Transistor as an Amplifier

A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias
voltage applied to the emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased
condition. This forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The
below figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an
appreciable change in the output. The emitter current caused by the input signal
contributes the collector current, which when flows through the load resistor RL,
results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large
output voltage, which shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.
Performance of Amplifier
As the common emitter mode of connection is mostly adopted, let us first understand
a few important terms with reference to this mode of connection.

Input Resistance
As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will be low. The input
resistance is the opposition offered by the base-emitter junction to the signal flow.

By definition, it is the ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the

resulting change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage.

Input resistance, Ri=ΔVBE/ΔIB

Where Ri = input resistance, VBE = base-emitter voltage, and IB = base current.

Output Resistance
The output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The collector current
changes very slightly with the change in collector-emitter voltage.

By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the

resulting change in collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current.

Output resistance = Ro=ΔVCE/ΔIC

Where Ro = Output resistance, VCE = Collector-emitter voltage, and IC = Collector-

emitter voltage.
Effective Collector Load
The load is connected at the collector of a transistor and for a single-stage amplifier,
the output voltage is taken from the collector of the transistor and for a multi-stage
amplifier, the same is collected from a cascaded stages of transistor circuit.

By definition, it is the total load as seen by the a.c. collector current. In case of single
stage amplifiers, the effective collector load is a parallel combination of RC and Ro.

Effective Collector Load, RAC=RC//Ro

=RC×RoRC+Ro=RAC

Hence for a single stage amplifier, effective load is equal to collector load RC.

In a multi-stage amplifier (i.e. having more than one amplification stage), the input
resistance Ri of the next stage also comes into picture.

Effective collector load becomes parallel combination of RC, Ro and Ri i.e,

Effective Collector Load, RAC=RC//Ro//Ri

RC//Ri=RCRi/(RC+Ri)

As input resistance Ri is quite small, therefore effective load is reduced.

Current Gain
The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output currents are
observed, is called as Current gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector
current (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB).

Current gain, β=ΔIC/ΔIB

The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current
becomes β times in the collector current.

Voltage Gain
Power Gain

MOSFET

MOSFET is a very popular kind of IG-FET. The full form of MOSFET is the Metal
Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. The diagram of MOSFET is given
below.

In these kinds of devices, the gate terminal is separated from the channel using the
insulating layer. This insulating layer is formed from the oxide layer of the
semiconductor. The insulating layer of MOSFET is formed from SiO2.

What is MOSFET?
Now MOSFET is also classified into two types:-

1. Depletion type

2. Enhancement type

When we provide external voltage in the channel, it can either increase or decrease
the amount of charge carriers in the channel. If the number of charge carriers
increases, it is known as enhancement type MOSFET. But if the number of charge
carriers decrease then it is known as depletion type MOSFET.

MOSFET Types
Now these enhancement type and depletion type MOSFET is further classified into p-
channel and n-channel MOSFET.
Types of MOSFET

Enhancement Type MOSFET

 In this type of MOSFET, no channel is present from the beginning and hence
no current flows.
 But when the +ve voltage more than the threshold voltage is applied, it leads
to an enhancement of a channel between the drain and source due to the gate
voltage and thus it results in the conductivity of device.
 They are mostly used in digital applications.

Depletion Type MOSFET

 In this type of MOSFET, channel is present from the beginning which means
conduction of current is there.
 -ve voltage is applied to reduce the flow of current and this reduces the width
of the channel.
 Not used commonly in devices.

Working Principle of MOSFET

MOSFET is a type of transistor in which conductivity depends upon the
semiconductor channel across the drain and source terminal. This semiconductor
channel may be p-channel or n-channel depending upon the configuration of the
MOSFET.
A MOSFET consists of three terminals- drain, source and gate. By applying
some voltage across gate and source, there forms a inversion layer or a channel
between the drain and source if the voltage applied is threshold voltage. (Threshold
voltage is the minimum required voltage for the conduction of current) . If the applied
voltage is less than the threshold voltage, no channel is formed. Hence current cannot
flow in the MOSFET. This situation is called as Cutoff region (OFF).
And after a certain level of voltage, the current becomes constant in the MOSFET.
This condition is called as saturation point. MOSFET is a voltage controlled device so
the thickness of channel and the amount of current depends upon the voltage applied
across gate and source. If more voltage applied, width of channel increases and more
amount of current able to flow through the device.
MOSFET Construction
MOSFET is a transistor which is used as switch or amplifier and in many other
applications. The basic construction of MOSFET can be explained as below:-
 Substrate : MOSFET is constructed on a silicon wafer that is it acts as a base
of the device.
 SiO2 : A thin layer of insulating material is formed with SiO2 for the
exchange of electrons and holes.
 Gate Terminal : A gate terminal is formed on the insulating layer. This
controls the flow of current between the drain and source with the help of gate
voltage.
 Source and drain terminals : These are created on the either side of the gate.
These are basically doped regions.
 Channel : Region between the gate, drain and source is known as channel
which controls the flow of charge among them.

