IME- BESCK204D MODULE-4

Module – IV: Engineering Materials

Definition: Engineering materials are defined as solid substances, which helps engineers to build
machines, structures, automobiles, aircrafts and which are also used for various other engineering
applications.

 These are various materials available and the choice of a particular material for a specific
application depends on the set of properties possessed by the material.

 For example, Cast Iron is strong material in compression, but is weak in tension and also
very brittle in nature.

Classification of Engineering Materials

Types of Ferrous & Non ferrous Metals

Ferrous metals: Contain iron as chief constituent

Non-ferrous metals: Contains no iron

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Ferrous metals

Pig iron, also known as crude iron, is an intermediate product of the iron industry in the production
of steel which is obtained by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.

Wrought Iron: Composed of 99.8% iron. It is produced from pig iron by burning with carbon,
silicon, manganese, phosphorus and Sulphur.

Cast Iron: is produced when pig iron is re-melted in a furnace and poured into moulds and allowed
to solidify to make castings.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to
other forms of iron.

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Application of Ferrous metals

 Structural- Concrete reinforcement in building, fabrication of gates & grills

 Automobile- Engine blocks, chassis, gear box ,axels, body parts

 Marine- Ship hull, engines, turbines

 Defense-Tanks, weapons, guns, shells

 Consumer products- Home appliances, toys, tools

 Industrial applications- Cutting tools, machine tools, fixtures and jigs

 Most ferrous metals are magnetic which makes them ideal for motor and electrical
applications.

 They are heavy and strong and thus ideal for high duty and high temperature applications.

Application of Non Ferrous metals

 Aerospace- structure, fuselage, rudders

 Marine- Boat hull, shafts, rotor blades
 Power generation- Turbine blades, casing
 Automobile- Engine block, body parts, alloy wheels
 Structural- Windows, doors, pipe fittings, electrical wires
 Decorative items-Show lamps, idols, bells, jewelery.
 They are non-magnetic, hence preferred for electronic and wiring applications.
 They are comparatively light and weak so, mostly preferred for light duty and low
temperature applications.
 Absence of iron makes them resistant to rust & corrosion. Hence preferred for making
pipes, food & medical equipments.

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Comparison of Ferrous and Non- Ferrous metals

Ceramics

Definition: These are inorganic solid materials containing compounds of metals and non-
metallic elements, mostly oxides, nitrides and carbides.
Example: Aluminum oxide
Ceramics may be in crystalline or amorphous state

Properties and Applications of ceramics:

1. Ceramics possess high compressive strength that makes them suitable for structural and
building applications like pipes, bricks, roof and floor tiles etc
2. High hardness that makes them suitable for various cutting tool applications.
3. Excellent wear resistance that makes them to withstand friction as in case of brakes,
clutches, bearings
4. High corrosion resistance that makes them resistive to the action of chemical fluids and
moisture.

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5. High melting points that makes them suitable for making heat resisting components for
automobiles, aerospace, heat sinks for electronic packages and other manufacturing
applications like cutting tools, furnace linings, etc
6. Low electrical and thermal conductivity that makes them suitable for various electrical
and electronics applications.
7. Chemical inertness that makes ceramics ideal for biomedical applications like dental
implants.
Inspite of the above favourable properties, the major disadvantage that restricts ceramics for
other applications is that they are extremely brittle in nature.

Silica
Silica, also called silicon dioxide (SiO2), is a oxide of silicon and is a compound of the two most
abundant elements in earth’s crust, silicon and oxygen
Properties: They are nonconductors of electricity and are diamagnetic, high melting point, hard
and strong
Applications:
 Silica sand is used in buildings and roads in the form of concrete
 Sand casting of metallic products. The high melting point of silica enables it to be used in
such applications.
 Silica is the primary ingredient in the production of most glass. When molten silicon
dioxide SiO2 is rapidly cooled, it does not crystallize, but solidifies as a glass
 The majority of optical fibres for telecommunication are also made from silica.
 It has high dielectric strength, so it is used as an insulator and semiconductor.
 Acts as an anti-caking agent in powdered foods
 Silica gel is often used as a desiccant to remove moisture.

Glass
Glasses are amorphous or non crystalline ceramic material, usually containing other oxides like
CaO, Na2O, k2O andAl2O3 in order to obtain favorable properties such as refractive index.

