleon is very high 3) 27.3 MeV 4) 14.2 MeV
for light nuclei 26. If the energy released in the fission of one nucleus is
3) Nuclear forces are strongest in nature 200 MeV then the number of nuclei required per
second in a power plant of 16 kW will be
4) Elements with atomic number greater than 92 are
1) 0.5 × 1014 2) 0.5 × 1012
fossils.
3) 5 × 1012 4) 5 × 1014
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27. Pick out the correct statement from the following 34. Uranium - 235 is used as nuclear fuel in a nuclear
1) Energy released per unit mass of the reactant is reactor having power level 1 MW. The amount of
less in case of fusion reaction fuel needed in one year will be [ Energy released
per fission = 200 MeV]
2) Packing fraction may be positive or may be
negative 1) 148.5 g 2) 103 g
3) Pu239 is not suitable for a fission reaction 3) 107 g 4) 122 g
35. Binding energy per nucleon in Deuteron (1H2) and
4) For stable nucleus, the specific binding energy is
Helium ( 2He 4) atom is 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV
low
respectively. If two deuteron atoms combine to from
28. How much energy must be imparted to the proton a single helium atom, then energy released is
so as to start the reaction? 7 Li3 H1 4 Be 7 0 n1 1) 13.9 MeV 2) 19.2 MeV
(Given that mass of 7Li3 = 7.016, 1H1 = 1.00783, 3) 23.6 MeV 4) 26.9 MeV
7
Be4 = 7.01693 and 1n0 = 1.00866). 36. Suppose the speed of light were half of the present
value, the amount of energy released in the atomic
1) 1.27 MeV 2) 1.47 MeV bomb explosion will be decreased by a fraction.
3) 1.89 MeV 4) 1.67 MeV
1 1
29. What is the amount energy produced in joules due to 1) 2)
4 2
fission of 1 gram of U235 assuming that 0.3% of mass
is transformed into energy? 3 3
3) 4)
1) 2.87 × 1010 J 2) 3.84 × 1011 J 4 8
3) 2.57 × 109 J 4) 2.82 × 1011 J 37. Which of the following is applicable to of 1H1, 1H2,
H 3?
30. Beta rays emitted by a radioactive material are 1
1) All of them are stable isotopes
1) electrons orbiting around the nucleus
2) All of them are unstable isotope
2) electromagnetic radiations
3) 1H3 decays to 1H2
3) neutral particles emitting from nucleus
4) 1H3 decays to 2He3
4) Charged particle emitted by nucleus 38. The ratio of the radius of the -particle to that of
31. -particles, -particles and -rays each having an the sulphur nucleus is
energy of 10 MeV. The increasing order of 1 1 1
penetrating powers of the radiations is 1) 2) 3) 4) 1
8 4 2
1) , , 2) , , 3) , , 4) , 39. How does the binding energy per nucleon vary with
32. Binding energy per nucleon for C is 7.58MeV and
12 the increase in the number of nucleons?
that for C13 is 7.28 MeV. What is amount of energy 1) Increases continuously with mass number
required to remove a neutron from C13?
2) Decreases continuously with mass number
1) 1.24 eV 2) 0.62 MeV
3) Remains constant with mass number
3) 3.48 eV 4) 2.48 MeV
33. A U nucleus liberats 300 MeV per fission. 2 kg of
235 4) first increases and then decreases with increase
U235 reacts during explosion. What is the mass of an of mass number
equivalent bomb if heating capacity of material is 40. If the nuclie of masses x and y are fused to form a
4.0 × 106 J kg–1? nucleus of mass m and some energy is released, then
1) 5.72 × 107 kg 2) 6.15 × 107 kg 1) x + y = m 2) x + y < m
3) 7.52 × 107 kg 4) 2.57 × 107 kg 3) x + y > m 4) x – y = m
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Assertion - Reason Match the following
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion 48. Match Column I of the nuclear processes with
Column II containing parent nucleus and one of the
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the end products of each process.
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
4) If Assertion is false but Reason is true Column I Column II
41. Assertion : Neutrons penetrate matter more A) Alpha decay p) 15
8 O 15
7 N ...
readily as compared to protons.
Reason : Neutrons are slightly more massive B) decay q) U 238 U 234 ...
than proton.
C) Fission r)
185
83 Bi 184
82 Pb ...
42. Assertion : Energy released in one fusion
process is less than the energy Pb 146
57 La ...
239
D) Proton emission s) 96
released in a single fission event.
Reason : Fusion is a weaker source of energy
than fission. 1) A - q; B - s; C - p; D - r
43. Assertion : Cobalt-60 is useful in cancer
therapy. 2) A - p; B - q; C - s; D - r
Reason : Cobalt-60 is a source of radiations
3) A - q ; B - p; C - r; D - s
capable of killing cancerous cells.
Statement 4) A - q; B - p; C - s; D - r
1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
Integer
2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false 49. If the ratio of the radius of a nucleus with 61 neutrons
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true to that of helium nucleus is 3, the atomic number of
44. Statement I : Binding energy (or mass defect) of this nucleus is
the hydrogen nucleus is zero.
50. The binding energy of an electron in the ground state
Statement II : Hydrogen nucleus contains only one
of He-atom is E 0 24.6eV . The energy required
nucleon.
to remove both the electrons from the atom is ......
45. Statement I : If a heavy nucleus is split into two
eV
medium sized parts, each of the
nuclei will have more binding energy 51. To generate a power of 3.2 mega watt, the number
per nucleon than the original nucleus. of fissions of U235 per minute is (Energy released
Statement II : Joining two light nuclei together to per fission = 200 MeV, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J) ....... ×
give a single nucleus of medium size 1018
means more binding energy per
nucleon than the two nuclei. 52. A source of half life 4 hours emit radiations of intensity
46. Statement I : Generally heavy nuclei are unstable. which is 128 times the permissible safe level. The
Statement II : Heavy nuclei have more neutrons minimum time after which it would be possible to
than protons. work safely with the source is ..... h
47. Statement I : Unlike electric forces and
gravitational forces, the nuclear force
has a limited range.
Statement II : Nuclear force does not obey inverse
square law.
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
KEY WITH HINTS
1. 2 Velocity ratio v1 : v 2 2 :1 10. 2 Mass of one atom of U235 is 235.121420 amu.
Mass of one neutron = 1.008665 amu
mass (m) volume r 3
Sum of the masses of U235 and neutron
From momentum conservation, m1v1 m 2 v 2 = 236.130085 = 236.130 amu
Mass of one atom of U236 is 236.123050 amu
3
v1 m 2 r
; 2
3
= 236.123 amu
v2 m1 r 1
Mass defect = 236.130 – 236.123 = 0.007 amu
1/3 1/3
r1 v 2 1 Therefore, energy required to remove one neutron
; r : r 1: 21/3
r2 v1 2 1 2 is 0.007 931MeV 6.517MeV 6.5MeV
2. 3 BE 0.042 931
11. 3 5.6 MeV
nucleon 7
3. 1 Actual mass of the nucleus is always less than
total mass of nucleons, so M < (NMn + Zmp). 12. 3 Binding energy per nucleon increases with atomic
number. The greater the binding energy per
4. 1 Nuclear force is charge independent, it also acts
nucleon the more stable is the nucleus.
between two neutrons.
For 26Fe56 number of nucleons is 56.
5. 4
This is most stable nucleus, since maximum
6. 2 65
Cu 10 n 66 Cu energy is needed to pull a necleon away from it.
Since the atomic number is same. 13. 4 B.E. of Li7 = 39.20 MeV and He4 = 28.24 MeV
The particle bombarded is neutron. Hence binding energy of 2He4 = 56.48 MeV
7. 1 When a free neutron decays to a proton along Energy of reaction = 56.48 – 39.20 = 17.28 MeV
with an electron and an antineutrino, the Q value 14. 3 The energy required to remove a neutron from
of the reaction is positive which means the O is
17
reaction is possible all by itself, while a free proton
cannot convert itself into a neutron due to negative E BE of 17
O BE of 16 O
Q value.
= 17 × 7.75 MeV – 16 × 7.97 MeV
In beta minus decay, the electron originates from
nucleus only, by the transformation of neutron into = 131.75 MeV – 127.52 MeV = 4.23 MeV
a proton, with simultaneous emission of an 15. 4 Energy released would be
antineutrino.
E = total binding energy of 2 He 2 (total
4
8. 1 92 U
238
0 n1 92 U
239
1e
0
93 Np
239
binding energy of 1 He2 )
1e0 94 Pu 239
4 7.0 2 1.1 2 23.6MeV
0.3
9. 4 E m.c 2 E 3 108 . 16. 3 Total energy liberated
1000
2 117 8.5 236 7.6
13
2.7 1013
2.7 10 J 7.5 106 kWh 195.4 MeV 200 MeV (approx).