Construction
In the above figure, gate ,source and drain are he three terminals. Below are the two
channels and body terminal.

Characteristics of MOSFET
MOSFETs have majorly two characteristics:-
1. Drain characteristics
2. Transfer characteristics

Enhancement Type MOSFET

1. Drain characteristics of Enhancement Type MOSFET

Characteristics between output current and output voltage. O/P i -> ID, O/P v -> VDS ,
control variable = VGS. Here we will plot a graph between ID and VDS for various
levels of VGS.
Case 1: VGS1 > VT

(Here VT is the threshold voltage)

Veff = VGS1 - VT
 will directly affect the width of the n-channel
 significant amount of drain current will flow through it.
When VDS is increased to a certain level, drain current becomes constant. This is
called pinch-off condition.
VDS + VGD - VGS = 0
VGD = VGS - VDS
VGD = VT , pinch off voltage

Case 2: VGS1 > VGS2

conductivity of 1 > conductivity of 2

R2> R1
slope of 2 < slope of 1
Now there are few regions in this graph:-
1. Saturation region : Region in which drain current is constant.
2. Triode region : Left area of locus of VDS saturation.
3. Cut-off region : When it can't achieve the threshold voltage, MOSFET
remains OFF. Current is 0 amp.

With increasing voltage, current flowing through the terminals increases with voltage.
You can see this in the graph. VGS more than the threshold voltage is the condition of
flowing current.

2. Transfer Characteristics of Enhancement Type MOSFET

Characteristics between output current and input voltage.

V = VT (Threshold Voltage)
 When the value of voltage across gate and source is less than the threshold
voltage

Working of N-channel Enhancement Type MOSFET

In such kind of MOSFET, we have to make gate terminal more +ve, hence +ve
charges will accumulate in the gate and will attract -ve charges in the
body. Electrons will be drifted towards the surface and the region near the surface
will become less p type. +ve charges are pushed down. So above region will become
n type and thus a channel is formed.
If we will increase the voltage between gate and source, then the width of channel will
increase. And if the voltage is more than a particular voltage, the channel width is
sufficient to allow flow of current. And this particular voltage is called Threshold
voltage. And the resultant current is known as drain current.

N-channel enhancement type

Working of P-channel Enhancement Type MOSFET

A p-channel enhancement type MOSFET is a type of MOSFET which works by
applying +ve voltage to the device. It operates according to the voltage applied to the
gate terminal. Hence flow of current occurs between drain and source. Step by step
explanation:-
 It has mainly three terminals, source, drain and gate. It forms on a
semiconductor substrate.
 MOSFET has a thin insulating layer of oxide in it to separate it from the
semiconductor. The source and drain terminals are made with p type
semiconductor and so is the enhanced channel.
 In a p channel MOSFET, majority charge carriers are the holes.
 It is generally OFF when no voltage is applied. On applying voltage, it creates
an electric field in the oxide layer and hence a channel is formed by the movement
of holes.
 Then current starts flowing in the channel between drain and source.
 Substrate/body terminal is made up of n type semiconductor.
 Current in the channel can be controlled by gate voltage.

P channel enhancement type

Working of N- channel Depletion Type MOSFET

 In this type of MOSFET, three terminals are present- drain, source and gate.
 Same as other MOSFETs, it also contains a thin insulating layer made up of
gate oxide to avoid direct contact with the metal.
 Here, channel is present from the beginning. By applying a +ve voltage it
creates a depletion region reducing the charge carriers and results in decrement of
current.
 MOSFET is generally ON.
 Drain and source terminal is made up of n-type semiconductor.