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Properties: It is an excellent thermal and electrical insulator, and very resistant to corrosion has
an very high compressive strength.
Applications:
- Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)
- Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
- Housing and buildings (windows, doors, insulation, reinforcement structures)
- Laboratory equipment, bulbs, x ray tubes,
- Windscreen, back lights for automotive and aerospace application

Graphite
 Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of stacked layers of
graphene.
 Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard
conditions.
Characteristics:
- High electrical conductivity
- High thermal conductivity
- Highly anisotropic
- Withstands high temperatures
Applications:
- Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on large scale for uses in pencils,
lubricants, and electrodes.
- Heating elements
- Brushes for motors
- High temperature fixtures
- Furnace parts
- Crucibles

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Diamond
Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure
called diamond cubic.
Properties:
- Diamond is the hardest substance known.
- Has high strength
- It is a brittle material which decomposes at 700°C
- It has the highest thermal conductivity
- Its coefficient of thermal expansion is extremely low.
- It also has high electrical resistance.
- It is chemically inert
Applications:
- Abrasive machining
- Crystal cutting
- Grinding
- Coating in cutting tools and dies
- Dies for drawing wires

Polymers
Polymer is a chemical compound with many monomer molecules bonded together in long
repeating chains.
Natural polymers: wood, rubber, cotton, leather etc.,
Synthetic polymers: Plastics, rubbers, and fiber materials. PVC, polyesters etc

Types of plastics:
Thermoplastics: Soften when heated and hardens when cooled.
Thermoset plastics: become Soft when heated first and permanently hardens when cooled OR do
not soften upon reheating.

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Thermoplastics:
- When the carbon atoms in the plastic materials (polymers) are connected to molecules of
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine and sulphur resulting in continuous long chain of
molecules, like string of pearls, the resulting polymer is called thermoplastic.
- Atoms are held together by weak secondary bonds (Vander Waal’s bond)
- Processing is faster than thermoset composites because of short cure cycles.
- Suitable only at low temperature
Examples: Polyethylene, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), nylon, Teflon etc

Properties:
- Soften when heated and hardens when cooled.
- Soft and flexible
- High toughness (high strains to failure)
- Less electrical resistance and dimensional stability
- Short cure cycles
- Can be recycled
- Indefinite shelf life
- Cost is high
Applications:
Used for making
 Telephones
 Receivers,
 Electric plugs,
 Radio, and TV cabinets,
 Camera bodies,
 Aircraft and automotive parts

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 Circuit breakers
 Switch panels

Thermoset plastics (thermosets):

 When the carbon atoms in the plastic materials (polymers) are connected to molecules of
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine and sulphur resulting in cross linked long chains to
form two and three dimensional networks with strong covalent bonds is called
thermosets.
 Atoms are held together by strong primary covalent bonds.
 Processing is slower because of long cure cycles.
 Suitable at low and high temperatures.
Examples: Phenol formaldehyde, Epoxy, polyester etc

Properties:
- Become soft when heated first and permanently hardens when cooled OR do not soften
upon reheating
- Low cost
- Good mechanical strength
- Harder, strong and brittle
- Low viscosity
- Possess better electrical resistance and dimensional stability
- Good resistance to fluids and solvents.
Applications:
Used for making
 Toys
 Combs

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 Phtographic films
 Insulating tapes
 Hoses
 Electric insulation

Comparison : Thermoset & thermoplastic

Shape memory alloys

Shape memory alloys (SMA) are a unique class of metal alloys that can be deformed at one
temperature but when heated or cooled, return to their original shape, i.e. the alloy appears to
have a memory.

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This effect is also exhibited when some materials is subjected to change in internal stress
(mechanical deformation)

Shape memory effect:

When a shape memory alloy is in its cold state, the metal can be bent or stretched and will hold
those shapes until heated above the transition temperature of the alloy.
Upon heating, the metal changes to its original state. When the metal cools it will remain in
its original shape until deformed again. i.e the alloy appears to have a memory of returning to its
original shape.
Pseudo-elasticity or Super elasticity:
A force induces considerable deformation in the alloy material, but when the force is removed,
the material automatically recovers its original shape without the need for heating.

Examples: Cu-Zn-Al, Cu-Ni-al, Nickel-Titanium(Nitinol)

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Applications of shape memory alloys

Joining Processes
Soldering
Definition: Soldering is a joining process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by
means of a filler metal called solder whose melting temperature is below 450° C. Solder is an alloy
of tin and lead in various proportions.

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Principle of soldering: (Soldering process)

Soldering is a joining process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by
means of a filler metal called solder whose melting temperature is below 450° C. Solder is a alloy
of tin and lead in various proportions. (tin 63% and lead 37%)

Surfaces of the workpiece are cleaned and a suitable flux is applied. Soldering involves
melting the filler metal (solder) and allowing it to flow into the gap between the two work pieces.
The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint. The principle by which the filler meal is
drawn throughout the joint is by capillary action.