3.6 106
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
0.1 23. 4 The nuclear force is charge independent.
17. 4 E mc , m
2
103 kg
100 No. of nucleons = No. of protons + no. of neutrons
= Mass number
E 10 3 3 108 103 9 1016
2
All nuclei have masses that are less than the sum
of its constituents. The difference in mass of a
9 1013 J nucleus and its constituents is known as mass
defect.
18. 3 Total energy released
Nucleons belong to the family of hadrons while
= Q × Avogadro number = Q × 6.02 × 1023 electrons belong to family of leptons.
19. 2 P = 106W 24. 1 Heavier nuclei have more neutrons than protons.
Time = 1 day = 24 36 102 s 25. 1 B.E.= 931MeV
Energy produced,
= 2 1.0087 1.0073 4.0015 931
U Pt 106 24 36 102 24 36 108 J
= 28.4 MeV
Energy released per fusion reaction is 26. 4 Energy released in the fission of one nucleus
20MeV 32 1013 J = 200 MeV
Energy released per atom of 1 H 2 is 32 1013 J = 200 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = 3.2 × 10–11 J
P = 16 kW = 16 × 103 watt
2
Number of 1 H atoms used is
Now, number of nuclei required per second
24 36 108 P 1.6 103
22 1021
32 1012 n 11
5 1014
E 3.2 10
Mass of 6 × 1023 atoms = 2 g
27. 2
Mass of 27 10 21 atoms 28. 3 Mass of reactants = 7.01600 + 1.00783 – 4 me
2 Mass of products = 7.01693 + 1.00866 – 4 me
= 27 1021 0.1g
6 10 23
Therefore, mass defect = 8.02383 – 8.02559
13
= –0.00176
13
r 4 1 1
r A , 1
1/3
20. 3 The Q value of the reaction,
r2 32 8 2
Q 0.00176 1.65 MeV
21. 2 The average binding energy per nucleon is very
low for light nucleus. This energy is supplied as the KE of the
bombarding proton. According to conservation of
22. 2 Once the neutron gets sufficiently close to the law of momentum, the minimum K.E. is given as
nucleus, the strong nuclear force sucks it in. Same
happens with the proton except it is m
electrostatically repelled by the six protons already E 1 Q
M
inside the carbon nucleus. The repulsion prevents
a 100 ms–1 proton from getting close enough to
1
the nucleus. Therefore, the answer is 2. 1 1.65 1.89 MeV
7
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
29. 4 Energy released per atom of uranium 34. 4 Number of fission needed in one year
= 3.125 × 1016 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
0.3
235 a.m.u 0.705a.m.u = 3.125 × 1023
100
Therefore, mass required
= 656.355 MeV
235
or E = 656.355 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 106 3.125 1023 122 gm
6.02 10 23
or E = 1.1 × 10–10 Joules 35. 1 Energy released = [7 × 4 – 4 × 1.1] MeV
Number of atoms present in one gram of Uranium = 28 – 4.4 = 23.6 MeV
2
6.02 1023 1 1
2.562 1021 atom. Therefore, 36. 3 E m c2 m c mc 2
235 2 4
energy released by 1 gram of uranium. Decrease in energy release will be by 3/4 fraction.
= 1.1 × 10 –10
× 2.562 × 10 = 2.82 × 10 joules
21 11
37. 4 H 3 2 He3 e0 Q
1 1
30. 4 Speed of rays in vacuum is not equal to 3×108m/ 38. 3 r A
1/ 3
s. Hence, they cannot be classified as
electromagnetic waves. 1
r He nucleus 4 3 1
Hence,
31. 2 According to penetrating powers, r Sulphur nucleus 32 2
P P P 39. 4 B.E. per nucleon is maximum for iron. It
decreases both with decrease or increase of Z
32. 4 Total energy of C12 atom from iron.
= Number of nucleons × 7.68 40. 3 x + y = m + E.
41. 2
= 12 × 7.68 = 92.16
42. 3
Total energy of C13 atom = 13 × 7.28 = 94.64
43. 1
Energy required to remove 1 neutron from 44. 1
C13 = 94.64 – 92.16 = 2.48 M eV 45. 1
33. 2 Energy released, Q = Number of atoms in m kg 46. 1
of U235 × 300 MeV 47. 1
m 48. 4
N A 300MeV
A 49. 47 The radius of a nucleus is R R 0 A1/3
2 where, R0 is a constant and A its atomic mass
Q 6.02 1026 300 1.6 1013 number.
235
1/3
= 2.46 × 1014 R A
R He 4
Therefore, required mass
R
2.46 1014
6.15 107 kg But R 3 given
4 10 6 He
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
1/3 51. 6 Number of fissions per second
A A
3 or 3
3
4 4 power output
or A = 4 × 27 = 108 Energy released per fission
The atomic number of the nucleus is
3.2 106
Z = A – N = 108 – 61 = 47 11017
200 106 1.6 1019
50. 79 The total energy required to make the electron
free from nucleus is the sum of the energy
Number of fission per minute
required to separate the electrons from the
influence of each other and the energy required 60 1017 6 1018
to separate the electrons from the influence of 52. 28
nucleus, i.e.,
In the given problem, the intensity of radiation
Total required energy = BE of electron in He atom emitted is 128 times greater than safe limit.
+ ionization energy of He atom
1 1
Therefore, 7
= (24.6 + 13.6 × 22) eV 128 2
= (24.6 + 54.4) eV = 79 eV 7 half periods are required for the radiation
to be in safe limit of working conditions.
Hence, time required = 7 × 4 = 28 hours.
254
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
CHAPTER - 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS :
MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Energy levels and energy bands
The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in certain orbits corresponding to an energy level.
Range of energy possessed by an electron in a solid is known as Energy band.
Conduction electrons and valence electrons in a metal
The valence electrons are called free electron and more are called free electrons. When they move
inside the crystal producing current.
1 ne 2
The conductivity of a metal is
m
Conductors, Insulators and Semi Conductors
Conduction Band
Eg Eg
EF Valence band
Conductor Insulator Semi Conductor
The Band structures of conductor, insulator and semi conductor are shown.
Doping
A small quantity of suitable element is doped in the semiconductor as impurity and converted to an
extrinsic semiconductor.
N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si -e Si Si Si Si
P B +o
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Un doped Penta valent impurity added Trivalent impurities added
Donor impurity Acceptor impurity
255
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
Net Current and Conductivty
When some potential difference is applied across a piece of intrinsic semiconductor, current flows in it
due to both electrons and holes.
ie, i i e i h i eA n e v e n h vh
i
J e n e ve n h v h E
A
v v
e n e e n h h e n e e n h h = conductivity of the semiconductor..
E E
where ve - drift velocity of electrons, vh - drift velocity of holes.
ve vh
e = Mobility of electrons and h = Mobility of holes.
E E
At room temperature Ge Si and e h . Conductivity of semiconductor increases with temperature,
because number density of charge carriers increases.
In a doped semiconductor, the number density of electrons and holes are not equal.
But for pure semiconductor ne nh = ni2
Resistivity and conductivity of semiconductor
For a conductor I = neAvd , n - number of electrons / unit volume
I 1 vd
J nev d ; ne ;
A E
p-n junction
When a P-N junction is formed, a depletion region is formed and a pd informed between the junction.
–– ++
p –– ++ n
–– ++
–– ++
d0
V0 V(x)
d0
V0 is the pd between the ends and d0 is the width of depletion layer
Electric field E 0 V0
d0
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Biasing a PN Junction
Reverse bias
depletion region
–– ++
–– ++
–– ++
–– ++
p n
The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-side and positive to the N- side, the connection
is called reverse bias.
When reverse voltage increases breakdown of the junction takes place
Voltage Current (V-I) Equation for a P-N Junction Diode
eV
Diode equation, I I e kT 1 ; I0 - reverse saturation current at temperature TK.
0
= 1 for Ge and 2 for Si known as ideality factor..
IF(mA)
Forward
Leakage current Region
Knee V
Zener Knee
Avalance IR(A)
Current
1
For reverse bias voltage, V is negative and I R I0 eV 1
kT
e
Forward Bias
p n
When negative terminal of battery connected to the N-region and positive connected to the P-region, it
is called forward bias.
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Zener breakdown
For sufficiently strong electric field in the reverse bias condition reverse current increases very much
and voltage across the diode remains constant called Zener voltage during Zener breakdown.
Dynamic resistance of a PN diode
The resistance offered by a diode is called the dynamic resistance (or a.c. resistance).