N channel depletion type

Working of P- channel Depletion Type MOSFET
Like any other MOSFETs, this is also made with three main channels- drain, source
and gate. Step by step explanation:-
 Similar to other MOSFETs, there are mainly three terminals- gate, source and
drain.
 The current between drain and source is controlled by the gate voltage but
there is a difference. Channel is present from the beginning when no voltage is
applied.
 Source and drain terminals are made with p type semiconductor and so is the
channel. Majority charge carriers are the holes.
 Applying a -ve voltage, the channel depletes and hence he width of the
channel decreases and hence the resistance increases decreasing the amount of
current flowing.
 It is a voltage controlled resistor.

P channel depletion type

Symbols

n-channel E-type
Symbol of n-channel enhancement type.
 p-channel E-type

Symbol of p-channel enhancement type.

Depletion Type MOSFET

Drain characteristics : ID V/S VDS for various VGS.

Drain characteristics

Transfer Characteristics : ID V/S VGS for fixed VDS.

Transfer characteristics
Symbols
 N-channel D-type

Symbol of n-channel depletion type.

P-channel D-type
Symbol of p-channel depletion type.

Difference Between Enhancement Type and Depletion Type MOSFET

Enhancement Type MOSFET Depletion Type MOSFET

1. By applying external voltage in the 1. By applying external voltage in the

channel, if the amount of charge carriers channel, if the amount of charge carriers
increases, it is known as enhancement decreases, it is known as depletion type
type MOSFET. MOSFET.

2. No channel is present in the 2. Channel is present from the

 Enhancement Type MOSFET Depletion Type MOSFET

beginning. beginning.

3. There is a threshold voltage. 3. There is no such threshold voltage.

4. It does not produce current in the 4. It can produce current without any
absence of VGS. gate voltage.

Uses of MOSFET
 Used in digital logic circuits.
 It is used as Amplifiers
 They are used in Integrated circuits due to small size.
 It is also used in Microprocessors
 Used in Power electronics

Operating Regions of MOSFET

1. Cutoff Region: In this region of MOSFET, no current flows as the voltage
applied in the MOSFET is less than the threshold voltage resulting in the failure of
formation of oxide layer. State is OFF.
2. Saturation Region: In this region of MOSFET, a constant amount of current
flows between the drain and source because of the threshold voltage. State of
MOSFET is ON in this case.
3. Triode Region: It is known as partially conducting state. It is not fully turned
on but there is a channel for current flow. Voltage here is moderate.

Switching characteristics for both N channel and P channel MOSFET in tabular

form
MOSFET VGS < 0 VGS = 0 VGS > 0

1. P-channel
ON OFF OFF
enhancement type

2. N-channel
OFF OFF ON
enhancement type

3. P-channel
ON ON OFF
depletion type

3. N-channel
OFF ON ON
depletion type
 Applications of MOSFET
 Amplifiers: MOSFETs are used as an amplifiers in order to amplify
weak signals.
 Switching power supplies: They are used as switches because they can alter
power supply efficiently.
 Digital logic gates: They are used to build logic gates such as NAND, NOR
etc.
 Voltage regulators: They are used as voltage regulators because they can
control the amount of voltage.
 Memory devices: They are used in memory cells.

Advantages of MOSFET
 High Switching Speed : It can change its state rapidly from ON and OFF
position.
 Low Power Consumption : Useful for battery operated devices.
 High input impedance : They use minimum input current.
 Low noise : They produce low noise and do not cause much disturbance.
Disadvantages of MOSFET
 Breakdown: MOSFETS have a very thin layer of gate oxide so on applying
high voltage it can cause to breakdown of entire device.
 Temperature: Some functions of MOSFET are altered because of varying
temperatures.
 Voltage capacity: They have a limited voltage capacity.
 Expensive: Complex manufacturing of MOSFETS can lead to high cost of
overall electronic device.

IGBT

IGBT, or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, represents a significant advancement in

power electronics and a bipolar transistor with an insulated gate terminal. It is a type
of power transistor that integrates an input MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) with
an output bipolar transistor. It is a three-terminal power semiconductor device that
forms an electronic switch. It is commonly employed as a switching device in
inverter circuits, facilitating the conversion of DC (Direct Current) to AC
(Alternating Current) power.
It combines the advantages of both MOSFET and BJT technologies and something
comes good out of these two devices. MOSFETs are known for their high-speed
switching capability and high input impedance, while BJT offers high current gain
and low saturation voltage. The structure of an IGBT typically consists of a
MOSFET-like gate, which controls the flow of current between the collector and
emitter, and a BJT-like structure for amplifying the current.
This combination allows IGBT to handle high voltage and current levels while
maintaining efficient switching. The symbol of an IGBT reflects its dual nature,
with elements resembling both MOSFET and BJT symbols. It's important to note
that IGBT has largely replaced power BJT in many high-power applications due to
its superior performance characteristics. IGBT offers the best of both the MOSFET
and BJT worlds, making them a crucial component in various power electronic
applications. Their ability to switch high currents efficiently while maintaining fast
switching times has made them essential in modern electronics.