Functions of flux

1. The flux primarily helps the base metals from oxidizing.

2. The flux acts as a wetting agent in the joining process, reducing the surface tension of the
molten filler material and causing it to better wet out parts to be joined.
3. Flux cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides
Example of flux used during soldering: Zinc chloride

Advantages and disadvantages of soldering

Advantages
1) Low power requirements.
2) Low temperature process, hence no thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint
parts.

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3) Dissimilar parts can be easily soldered.

4) Thin parts can be joined easily.

Disadvantages
1) Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise it will cause the corrosion.
2) Thick parts cannot be efficiently joined.
3) Since soldering temperatures are low, a soldered joint cannot be used in high temperature
applications.

4) Strength of joint is low. Hence cannot be used for load bearing members.

Applications of soldering

• One of the main applications is assembling electronic components

to printed circuits boards.
• Making connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems
• Joints in sheets metals objects like food cans, metal containers

BRAZING
Definition: Brazing is a joining process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by a
special filler metal whose melting temperature is above 450°C but below the melting point of the
base metal. The filler metal used in this process is called spelter which is a non-ferrous alloy or
metal.

Principle of brazing: (Brazing process)

Brazing is a joining process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by a special
filler metal whose melting temperature is above 450°C but below the melting point of the base
metal. The filler metal used in this process is called spelter which is a non-ferrous alloy or metal.

The most commonly used filler metals in brazing are copper and copper alloys, silver and
silver alloys and aluminum alloys depending on the application. The flow of molten filler material
into the gap is by capillary force.

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Surfaces of the workpiece are cleaned and a suitable flux is applied. Borax, boric acid are the
commonly used flux materials. Surfaces of the base metals to be joined are then broadly heated
and the filler metal is distributed in the joint by capillary action.

Advantages and disadvantages of soldering

Advantages
1) Much heat is not involved in this process. Hence, low thermal distortions and residual
stresses in the joints.
2) Easily automated processed.
3) Dissimilar parts can be joined.
Disadvantages
1) Flux residues must be removed after brazing, otherwise it may cause corrosion.
2) Large and thick sections cannot be brazed efficiently.
3) Relatively expensive filler materials

Applications of brazing

 Automotive
 Aerospace

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 Tool industries
 Fastening pipe fittings, Tanks, Electrical parts

Welding
Definition: It is a joining process in which two or more workpieces are joined permanently and it
is carried out by heating the edges of the workpieces to a suitable temperature and then fused
together with or without the application of pressure and a filler material (electrode).

Advantages and disadvantages of welding

Advantages of welding

 Strength of the joint is much stronger

 Metals with different chemical compositions can be welded easily.
 Welding equipment are portable
 Process can be automated

Disadvantages of welding:

 Process gives harmful radiations, fumes

 Skilled operator is required to produce a good joint.
 The high heat involved in the process causes changes in the structure of metal thereby
lowering its properties.

Applications of welding

Manufacture of

 Automobile bodies
 Aircraft frames
 Railway wagons
 Ship
 Furniture
 Structural works

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 General repair work

Classification of welding process

Welding processes are classified into two types:

1. Plastic welding (or) Pressure welding

2. Fusion welding

1. Plastic welding (or) Pressure welding: In plastic welding, the metal parts to be joined are heated
to the plastic state or slightly above and then fused together by applying external pressure. No filler
metal is used in this process.

Some of the common welding processes that can be grouped under this category are:

1. Resistance welding
2. Friction Welding
3. High Frequency welding
4. Ultrasonic Welding
5. Forge Welding

2. Fusion welding: In fusion welding, the pars to be joined are heated above their melting
temperatures and then allowed to solidify by cooling. A filler metal may or may not be used
during welding process.

Some of the fusion welding processes is:

1. Arc welding
2. Gas welding
3. Laser welding

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Arc Welding

Arc welding process is a fusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity of an
electric arc to melt the workpiece metals. A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling. Either
AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current) can be used to supply the required current for
welding. In this process, the electrode holder holding the electrode firmly forms one pole of the
electric circuit, while the workpiece to be welded forms the other pole. The electrode serves both
to carry the arc and also acts as a filler rod to deposit the molten metal into the joint.

The electrode used in arc welding process is a metallic wire, which is made of the same
material or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the workpiece material. The metallic
wire is coated with a suitable flux material like calcium fluoride which gives off gases as it
decomposes thereby preventing oxidation of the molten metal during welding process.

In operation, an arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode on the workpiece and
instantaneously the electrode is separated by a small distance of 2 to 4 mm such that the arc still
remains between the electrode and the workpiece. The temperature of the arc ranges from 5000-
6000°C. The high heat at the tip of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten metal

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pool. At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts. The molten metal of the electrode is
transferred into the molten metal of the workpiece in the form of globules of molten metal. The
deposited metal fills the joint and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal. The electrode is
moved along the surface to be welded to complete the joint. The arc is extinguished by increasing
the arc length, i.e., by widening the gap between the workpiece and the electrode.