V
Let V is the change in applied voltage produces a corresponding change I in the current. R d
I
PN junction diode as a Rectifier
Rectification is the process by which AC is converted to DC and such a device which makes a conversion
is called a rectifier.
Halfwave rectifier
A single diode is connected to an AC input through a transformer T and a load resistance RL is connected
in the secondary of the transformer.
Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier
2
r.m.s.value of A.C. component of output voltage I
Ripple factor rms 1
D.C.component of output voltage Idc
Full-Wave Rectifier
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In a full wave rectifier, during both the half cycles, current flows through the load in the same direction.
I sin t for 0 t
The current pulses in the two diodes are given by i m
I m sin t for t 2
Vm
Here, I m
Rf RL
Bridge Rectifier
During both the halves of the input cycle, current flows through the load RL in the same direction.
Thus a DC output is developed across RL and we have full wave rectification.
Ripple frequency
Half wave rectifier
input frequency (fin ) output frequency (f0)
f0= fin
Full wave rectifier and Bridge rectifier
input frequency (fin) output frequency (f0)
fo = 2 fin
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Comparison between rectifiers
Full Wave
Half Wave Rectifier
Centre tap Bridge
Peak Secondary Voltage Vs Vs Vs
PIV
Vm 2Vm Vm
(Peak Inverse Voltage)
Vm Vm Vm
Peak load current
Rf RL R f RL 2R f R L
Im Im Im
Irms
2 2 2
Im 2Im 2Im
DC current I dc
I 2m 4I 2m 4I 2m
D.C. Power ou tp ut, Pdc I d2c . R L RL RL RL
2 2 2
I 2m I 2m I 2m
AC Power outpu t, Pa c I 2rms R f R L R f fL Rf R L Rf RL
4 2 2
Ripple factor 1.21 0.484 0.484
Rectifier Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Ripple Frequency when
50 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz
upto frequency = 50 Hz
Filters
Ripples in the rectified output is minimised using a filter circuit.
DC + AC D.C only
C RL
input
AC
output
The a.c. components are bypassed and we get almost a pure dc
SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES
Zener diode
A diode which operates in the reverse break down region with a sharp break down voltage is called a
Zener diode.
A series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into the diode. It is connected to the
positive terminal of the d.c. It works in such a way the reverse-biased diode can work in breakdown
conditions.
Current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode tends to increase which results
in the voltage drop across the resistor. Similarly, the current through the diode decreases when the voltage
across the diode tends to decrease. Here, the voltage drop across the resistor is very less, and the output
voltage results normally.
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IF
R I
+
IL VZ
IZ VR
RL V0 VF
Vi
V0
–
IR
The voltage at which Zener Break down occurs is called zener voltage (VZ).
I = Iz + IL; V0 = Vi – VR; V0 = IL RL = VZ
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
It is specially made forward biased PN junctions which emit light when energised.
hc
Wavelength of the light emitted E ; Eg - energy gap of semiconductor..
g
Photo diode
It is essentially a reverse biased PN junction diode which is responding to photon absorption.
When lights falls on the depletion region of reverse biased p-n junction the minority carriers increases
to a great extent due to this reverse current increases.
Solar cell
A solar cell is a p-n junction diode which can convert solar energy to electrical energy. It consists of a
PN junction diode made of Silicon.
Varactor diode
A junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor, under a changing reverse bias is called a varactor
diode. It is used in TV, FM receiver and other communication equipments for tuning.
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Analogue and Digital circuits
Analogue signals
A continuously varying voltage (or current) with time is called an analogue signal.
V
+5
0
Time
–5
Digital signal
Voltage or current having only two levels (discrete values) is called a digital signal. (square wave)
Basic logic gates
OR Gates
A
Y y =1, when A or B = 1, Y = A + B
B
AND Gate
A
B
Y y = 1, when A = B = 1 A.B
NOT Gate
A YA
A Y =A 0 1
YA
1 0
NAND
An AND gate followed by NOT gate acts a NAND gate gives an output zero when all the inputs are 1.
A
Y y = 0, when A = B = 1
B
Y AB
NOR Gate
An OR gate followed by a NOT gate acts as a NOR gate, gives a 1 output when all the inputs are zero.
A
B Y Y AB y = 1, when A = B = 0
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Universal Gates
The NAND and NOR gates are the building blocks of all digital circuits. Repeated use of NAND and
NOR gives other gates.
A single input NAND gate is acting as a NOT gate.
A B=A Y
0 0 1
A Y 1 1 0
A single input NAND gate connected at the output of another NAND gate act as an AND gate
A
B
Y y = 1, when A = B = 1
Y’
Two single input NAND gates connected at the input of a NAND gate make it an OR gate.
A
A
Y
y = 1, when A or B = 1
B
B
NOT gate from NOR
A B=A Y
0 0 1
A Y 1 1 0
OR gate from NOR
A
Y y = 1, when A or B = 1
B
AND gate from NOR
A B A B Y
A
0 0 1 1 0
A
0 1 1 0 0
B 1 0 0 1 0
B
1 1 0 0 1
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XOR gate (Exclusive OR)
This gate is used to check whether inputs are equal.
A
A A .B A B A B Y AB
B 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 A
Y
A 0 1 1 0 1 B Y
B A .B 1 1 0 0 0
B
Y A XOR B A . B B . A
X NOR gate (Exclusive NOR)
A B Y
0 0 1
A 0 1 0
Y
B 1 0 0
1 1 1
Y AB A . B A B
De Morgan’s theorem
1) A B A . B 2) A . B A B
Laws of Boolean Algebra
A+ B= B+A A. B= B.A
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
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QUESTIONS
Single correct option 8. Valency of an impurity atom added to germanium
1. A pure semiconductor has: crystal in order to convert it into P-type
semiconductor is:
1) An infinite resistance at 00 C
2) A finite resistance which decreases with 1) 3 2) 4 3) 5 4) 6
temperature 9. The level formed due to impurity atom , in a forbidden
3) A finite resistance which increases with energy gap, very near to valance band in a P-type
temperature semiconductor is called:
4) A finite resistance which does not depend on 1) An acceptor level
temperature 2) A donor level
2. Electric conductivity increases with increase in 3) Conduction level
temperature for an:
4) Fermi level
1) N-type semiconductor
10. When boron is added as impurity to silicon , resultant
2) P-type semiconductor
material is:
3) Intrinsic semiconductor
1) Conductor
4) None of these
2) Insulator
3. Forbidden energy band in semiconductors:
1) Lies just above the conduction band 3) P-type semiconductors
2) Lies just below the conduction band 4) N-type semi
3) Is same as valance bond 11. Forbidden gap in germanium and silicon are 0.7 eV
4) Lies below valance band and 1.1 eV respectively. This implies that:
4. Majority carriers in semiconductors are: 1) Both Ge and Si are perfect conductors at very
low temperature and good insulators at room
1) Holes in N-type and P-type both
temperature
2) Electrons in N-type and P-type both
2) Both Ge and Si are perfect insulators at low
3) Holes in P-type and electrons in N-type
temperatures
4) Holes in N-type and electrons in p-type
3) Both Ge and Si are good insulators at low
5. A N-type semiconductor is: temperature but Ge shows more conductivity at
1) Neutral 2) Negatively charged room temperature
3) Positively charged 4) None of these 4) Both Ge and Si are good insulators at low
6. A piece of copper and another of germanium are temperature but Si shows more conductivity at
cooled from room temperature to 80 K. Then room temperature
resistance of: 12. If germanium is to be doped with a donor impurity,
1) Each of them decreases the foreign atom should be:
2) Each of them increases 1) Trivalent 2) Tetravalent
3) Copper increases and Germanium decreases 3) Pentavalent 4) None of these
4) Copper decreases and Germanium increases
13. In a semiconducting material, the mobilities of
7. A P-type semiconductor is:
electrons and holes are e and h respecively which
1) A silicon crystal doped with boron of the following is true
2) A silicon crystal doped with antimony
1) e h 2) e h
3) A Germanium crystal doped with boron
4) both 1 and 3 3) e h 4) e 0; h 0
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14. In a good conductor energy gap between valance 21. When a P-N junction is forward biased, potential
band and conduction band is: barrier width :
1) Zero 2) Narrow 3) Wide 4) Infinite 1) decreases 2) increases
15. Read the following statement carefully. 3) remains constant 4) none of these
Y : Resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with 22. Solids behave like insulators because