IGBT Symbol

Pin Diagram of
IGBT

Construction of IGBT
The IGBT combines the input characteristics of a MOSFET with the output
characteristics of a BJT, resembling the structure of an N-channel MOSFET and a
PNP BJT in Darlington configuration. Additionally, the resistance of the drift region
can be integrated. In terms of the IGBT's structure, there are multiple current paths.
The primary path is from the collector to the emitter, involving the sequence:
"collector, P+ substrate, N-, P, emitter," which aligns with the PNP
transistor equivalent. There's also a secondary path: "collector, P+ substrate, N-, P,
N+, emitter," which necessitates the inclusion of another NPN transistor, as
illustrated in the figure below.
The IGBT consists of four semiconductor layers arranged to create a PNPN
structure. The collector (C) electrode connects to the P layer, while the emitter (E) is
positioned between the P and N layers. Construction employs a P+ substrate, with
an N- layer atop it is forming PN junction J1. Two P regions are crafted on the N-
layer, creating PN junction J2. The gate (G) electrode is positioned within a gap in
the middle of the P region. Metal electrodes serve as the emitter and gate, with the
emitter directly connected to the N+ region and the gate insulated by a silicon
dioxide layer. The P+ layer, referred to as the injector layer, injects holes into the N-
layer, while the N- layer itself is called the drift region, with its thickness
proportional to voltage-blocking capacity.
The upper P layer is known as the body of the IGBT. The N- layer is designed to
establish a current path between the emitter and collector, utilizing a channel formed
beneath the influence of the voltage applied to the gate electrode. The N- layer is
strategically designed to provide a path for the current to flow between the emitter
and collector. This current path is influenced and controlled by the voltage applied
to the gate electrode. By varying this voltage, the IGBT can regulate the flow of
current through the device, making it an essential component in various power
electronics applications.
Construction of IGBT

Working of IGBT
IGBT has three terminals collector (C), emitter (E) and gate (G). These terminals
serve distinct roles in controlling current flow through the device, collector and
emitter are related to the conductance path whereas the gate terminal is responsible
for the controlling of the device and IGBT Operation. In the operation of an IGBT,
the collector-emitter connection is established with the collector at a positive
voltage compared to the emitter. These forward biases junction J1 and reverse biases
junction J2.
Notably, there is no voltage applied to the gate at this stage. Due to the reverse bias
at J2, the IGBT remains in the off state, preventing any current flow between the
collector and emitter. When a positive gate voltage (VG) is applied relative to the
emitter, negative charges accumulate beneath the SiO2 layer due to capacitance. As
VG increases, more charges accumulate, forming a layer in the upper P-region when
VG exceeds the threshold voltage.
This layer effectively creates an N-channel that connects the N- drift region and N+
region. Electrons from the emitter then flow from the N+ region into the N- drift
region, while holes from the collector are injected from the P+ region into the N-
drift region. The excess of both electrons and holes in the drift region enhances its
conductivity, enabling current conduction. Consequently, the IGBT switches on and
allows current to flow between the collector and emitter.
IGBT can be controlled or turn ON or OFF by simply activating deactivating the
gate terminal. As the positive input voltage is applied then it will turn ON state and
as the input voltage goes zero or negative then it will be turn OFF - also it has low
channel resistance which results in the smooth flow of current in the device.
Parameters
There are some mathematical formulas of IGBT given below and these equations
and parameters are fundamental for the analysis and design of circuits incorporating
IGBTs.
 Collector Current (Ic): Collector current is the electric current flowing
from the collector to the emitter of an IGBT. It can be determined using Ohm's
Law also. Here, Vce represents the collector-emitter voltage, and Rl is the
load resistance.
Ic = Vce / Rl.