Advantages

- The process is simple and inexpensive.

- Eliminates skilled labour
- The process dominates other welding processes in maintenance and repair industry
- Used to weld ferrous & few non-ferrous metals
Disadvantages

- Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrode must be frequently changed
- Poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking are a few major problems
Application:

- Building and bridge construction-

- Ship building,
- Almost all repair and maintenance work.

ELECTRODES USED IN ARC WELDING

Welding electrodes used in are welding process are classified into two types:

1) Consumable electrodes and

2) Non-consumable electrodes.

Consumable electrodes

Consumable electrodes are those which get consumed during the welding process. These
electrodes help to establish the arc, and also act as a filler metal to deposit additional material to
fill the gap between the workpieces. Consumable electrodes are further classified as coated, bare
(plain), or tubular type.

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- Coated electrode: The metallic rod (filler) is coated with a flux.

- Plain/Bare electrode: Core metallic rod is not coated with flux.
- Tubular electrodes: Consists of a rod (wire) made of low carbon steel (or any suitable
material) sheath surrounding a core of flux.

Non-consumable electrode

Non-consumable electrodes are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten, and do not consume
during welding. They serve only to strike and maintain the arc during the welding process.

GAS WELDING PROCESS

Oxy-acetylene Welding
When oxygen and acetylene are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch and ignited,
the flame resulting at the tip of the torch has a temperature ranging from 3100°C-3500°C, which
is sufficient enough to melt and fuse the workpiece metals. Filler metal may or may not be used
during the process. The equipment consists of the following:

- Two large cylinders: one containing oxygen at high pressure, and the other containing
acetylene gas.
- Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective cylinders to regulate or control the pressure
of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the welding torch as per the requirements.

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- Welding torch, used to mix both oxygen & acetylene gas in proper proportions & burn the
mixture at its tip. A match stick may be used to ignite the mixture at the torch tip.

Operation:

By adjusting the pressure regulators, suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene gases
enter into the welding torch. The gases get mixed in the torch and are issued from the torch to burn
in the atmosphere. A match stick may be used to ignite the gas at the torch tip. The resulting flame
at the torch tip has a temperature ranging from 3100-3500°C and this heat is sufficient enough to
melt the workpiece metals. Since a slight gap usually exists between the two workpieces, filler
metal may be used to supply the additional material to fill the gap. The molten metal of the filler
metal combines with the molten metal of the workpiece, and upon solidification form a single
piece of metal.

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Advantages:

 Process is simple & inexpensive

 Eliminates skilled labour
 Temperature of the flame can be controlled depending on the thickness and type of the
material being welded.

Disadvantages:

 Acetylene is slightly costlier

 Acetylene gas is highly explosive. Precautions should be taken during storage.
 Not suitable for thick and high melting point materials.

Applications

- Oxy-acetylene welding is preferred for joining thin metals, both ferrous and non ferrous,
- Automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing industries.

Types of flames Produced in Oxy-acetylene Process

Three different types of flames can be produced at the torch tip by regulating the ratio of oxygen
to acetylene. They are

1) Neutral flame - Oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportions.

2) Oxidizing flame - Excess of oxygen

3) Reducing flame - Excess of acetylene

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Outer blue
envelope

Inner white
cone flame

1) Neutral flame

A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene
re burnt at the torch tip. All the carbon supplied by acetylene is being consumed and the
combustion is complete. The flame has a nicely defined inner whitish cone surrounded by a sharp
blue flame. The temperature of the neutral flame is around 3260° C. Neutral flame is commonly
used for welding mild steel, cast iron, aluminum, copper etc. It has the least chemical effect on the
heated metal.

2) Oxidizing flame

If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further increased,
result will be an oxidizing flame. In other words, it is a flame in which there is excess oxygen. The
oxidizing flame appears similar to the neutral flame but with a shorter inner white cone, and the
outer envelope being narrow and brighter in colour. The temperature of the oxidizing flame is
around 3500°C and used in special applications for welding copper-base metals, zinc-base metals,
etc. It should not be used for welding steels, as it will oxidize it.
3) Reducing flame
If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting flame will
be a carburizing or reducing flame ie., rich in acetylene. Combustion is incomplete with
unconsumed carbon being present in the flame. A reducing flame can be recognized by an
acetylene feather which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer flame

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envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in colour. The
temperature of the reducing flame is around 3066°C and is used for few non-ferrous metals.
Carburizing flame should not be employed for welding steel, as unconsumed carbon may be
introduced into the weld to produce a hard and brittle deposit.
Comparison of welding , Soldering and Brazing processes

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