increase in temperature 1) Electrons are not mobile in insulators
Z : In a conducting solid , rate of collision between 2) molecules are not mobile
free electrons and ions increases with increase in 3) large number of holes are there in solids
temperature. Then:
4) None of these
1) Y is true and Z is false 23. In a P-N junction diode:
2) Y is true and Z is true 1) Current in the reverse bias condition is generally
3) Y is false and Z is true small
4) Y is false and Z is false 2) Forward bias current is small as compared to
16. Region of the transistor which is heavily doped to reverse bias current
produce large number of majority carriers is: 3) Forward current is independent of the bias voltage
1) Base 4) Reverse bias current is independent of the bias
2) Emitter voltage
3) Collector 24. In the figure given below, input AC is across A and
C and output is across B and D. Then output is
4) All are equally doped
17. In insulators
1) VB is partially filled with electrons
2) CB is partially filled with electrons
3) CB is empty and VB is filled
4) CB is filled and VB is empty
18. Band gaps in conductors, semiconductors and 1) Zero 2) Vi
insulators are Eg1, Eg2 and Eg3 respectively. Then 3) Half wave rectified 4) Full wave rectified
1) Eg1< Eg2< Eg3 25. Width of the depletion layer in a P-N juction diode
2) Eg1 = Eg2= Eg3 1) increases when forward bias is applied
3) Eg1 > Eg2 > Eg 2) increases when reverse bias is applied
4) Eg1 < Eg2 > Eg3 3) decreases when reverse bias is applied
19. A sample of N-type silicon contains 4) in a PN junction diode, current does not depend
on biasing
1) Excess electrons and is negatively charged
26. In a P-N junction diode, depletion layer is caused by
2) Contains mainly trivalent impurities
1) drift of holes
3) Contains only tetravelent impurities
2) drift of electrons
4) Contains free electrons, in excess and is
3) diffusion of carriers
electrically neutral
4) migration of impurity atoms
20. If reverse biasing is very large in a P-N junction
diode, then diode current 27. Leakage current in a junction diode
1) Remains fixed 1) decreases with temperature
2) decreases slowly 2) increase with temperature
3) is due to majority carrier
3) increases slowly
4) depends on the biasing voltage
4) suddenly increases
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28. In the figure given below, voltage of point A is 36. A bridge rectifier is preferrable to an ordinary two -
diode full wave rectifier because :
1) it needs much smaller transformer for the same
output
1) 0V 2) –3V 3) –2.3V 4) –2.7V 2) its transformer has no centre tap
29. The width of the depletion layer of a junction: 3) it uses four diodes
1) decreases with light doping 4) it has higher safety factor
2) increases with heavy doping
37. Truth table given below corresponds to:
3) is independent of applied voltage
4) is increased under reverse bias
30. Avalanche breakdown is primarily dependent on the
phenomenon of:
1) collision 2) doping
3) ionization 4) recombination 1) AND 2) OR 3) NAND 4) NOR
31. The process of transfer of mobile charge carriers
across the junction when no external voltage is 38.
applied to it is called:
1) migration 2) diffusion
3) osmosis 4) chemical action
32. In the forward region of its characteristic, a diode
appears as:
1) an OFF switch 2) a high resistance In the above logic circuit the output will be a 1 when
3) a capacitor 4) an ON switch the inputs are:
33. In the figure the approximate drop across R is:
A B C D
1) 1 0 1 1
2) 0 0 0 0
3) 1 0 1 0
4) 0 1 0 1
39. Combinations of NAND gates shown below are
1) 12 V 2) 5 V equivalent to
3) zero 4) 12.5 V
34. A silicon diode dissipates 3 W for a forward dc
current of 2 A. The bulk resistance of the diode is:
1) 1.5 2) 1
3) 0.4 4) 0.1
35. Once a zener diode goes into breakdown its ______
does not change much:
1) AND and NOT gates respectively
1) current
2) voltage 2) OR and AND gates respectively
3) dynamic impedance 3) AND and OR gates respectively
4) capacitance 4) OR and NOT gates respectively0
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40. Boolean algebra is essentially based on Statement
1) symbol 2) logic 1) If both Statement I and Statement II are true
3) numbers 4) truth 2) If both Statement I and Statement II are false
41. No. of levels in a digital signal is 3) If Statement I is true but Statement II is false
1) Two 2) Four
4) If Statement I is false but Statement II is true
3) Three 4) Five
47. Statement I : Silicon is preferred over germanium
42. The digital systems usually operate on: for making semiconductor devices.
1) binary 2) decimal Statement II : The energy gap for germanium is
more than the energy gap of silicon.
3) octal 4) hexadecimal
48. Statement I : We can measure the potential barrier
Assertion - Reason
of a PN junction by putting a
1) If both the Assertion and Reason are true and the sensitive voltmeter across its
Reason is true explanation of the Assertion terminals.
2) If both the Assertion and Reason are true but the Statement II : The current through the PN junction
Reason is not the true explanation of the Assertion is not same in forward and reversed
3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false bias.
4) Both Assertion and Reason are false 49. Statement I : The energy gap between the valence
43. Assertion : The number of electrons in a P-type band and conduction band is greater
silicon semiconductor is less than the in silicon than in germanium.
number of electrons in a pure silicon Statement II : Thermal energy produces fewer
semiconductor at room temperature. minority carriers in silicon than in
Reason : It is due to law of mass action. germanium.
44. Assertion : Electron has higher mobility than hole 50. Statement I : The Boolean expression obey
in a semiconductor. commutative law i.e., A + B = B + A
Reason : Mass of electron is less than the Statement II : The Boolean expression obey
mass of hole. distributive law i.e., A + (B + C) =
(A + B) + C
45. Assertion : An N-type semiconductor has a
large number of electrons but still it Match the following
is electrically neutral.
51. In the circuit shown the barrier voltage of diode is
Reason : An N-type semiconductor is 0.7 V. Match the physical quantities given in column-
obtained by doping an intrinsic I to the results given column-II.
semiconductor with a pentavalent
impurity.
46. Assertion : If inputs are same, then output is
zero. If inputs are different, then
output 1 for a EXOR gate.
Reason : The Boolean expression for EXOR
gate is Y AB AB
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53. In the figure the approximate value of V0 across the
Column I Column II diode is ..... V
A) Peak current (in mA) in diode p) 37.8
B) Peak voltage (in volts) at the ends q) 40
of load
C) Peak current (in mA) if diode is r) 20
ideal
D) Peak voltage (in volts) at the ends s) 18.9
of load if diode is ideal
54. In the figure the current through the diode is (use
t) Zero
ideal diode approximations) ..... mA
1) A - p; B - s; C - q; D - r
2) A - p; B - r; C - s; D - q
3) A - r; B - p; C - s; D - q
4) A - p; B - s; C - r; D - q
Integer
52. If the maximum load current in a full wave rectifier 55. A single phase half-wave rectifier supplies power to
is 70.7mA, then rms value of the load current will be a 1 K load. The input supply voltage is 200 Vrms.
....... mA The dc output voltage neglecting the forward
resistance of the diode is ...... V
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KEY WITH HINTS
1. 2 29. 4 increases
2. 3 30. 1 recombination
3. 2 31. 2 diffusion
4. 3
32. 4 ON switch
5. 1
33. 1 12 V
6. 4
7. 4 3
34. 3 Voltage drop even the diode 0.6 0 0.9 V
2
8. 1
9. 1 0.9
Forward resistance 0.4
2
10. 3
35. 2
11. 3
36. 1
12. 3
13. 1 37. 1
14. 1 38. 1
15. 2 39. 2 OR and AND gates
16. 2 40. 2
17. 3
41. 1
18. 1
42. 1
19. 4
43. 1 According to law of mass action, n i2 n e n h . In
20. 4
intrinsic semiconductors ni = ne = nh and_for
21. 1 P-type semiconductor ne would be less than ni,
since nh is necessarily more than ni.
22. 1
23. 1, 4 44. 1 The ratio of the velocity to the applied field is
called the mobility. Since electrons are lighter
24. 4 F will wave rectified than holes, they move faster in applied field
than holes.
25. 2 increases when reverse biased
26. 3 Diffusion of ........ 45. 2 Intrinsic Pentavalent N type
semiconductor impurity semiconductor
27. 2 Increase with temperature (Neutral) (Netural) (Neutral)
28. 1 Diode will not conduct so, V = 0 V 46. 1
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47. 3 The energy gap for germanium is less (0.72 Peak voltage at the ends of the load RL,
eV) than the energy gap of silicon (1.1 eV).
Therefore, silicon is preferred over germanium VL i 0 R L 37.8 10 3 500 18.9 eV
for making semiconductor devices.
For ideal diode, V B = 0 and RF = 0.