 Gate Current (Ig): Gate current is the current necessary to activate or

deactivate the IGBT. It can be calculated using the gate voltage and gate-source
capacitance (Cgs):
Ig = Cgs * dVgs/dt
where dVgs/dt is the change in gate-source voltage over time.
 Switching Losses (Ps): Switching losses in an IGBT result from energy
dissipation during the turn-on and turn-off transitions. These losses are
determined by the formula:
Ps = 0.5 * Vce * Ic * fsw * (Eon + Eoff)
where Vce is the collector-emitter voltage, Ic is the collector current, fsw is the
switching frequency, and Eon and Eoff are the turn-on and turn-off energies.
 Forward Voltage Drop (Vf): The forward voltage drop is the voltage across
the IGBT when it is in the conducting state and Vce(sat) represents the saturation
voltage.
Vf = Vce + Vce(sat)

 Power Dissipation (Pd): It is calculated with the formula mentioned and

here Vce is the collector-emitter voltage, and Ic is the collector current.
Pd = Vce * Ic

 Gate Charge (Qg): Gate charge is the total charge needed to transition the
IGBT from off to on. It's related to the gate current and gate-source voltage:
Qg = ∫(Ig dt)
where Ig is the gate current, and the integral is taken over the switching time.
 Junction Temperature (Tj): The junction temperature of the IGBT can be
estimated considering power dissipation and thermal resistance. Here Ta is the
ambient temperature, Pd is the power dissipation, and Rth is the thermal
resistance.
Tj = Ta + (Pd * Rth)
IGBT Characteristics
Some of the characteristics followed up in IGBT are as follows:
 VI Characteristics of IGBT
 Transfer Characteristics of IGBT
 Switching Characteristics of IGBT

V-I Characteristics of IGBT

IGBT differ from BJT in that they are voltage-controlled devices requiring only a
small gate voltage, VGE, to regulate collector current, IC. However, the gate-emitter
voltage, VGE, must surpass the threshold voltage, VGET. The transfer
characteristics of IGBT illustrate the relationship between input voltage, VGE, and
output collector current, IC.
 When VGE is 0V, the device remains off with no IC, and when VGE slightly
increases but stays below VGET, it remains off but may exhibit a leakage current.
 Once VGE surpasses the threshold, IC begins to rise, turning the device on.
As a unidirectional device, current flows in only one direction.
 IGBT characteristic curves, as depicted in the provided graph, demonstrate
the relationship between collector current, IC, and collector-emitter voltage, VCE,
at different VGE levels.
 At VGE < VGET the GBT is in cutoff mode, resulting in IC = 0 at any VCE.
Beyond VGE > VGET, the IGBT enters the active mode, where IC increases
with rising VCE.
Moreover, for each VGE where VGE1 < VGE2 < VGE3, IC differs. It's crucial not
to exceed the reverse voltage or forward voltage beyond their respective breakdown
limits, as this can lead to uncontrolled current flow.
VI-characteristics-of-IGBT

Transfer Characteristics

The transfer characteristics of IGBT shows the graph between the collector current
and gate emitter voltage i.e. between the IC and VGE . The IGBT remains in the
OFF state as the value of the gate emitter voltage is less than that of the threshold
voltage :
VGE < VGET

Transfer Characteristics
Switching Characteristics

The switching characteristics of IGBT are shown below in the figure :

Here turn on time is of two components delay time and rise time and according to
this delay time is the time required in rising of the collector current from ICE to 0.1
IC and fall in the collector emitter voltage from VCE to 0.9 VCE , and vice versa
with the rise time that it is the time in which collector current rises to IC and
collector voltage falls to 0.1 VCE .
t on = t dn + t r

Switching Characteristics of IGBT

Advantages
 Safe Operating device
 Cost efficient driver circuits.
 IGBTs are smaller in size, easy to handle.
 Highly efficient voltage controlled devices.
 Higher Output Impedance
 Low switching loss and power loss
 Less voltage drop
 Disadvantages
 IGBTs cannot stop the flow of high reverse voltages. no secondary
breakdown for these transistors.
 Cost effective
 Low switching speed when compared to other transistors.
 Low input impedance.
 Switching frequency of IGBTs up to 50KHz less than BJT and MOSFET.
Applications
IGBT find application in a wide range of uses, including:
 AC and DC motor drives
 Unregulated Power Supply (UPS)
 Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
 Traction motor control
 Induction heating
 Inverters
 They are designed to combine an isolated-gate FET for control input and a
bipolar power transistor into a single device, enhancing versatility.