48. 4 We cannot measure the potential barrier of a
PN-junction by connnecting a senisitve V0 20
i0 0.04A 40mA
voltmeter across its terminals because in the R L 500
depletion region, there are no free electrons
and holes and in the absence of forward biasing, and VL i0 R L 0.04 500 20V
PN-junction offers infinite resistance.
49. 2 The energy gap between valence band and max . value 70
52. 50 rms value 50 mA
conduction band in germanium is 0.76 eV and 2 2
the enrgy gap between valence band and
conudction band in silicon is 1.1 eV. Also, it is 53. 5 Diode is not conducting. Current is zero.
true that thermal energy produces fewer So V 0 = 5 V
minority carriers in silicon than in germanium.
50. 1 54. 9 P.D. across 30 k 30 V
51. 1 Diode gets forwardly biased during positive P.D. across 3 k 30 V
half cycle of alternating source and current
flows. Let Let the barrier voltage of diode is 30
V B and its forward resistance is R F, load Current through 3k 10 mA
3
resistance is RL. Then peak voltage of applied
signal is 30
Current through 30 k 1mA
30
V0 VB i 0 R F R L
Current through zener = 10 – 1 = 9 mA
V0 VB 20 0.7
i0 37.8 103 A
R F R L 10 500 Vm 200 2
55. 90 Vdc 90
= 37.8mA
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CHAPTER - 15
EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS
1. Vernier calipers - It is used to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a vessel.
It is a device used to measure the length accurately. Vernier was designed by the French Mathematician
Pierre Vernier.
Vernier Constant or Least Count
It is the difference between value of one main scale division and one vernier scale division of vernier
callipers.
Vernier constant, VC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
n 1 1
Vernier constant, VC 1MSD MSD MSD , when n is the number of division on vernier
n n
which corresponds to n – 1 division on main scale.
Value of one main scale division
VC
Total number of divisions on vernier scale
Zero Error
If the zero of the vernier does not coincide with zero of the main scale there is zero error.
Positive zero error: Zero error is said to be positive if the zero of the vernier scale lies on the right of the
zero of the main scale.
Zero error is said to be negative if the zero of the vernier scale lies on the left of the main scale.
Zero correction is always algebraically added or substracted to the observed reading depending on the
sign of the zero error.
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Reading of Vernier Calipers
Total reading = MSR + VSR = N + n × (LC)
[N - MS Reading, n - VS reading]
2. Screw gauge : It is used is to determine thickness/diameter of thin sheet/wire
Screw gauge consists of a main scale and headscale and is measuring more accurately than vernier
calipers.
Pitch
Pitch is the linear distance moved by the screw during one complete rotation of the head.
Distance moved on linear scale
Pitch of the screw =
Number of rotations
Least Count
Pitch of the screw
Least count of the screw gauge =
Total number of divisions on the circular scale
Zero Error
When the two studs of the screw gauge are brought in contact and if the zero of the circular scale does
not coincide with the reference line then the screw gauge has an error called zero error.
Positive zero error : Zero error is said to be positive if the zero of the circular scale lies below the reference
line.
Negative zero error : Zero error is said to negative if the zero of the circular scale lies above the reference
line.
To determine the diameter of a wire.
Keep it in between the studs. Take the reading of the pitch scale and head scale. The pitch scale
reading is then added to the corrected head scale reading (multiplied with LC) which gives the diameter of
the wire (d).
d = P.S.R. + (corrected H.S.R. × L.C.)
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3. Simple pendulum - Dissipation of energy by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and
time
The restoring force acting on the simple pendulum at a displacement of x is
mg
Fs kx , k , m is the mass and L is the length of pendulum, k is the force constant.
L
1
The energy of simple pendulum E 0 kA 02
2
E0 is the energy of undamped (in vacuum) simple pendulum
The energy of simple pendulum is proportional to the square of amplitude, so dissipation of energy of
simple pendulum can be studied by measuring the amplitude of oscillations of simple pendulum with time.
The graph between the square of amplitude and time is as shown below.
Determination of value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum.
L L
For a simple pendulum, period T 2 g 42 2
g T
where L = equivalent length of the pendulum.
Graphical Method
4 2
T2 L So T 2 L
g
B
2
T
BP 4 2
Slope tan
AP g
A P
L
4. Metre scale - Mass of a given object by principle of moments
Principle of moments : if a beam is balanced, then the algebraic sum of the moments of forces about the
balancing point on the beam must be zero. i.e. in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to
the sum of the anticlockwise moments.
When the beam is balanced
y
mg x Mg y or m M
x
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5. Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of a metallic wire
Young’s modulus of the material of the given wire is given by
MgL
Y Nm 2
r x
2
L - original length and x - extension produced, M = Load, r- radius of wire.
Young’s modulus Y of the material of the given wire is determined by using Searle’s apparatus. The
labelled diagram of Searle’s apparatus is shown in the figure below.
The graph between extension and load is a straight line as shown below.
Maximum permissible error in Y due to error in measurement of M, L, r and x
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MgL
Y
r 2 x
If there is no tolerence in mass, maximum error in Y is
Y L 2r x
Y max L r x
6. Surface tension of water by capillary rise and effect of detergents
When a capillary tube of radius r is dipped in a liquid (water) of density , the liquid will rise in the
capillary tube upto a height h above the free surface of the liquid and the force of surface tension acts
tangentially to the meniscus of the liquid as shown in figure (a).
If the capillary tube is of very fine bore, its meniscus will be a hemisphere of radius r as shown in figure (b).
1
r h r g
Surface tension of the liquid is T 3 , for water cos 1
2 cos
r r
T h g
2 3
7. Coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity of a given
spherical body
Viscosity describes a fluids internal resistances to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction.
For a sphere of radius r falling through fluid of viscosity , it acquires a uniform terminal velocity v, the
viscous force is
F 6vr
2 r2
is the density of material of the sphere, is the density of the liquid g
9 v
Since , f , and g are constants.
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v
is a constant.
r2
variation of terminal velocity with (radius)2.
M
L
N
(r2)
MN
Slope
LN
2 g
9 slope
8. Specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid and (ii) liquid by method of mixtures
Law of Mixtures
By the method of mixtures the amount of heat energy lost by the hotter body is equal to the amount of
heat energy gained by colder body, provided (i) no heat is lost to the surroundings
The law of mixtures is also known as principle of calorimetry.
Principle of Calorimetry
On mixing of two substances at different temperatures, if no heat is lost to the surroundings, at the
equilibrium temperature, heat lost by hotter body is equal to heat gained by colder body
For body of mass m, having a specific heat s, the amount of heat gained or lost Q is given by
Q msT
where T is the rise or fall in the temperature of the body..
The Specific Heat of a Solid (Lead Shots)
When the solid and liquid are mixed
Heat lost by given solid (lead shots) = Heat gained by water and calorimeter
m3 m2 ss Ts t f m2 m1 W sw Tf Tw
ss
m 2 m1 W s w Tf Tw
m3 m 2 Ts Tf
where, m1 is mass of calorimeter, (m2 – m1) - mass of liquid, (m3 – m2) - mass of solid
Tw = Initial temperature of water in calorimeter
Ts = Temperature of solid
Tf = Final temperature of the mixture
m1s c
W = water equivalent
sw
sc = Specific heat of the material of calorimeter.
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The specific heat of a given liquid (kerosene or turpentine oil)
Heat lost by solid (metal piece) = Heat gained by liquid and calirmeter
m3 m2 ss Ts Tf m1sc Tf Tl m2 m1 s1 Tf Tl
sl
m3 m 2 ss Ts Tf m1sc Tf Tl
m 2 m1 Tf Tl
9. Speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube
A resonance tube apparatus consists of a long glass tube whose lower end is connected to a rubber
tube which in turn is connected to a reservoir R filled with water.
A tuning fork is set into vibrations and held over the glass tube. Stationary waves are formed in the air
column due to interference of reflected and incident waves. If l1, and l2 are the lengths of air column for the
first and second positions of resonances, then
l1 e
4
3
l2 e
4
where e is the end correction and the wavelength of the sound wave.
or 2 l2 l1
Also, v
v 2 l2 l1
Speed of sound at room temperature is given by v 2 l2 l1
where is frequency of a tuning fork.
10. Resistivity of the material of a given wire using metre bridge
In a metre bridge, which uses principle of wheatstones bridge P and Q are the ratio arms of fixed
resistance, R is variable resistance of known value and unknown resistance is X and balance point is
obtained at B on the metre bridge wire.
Let AB = l cm then BC = (100 – l) cm
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Resistance of AB P l
Resistance of BC Q 100 l
According to Wheatstone’s bridge principle
X
Q
R or X
100 l R
P l
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire is given by
r 2 x
L
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.
11. Resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law
V
By Ohm’s Law ie, V I or V = RI or R
I
where R is a resistance of the conductor.
The circuit diagram to determine the resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law.
The variation of current with P.D. is shown
The specific resistance of a material of the wire
RA r 2 V
.
L L I
Error analysis
V R V I
The error in computing the ratio R is given by
I R V I
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12. Resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half deflection method
The circuit diagram for finding the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method is as shown
in the figure below.
To find the resistance of the galvanometer
Put a high resistance from R. The key k1 is closed with k2 opened. Adjust the value of R so that the
deflection is maximum .
The current through the galvanometer
E
I ------ (1)
R G
Insert the key k2 also and without changing the value of R adjust the value of S, such that deflection in
the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value; .
2
The current through the galvanometer
E S
I1
GS G S 2
R G S
RS
G
R S
Figure of merit of a galvanometer : It is defined as the current required to produce a deflection of one
division in the scale of the galvanometer. It is generally denoted by symbol k.
The circuit diagram for the determination of the figure of merit of a galvanometer is as shown in the
figure.
The figure of merit, k R G
where is the emf of the cell and is the deflection produced with resistance R.
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13. Focal length of
(i) Concave mirror
(ii) Convex mirror
(iii) Convex lens
To Determine the Focal Length of a Concave Mirror
1 1 1 uv
According to mirror formula or f
f v u uv
For different value of u, corresponding v is determined.
u-v graph : The graph between the u (along negative X axis or X' axis) and v (along negative Y axis or Y'
axis) is a rectangular hyperbola as shown in the figure below.
OP OR OP OR
f f
2 2 4
1 1 1 1
and graph : The graph between (along negative X axis or X' axis) and (along negative Y axis or
u v u v
Y' axis) is a straight line as shown below.
The straight line cuts the two axes X' and Y' at an angle of 45o at points P and Q, respectively and
making equal intercepts of the axes.
1 1
f
OP OQ
2
f
OP OQ
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To Determine the Focal Length of a Convex Mirror using a Convex Lens
The ray diagram is as shown in the figure below.
To locate the position of C, convex mirror is removed (without disturbing the object needle O and
convex lens L). An image needle I is put behind the convex lens and moved to a position at which there is no
parallax between tip of inverted image of O needle and tip of I needle. Position of image needle I gives
position of centre of curvature C of mirror M.,
R PI
Then, PC = PI = R and f
2 2
To Determine the Focal Length of a Convex Lens
The ray diagram is as shown in the figure below.
1 1 1
f v u
According to new cartesian sign convention, u is negative and v is positive and f is positive for convex
lens.
u-v graph : The graph between u (along negative X axis or X’ axis) and v (along positive Y axis or Y’ axis)
is a rectangular hyperbola as shown in the figure below.
| OP | OR OP OR
Focal length of convex lens, f f
2 2 4
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[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
1 1 1 1
and graph : The graph between (along negative X axis or X' axis) and (along positive Y axis or
u v u v
Y' axis) is a straight line as shown in the figure below.
1 1 2
Focal length of the convex lens, f f
| OP | OQ OP OQ
14. Using parallax method, Plot of angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism
Refraction occurs when a ray of light travels from one medium to another and the emergent ray suffers
deviation. Refractive index of the prism is given
AD
sin
2
A
sin
2
A is the angle of prism and D is the angle of deviation
The graph between angle of deviation (D) and angle of incidence (i) is as shown in the figure below.
When deviation is minimum
A m
sin
2
sin A / 2
m is the angle of minimum deviation.
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15. Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope
Re al thickness of slab
Refractive index of a glass slab, or
Apparent thickness of slab
A compound microscope is used to measure real and apparent depth of the slab. The bottom of the
scale is viewed from above, it appears that the bottom of the slab is raised. The distance between the
apparent bottom of the slab and the top is the apparent thickness. Also by measuring the real thickness the
refractive index is calculated.
Real thickness = (R3 – R1)
Apparent thickness = (R3 - R2)
R 3 R1
Refractive index,
R3 R2
16. Characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias
Forward biasing : A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the positive terminal of the external battery is
connected to p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side of p-n junction.
Reverse bias : A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of the external battery is
connected to n-side and the negative terminal to p-side of the p-n junction,
The characteristic curve (I-V curve) of a p-n junction diode is as shown below.
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17. Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse breakdown voltage
It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown region and is used as a voltage regulator. The
symbol for Zener diode is shown in the figure below.
The constant output voltage of the above graph is the reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode.
18. Identification of Diode, LED, Resistor, a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
The diode and LED (light emitting diode) conduct when forward biased and do not conduct when
reverse biased. The LED when forward biased, not only conducts but emits light also, which helps to
distinguish between junction diode and LED.
Connect the two probes of the multimeter to the two end terminals of the diode and note whether the
resistance is low or high. Then interchange the two probes and again note the resistance whether it is high
or low. If the resistance of the diode is high in the first case, it will be low in the second case or vice versa. It
shows the unidirectional flow of current in diode.
For LED : Repeat the above process for LED. The LED glows by emitting light, when its resistance is
low. This shows unidirectional flow of current through an LED.
Checking Whether Diode, Transistor is in Working Order
A diode will conduct only in one direction i.e., first connect the ends of diode to the two metal ends of the
probes and reverse the connecting points. If it conducts in one case, then diode is in working order. If it
conducts in both cases or does not conduct in both cases, then it is damaged.
A resistor is a two terminal device. It conduct both with d.c. voltage and a.c. voltage. Further, a resistor
conducts equally even when terminals of d.c. battery are reversed.
A capacitor is a two terminal device which does not conduct with d.c. voltage applied either way. But
conducts with a.c. voltage.
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Procedure
1. The component having two legs may either be a junction diode or capacitor or resistor or a light emitting
diode. These items can be distinguished from each other by using a multimeter.
2. Touch the probles to the two ends of each item and observe the deflection on the resistance scale. After
this, interchange the two probes and again observe the deflection.
3. a) If the same constant deflection is observed in the two cases (before and after interchanging the
probes) the item under observation is a resistor.
b) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases, it is a junction diode.
c) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases along with emission of light in the case when
deflection is large, the item under observation is a light emitting diode (LED).
d) On touching the probes, if large deflection is observed, which then gradually decreases to zero, the
item under observation is a capacitor.
In case of capacity of the capacitor is of the order of picofarad, then the deflection will become zero
within no time.
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QUESTIONS
1. The vernier scale of vernier callipers has 10 divisions. 6. Backlash error corresponds to
One centimere on the main scale is divided into ten 1) Change in circular scale reading without change
equal parts. If 10 divisions of the vernier scale in length between screw and stud
coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale, the
least count of the callipers is 2) Change in circular scale reading when second time
same measurement is taken
1) 0.01 cm 2) 0.02 cm 3) 0.05 cm 4) 0.005 cm 3) Change in main scale reading without moving
2. The length of the string of a simple pendulum is screw head
measured with a metre scale to be 63.5 cm, the radius 4) All of these
of the bob plus the hook is measured with the help of 7. The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are
vernier caliper to be 1.55 cm. Select the incorrect 100 divisions on its circular scale. During the process
statement. of finding the zero error, a student finds that the zero
1) Least count of meter scale is 0.1 cm of the circular scale lies 4 divisions below the
reference line. When an experimental steel wire is
2) Least count of vernier caliper is 0.01 cm placed between the studs, two main scale divisions
3) Effective length of pendulum is 65.1 cm are clearly visible and 57 divisions on the circular
scale are observed. The diameter of the wire is
4) Effective length of pendulum is 65.2 cm
1) 2.53 mm2) 2.61 mm 3) 2.57 mm 4) 2.63 mm
3. The vernier constant of two vernier calipers P and Q 8. The incorrect statement is
are 0.01 cm and 0.01 mm respectively. Which one
can measure the length of an object more accurately? 1) The least count of screw gauge depends only on
the number of circular scale divisions
1) Both P and Q are equally accurate
2) In a positive zero error, the zero of circular scale
2) Vernier P lies below the reference line
3) Vernier Q 3) In a positive zero error, the zero of the main scale
4) Accuracy in measurement does not depend on is visible
vernier constant 4) The screw gauge with a pitch of 0.5 mm is more
4. In a vernier callipers smallest division of main scale precise than the instruments with a pitch of 1 mm
is 1 mm. Vernier scale has 20 divisions which coincide if both have the same number of circular divisions
with 19 divisions of main scale. When fixed jaw 9. The screw gauge has least count of 0.005 mm and
touches a movable jaw, zero of vernier scale lies on its circular scale is divided into 100 equal divisions.
right of zero of the main scale and 12th division of What is the distance between two consecutive
vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale. threads of its screw?
Type of zero error and its value is
1) 0.5 mm 2) 0.05 mm 3) 0.01 mm 4) 0.1 mm
1) + ve, 0.60 mm 2) – ve, 0.60 mm 10. A pendulum bob is filled with mercury and has small
3) + ve, 0.6 mm 4) – ve, 0.6 mm hole at bottom. It starts oscillating and the hole open
5. Each division on the main scale is 1 mm. Out of the up so that mercury slowly drains out. During this
following which of the vernier scales will give vernier draining out of mercury, the time period of vibrations
constant equal to 0.01 mm? will
1) Remain constant
1) 90 mm divided into 100 divisions
2) Go on increasing
2) 9 mm divided into 10 divisions
3) Go on decreasing
3) 99 mm divided into 100 divisions
4) First increase and then decrease to regain original
4) None of these time period
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11. Three students S1, S2 and S3 perform an experiment 15. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is
for determining the acceleration due to gravity (g)
L
using a simple pendulum. They use different lengths T 2 . Measured value of ‘L’ is 1.0 m from
of pendulum and record time for different number of g
oscillations. The observations are as shown in the meter scale having a minimum division of 1 mm and
table. time of one complete oscillation is 1.95 s measured
from stopwatch of 0.01 s resolution. The percentage
Length of No. of
Student pendulum oscillations Total time for Time error in the determination of ‘g’ will be
No. (cm) (n) n oscillations period (s)
1) 1.13% 2) 1.03% 3) 1.33% 4) 1.30%
1 64.0 8 128.0 16.0
2 64.0 4 64.0 16.0 16. The diagram given below shows a uniform 0.5 m
3 20.0 4 36.0 9.0 scale, balanced horizontally across a knife edge. What
(Least count of length = 0.1 m, Least count for time is : (i) The mass of the scale ? (ii) The force on the
= 0.1 s) knife edge?
If E1, E2 and E3 are the percentage errors in ‘g’ for
students 1, 2 and 3 respectively, then the minimum
percentage error is obtained by
1) Student-1 2) Student-2
3) Student-3 4) Student-4
12. A student balances two boxes of unknown weights
at two marks x1 and x2 on a metre scale hinged at
some point. He goes to moon and repeats his 1) 45 g, 75 gf 2) 30 g, 60 gf
experiment and tries to balance metre scale. He will
3) 80 g, 110 gf 4) 65 g, 95 gf
balance metre scale at a
17. A meter scale is placed on a sharp wedge centrally.
1) Same point
A 100 g mass is suspended at one end and unknown
2) Point more close to heavy weight mass at 20 cm in balanced condition of scale.
3) Point more close to lighter weight Unknown mass is
4) Balancing point will depend on size of boxes 1) 100 g 2) 250 g 3) 120 g 4) 80 g
13. In a seesaw, two children of masses 30 and 50 kg 18. The following graph shows the variation of extension
are sitting on one side of it at a distance 2 m and of a wire of length 1 m suspended from the ceiling
2.5m, respectively, from its middle. Where should a of room at one end a load W (in newton) connected
man of mass 74 kg sit to balance it? to free end of wire. If cross-sectional area of the
1) 2.5 m from centre on the opposite as the children wire is 10–6 m2, then Young’s modules of the material
2) 2.5 m from centre on the same side as the children of the wire is
3) 1.5 m from the centre of the opposite side
4) 1.5 m from the centre on the same side
14. Which of the following statements is not true?
1) Time period of simple pendulum increases in an
accelerating train
2) Time period of simple pendulum decreases in a
retarding train
3) Time period of simple pendulum decreases as we
go deep into a well
1) 2 1011 N / m 2 2) 2 1011 N / m 2
4) Time period of simple pendulum increases as we
go to the Mount Everest 3) 5 1012 N / m 2 4) 5 1012 N / m 2
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19. Hook’s law is applied to calculate the extension 24. The stress -strain graph for wires of two materials A
produced by load suspended. The load suspended on and B are as shown below.
the experimental wire in Young’s modulus experiment
can have
1) Any value
2) Should not exceed breaking load
1
3) Should not exceed of breaking load
2
4) Should not exceed elastic limit
20. In order to determine the Young’s Modulus of a wire
of radius 0.2 cm (measured using a scale of least If YA and YB are Young’s Modulus of the materials
count = 0.001 cm) and length 1 m (measured using a of wires A and B respectively, then:
scale of least count = 1 mm), a weight of mass 1 kg
(measured using a scale of least count = 1 g) was 1) YA = 3 YB 2) YA 3YB
hanged to get the elongation of 0.5 cm (measured
using a scale of least count 0.001 cm). What will be 3) YB 3YA 4) YB 2YA
the fractional error in the value of Young’s Modulus
determined by this experiment? 25. In a surface tension experiment with a capillary tube,
water rises to a height of 10 cm. If the same
1) 0.14 % 2) 0.9% experiment is repeated in an artificial satellite, which
3) 9% 4) 1.4% is revolving around the earth, water will rise in the
capillary tube up to a height of
21. Which of the following statements is wrong?
1) Friction does not depend on velocity of body but 1) 10 cm
viscosity depends 2) 20 cm
2) Friction does not depend on area of contacting
3) Full length of capillary tube
surfaces but viscosity depends
3) Friction is zero if there is no contact between 4) Zero
surfaces but viscosity is present
26. The graph between terminal velocity (along y-axis)
4) Friction is tangential to surfaces in contact but and square of radius (along x-axis) of spherical body
viscosity is perpendicular to surface of density allowed to fall through a fluid of density
22. If 1 and 2 are lengths of resonance tube measured is a :
under first and second resonance, and x be the value 1) Straight line with positive slope
of end correction then
2) Straight line with negative slope
1) x 31 2) x 2 2 3 1
3) Straight line perpendicular to x-axis
2 31 3 4) Straight line perpendicular to y-axis
3) x 4) x 2 1
2 2 27. Speed of sound at toC be Vt and speed of sound at
23. When x g of steam is mixed with y g of ice at 0oC, 0oC is V0 then
we obtain (x + y) g of water at 100oC. What is the
ratio of y/x? 273 273
1) V0 Vt 2) Vt V0
273 t 273 t
1) 1 2) 2
3) 3 4) 4 3) Vt V0 0.61t 4) None of these
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28. In the metre bridge the observations are taken by 32. In an experiment, a student finds that the image of a
interchanging the RB and the unknown resistance candle flame produced by a spherical mirror is
so that appearing to come out of a bunson burner half the
the size of the flame. The mirror used by student is
1) The current flows in the opposite direction in the
unknown resistance 1) Convex
2) The error of temperature effect can be removed 2) Concave
3) The error due to different cross-sectional area 3) Either convex or concave
can be removed 4) Nature of mirror can not be known by above
4) The error due to resistance of copper strips can statement
be removed 33. A concave mirror has a focal length 20 cm. The
29. To get the most accurate value of resistance in the distance between the two positions of the object for
given circuit, which combination of ammeter and which the image size is double of the object size is
voltmeter will you prefer? 1) 20 cm 2) 40 cm 3) 30 cm 4) 60 cm
34. Liquid A and B are at 30 oC and 20 oC. When mixed
in equal masses, the temperature of the mixture is
found to be 26 oC. Their specific heats are in the
ratio of
1) 3 : 2 2) 1 : 1 3) 2 : 3 4) 4 : 3
35. The metre bridge is most sensitive when the order of
1) P Q R X 2) P Q R X
3) P = R, Q = X 4) P Q R X
1) A voltmeter and an ammeter both of maximum 36. What is the best characteristic you will select for
resistances wire of meter bridge to be made by you?
2) A voltmeter of maximum resistance and ammeter 1) A wire of uniform thickness made of alloy which
of minimum resistance has low temperature coefficient and high
3) A voltmeter of minimum resistance and ammeter resistivity
of maximum resistance 2) A wire of uniform thickness made of alloy which
4) A voltmeter and an ammeter both of minimum has low temperature coefficient and low resistivity
resistance 3) A wire of metal having low resistivity, low
30. A moving coil galvanometer becomes dead beat temperature coefficient
galvanometer by 4) Any wire of any metal can be used
1) Winding coil galvanometer on non-magnetic 37. The current passing through a galvanometer is 50 A.
metallic frame The pointer of galvanometer shows reading at tenth
2) Winding its coil on plastic frame division. The figure of merit is
3) Winding its coil on ferromagnetic frame 1) 6 A div–1 2) 5 A div–1
4) Winding coil on any of above three frame 3) 15 A div–1 4) 500 A div–1
31. A student introduces shunt resistance S in parallel to 38. When both convex mirror and convex lens dipped in
water, then the focal length of convex mirror and
galvanometer of resistance of 50 and finds that convex lens
1) Remains same and decreases
deflection is reduced to of previous deflection .
5 2) Increases and decreases
The value of shunt resistance introduced will be
3) Remains same and increases
1) 10 2) 12.5 3) 15 4) 7.5 4) None of these
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39. The angle of incidence for an equilateral prism is 45. To draw the characteristic curve of a zener diode
60o, what should be the refractive index of prism so and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage, a
that the ray is parallel to the base inside the prism? student ensures himself that zener diode should be
reverse biased. He must connect
4 9
1) 2 2) 3 3) 4) 1) p-side to negative terminal of the battery,
3 8
microammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel
40. A microscope is focussed on a mark on a piece of to zener diode
paper and then a slab of glass of thickness 3 cm and
2) p-side to positive terminal of the battery, ammeter
refractive index 1.5 is placed over the mark. How
in series and voltmeter in parallel to zener diode
should the microscope be moved to get the mark again
in focus: 3) p-side to negative terminal of the battery,
1) 2 cm upwards 2) 1 cm upwards microammeter in parallel and voltmeter in series
to zener diode
3) 4.5 cm upwards 4) 6 cm downward
4) p-side to negative terminal of the battery, ammeter
41. In the given figure when input voltage increases and millivoltmer both in paralllel to zener diode
Numerical
46. A meter bridge with resistance R1 and R2 connected
in the two gaps is balanced at 0.4m from the zero
end. If the smaller resistance is connected in series
with a 10 resistor the balance point is shifted to
0.4m from the other end. The value of the smaller
resistance in is
1) The current through RS, RL and zener increases 47. The main scale of a vernier calipers is divided into
half millimeter and its least count is to be 0.005 cm,
2) The current through RS increases, zener increases
the number of vernier division is
but through RL remains constant
3) The current through RS increases, through zener 48. A student records the values of first resonance length
remains constant but RL increases as 16.2 cm and second resonance length as 50.8 cm.
4) The current through RS increases, through zener The wavelength (in mm) of the stationary longitudinal
remains constant but RL increases waves in air is
42. For a prism of refractive index 3 , the angle of the 49. In the experiment of Ohm’s law, a potential difference
prism is equal to the angle of minimum deviation. of 5.0 V is applied across the ends of a conductor of
The value of the angle of the prism is length 10.0 cm and diameter of 5.00 mm. The
measured current in the conductor is 2.00 A. The
1) 45o 2) 30o 3) 60o 4) 50o fractional error in the resistivity of the conductor is
43. A prism has refractive index n × 10–3. The value of n is
2 and angle of prism
60o. The angle of minimum deviation m is 50. A student is finding focal length of convex mirror by
using a convex lens. He fixes the positions of object
1) 45o 2) 60o 3) 90o 4) 30o
needle at 30 cm, convex lens at 60 cm and convex
44. A p-n junction is reverse biased, then mirror on an optical bench at 80 cm mark. He
1) Movement of electrons and holes through the removes the parallax between object needle and its
junction stops image. If convex lens has focal length 20 cm then
2) Width of depletion layer decreases the focal length (in cm) of convex mirror used by
him is
3) Majority carriers move away from the junction
4) Minority carriers move away from the junction
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KEY WITH HINTS
1cm 42
1. 2 Main scale division (S) 0.1cm 11. 1 T 2 g 2 ;
10 g T
Given 10 V = 8 S g 2T
8 8 2S g T
V S; L.C. S V S S
10 10 10
least count of Time T0
T
2
0.1cm 0.02cm number of oscillations (n) ;
10
g 2T0
2. 3 From measurements least count of meter scale
g nT
is 0.1 cm and least count of vernier calliper is
0.10 cm. Effective length of simple pendulum = As and T0 are same for all observations
63.5 + 1.55 = 65.15 = 65.2 cm
g
3. 3 so g is minimum for highest value of , n and T
4. 1 S = 1 mm and given 20 V = 19 S
Minimum percentage error in g is for student
19 number-1
V S
20 12. 1
19 S 13. 1 30 2 50 2.5 74 x ;
L.C. S V S S 0.05mm
20 20
60 125 185
Zero error = (+ve) [0 + 12 × 0.05 mm] x 2.5 m
74 74
= (+ve) 0.60 mm
14. 1
5. 3
6. 1
1mm
15. 1 T 2
7. 1 L.C. 0.01 mm g
100
Zero error = 0 + 4 × 0.01 mm = + 0.04 mm
4 2
observed diameter g
T2
= 2 mm + 57 × 0.01 mm = 2.57 mm
g 2T
Actual diameter
g T
= 2.57 mm – 0.04 mm = 2.53 mm
8. 1 g 1 103 0.01
2
9. 1 Pitch = L.C. × No. of divisions on circular scale g 1 1.95
= 0.005 mm × 100 = 0.5 mm
g
10. 4 0.0113 or 1.13%
g
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16. 1 30 103 g 15 102 10 102 W 23. 3. xL v yLf y 1 100 0 ;
x 540 y 80 100y ;
3
w 45 10 kg
y 540 3
mass of the scale = 45 g x 180 1
the force on the knife edge 24. 3
= 30 gf + 45 gf = 75 gf 25. 3
26. 1
27. 1
28. 4
29. 2
30. 3
31. 2 Ist case
17. 2 (100 g) (50 cm) = m(20 cm)
m = 250 g
I k
FL 80 1 IInd case
18. 2 Y 6 2 1011 Nm 2
A 10 0.4 10 3
19. 4
Stress FL mgL
20. 4 Y ;
Strain A R 2
for parallel arrangement
Y m L R
2. 4I 1
Y m L R S G
5 5
Y 1 1 0.001 0.001
100 100 2 G 50
Y 1000 1000 0.2 0.5 S 12.5
4 4
1 1 1 14 32. 3
1 1.4%
10 10 5 10 v f
33. 1 m ,
21. 4 u u f
20
in first case : m 2 u 20
22. 3 1 e
4 1
u1 20 10 u1 30cm
3
2 e In second case :
4
20
31 2 u 2 20 10 u 2 10cm
Solving e 2 u 2 20
2
293
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
distance between the two positions
A
3 2 cos ;
u 2 u1 10 30 20cm 2
34. 1 ms1 1 0 ms 2 0 2 ;
3 A A
cos 30 ;
s1 0 2 26 20 6 3 2 2 2
s 2 1 0 30 26 4 2 A 60o
35. 2 The metre bridge circuit will be very sensitive
when all four resistors have almost the same A m
sin
resistance values or all the resistances are of the 43. 4 Use n 2
same order. A
sin
2
36. 1
37. 2
sin
60 m
38. 3 2 m 30
2
39. 2 In figure, if refracted ray is parallel to the base sin 30
then r 90o 60o 30o 44. 3
sin i sin 60o 3/2 45. 1
n 3
sin r sin 30o 1/ 2
46. 12
R 0.4 4 2
Given R 1 0.4 6 3
1
3R 1 2R 2 ----- (1)
This shown R1 < R2 , therefore
1 1
40. 2 Shift d 1 3 1 1 cm R1 10 1 0.4 0.6 3
1.5
R2 0.4 0.4 2 ;
41. 2
2R 1 20 3R 2
42. 3 Given n 3 and A m
From equation (1)
A m AA
sin sin
n 2 2 3R
2R1 20 3 1
A A ; 2
sin sin
2 2
4R 1 40 9R 1 ;
A A
2sin cos 40 5R 1 R 1 8 and R 2 12
sin A 2 2
n
A A
sin sin 47. 1
2 2
294
[LT 2025- Class XII - Study Package - Physics]
48. 692 50. 20
For the lens u = – 30 cm, f = 20 m
x 16.2 ------ (1)
4 from lens formula
3
x 50.8 --------- (2)
4
eq. (2) - (1)
3
50.8 16.2 ;
4 4
2
34.6 69.2cm = 692 mm
4
49. 39
1 1 1 1 1 1
V ; ;
R ; v u f v 30 20
A I
AV d 2 V d 2 1 1 1 3 2 1
A ; ; v 60cm
I 4I 4 v 20 30 60 60
2d V Now from figure for convex mirror
d V R = 60 cm – 20 cm = 40 cm
0.01 0.1 0.01 0.1 focal length of the mirror
2
5.00 5.0 2.00 10.0
= 0.004 + 0.02 + 0.005 + 0.01 = 0.039 R 40
f cm 20cm
= 39 × 10–3 2 2
295
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