Computer Networks (BCS502)

MODULE – 3
NETWORK LAYER

Network Layer: Network layer Services, Packet Switching, IPv4 Address, IPv4 Datagram, IPv6
Datagram, Introduction to Routing Algorithms, Unicast Routing Protocols: DVR, LSR, PVR,
Unicast Routing protocols: RIP, OSPF, BGP, Multicasting Routing-MOSPF

Textbook: Ch. 18.1, 18.2, 18.4, 22.2,20.1-20.3, 21.3.2

1. NETWORK-LAYER
1.1 Network Layer Services
1.2 Packet Switching
1.3 IPv4 Addresses
1.4 IPv4 Datagram
1.5 IPv6 Datagram
2. INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING ALGORITHMS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Routing Algorithms
2.3 Unicast Routing Protocols:DVR, LSR, PVR
2.4 Unicast Routing Protocols:RIP, OSPF,BGP
2.5 Multicast Routing:MOSPF

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1. NETWORK-LAYER
The network layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite plays a crucial role in ensuring host-to-host
delivery of data. It operates between the data-link layer and the transport layer, providing
services to the latter while receiving services from the former. It is responsible for routing and
delivering packets across various networks, encapsulating data into packets, and decapsulating
them at the destination.
1.1 Network Layer Services

The Internet, a combination of LANs and WANs, consists of many networks connected through
routers and switches. The network layer is involved in:
• Source Host (e.g., Alice): It encapsulates the transport layer packet into a datagram and
hands it over to the data-link layer for transmission.

• Destination Host (e.g., Bob): It decapsulates the received datagram to retrieve the packet
and deliver it to the transport layer.

• Routers (R2, R4, R5, R7): They forward the datagrams across multiple networks until
they reach the destination.

Figure 3.1:Communication at the network layer

Functions of the Network Layer

1. Packetizing:

o The network layer encapsulates data from the transport layer into packets
(datagrams) at the source and decapsulates them at the destination.

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o The source adds necessary headers, including source and destination addresses,
to the packet.

2. Routing:

o The network layer selects the best route for packets to travel across multiple
networks (LANs, WANs).

o Routers use algorithms to determine the most efficient path from source to
destination.

3. Forwarding:

o Forwarding refers to how routers handle packets upon arrival. Routers look up
the forwarding table or routing table to determine which network interface to send
the packet through.

o The decision is based on packet headers (e.g., destination address, labels).

Figure 3.2: Forwarding process

Additional Services Provided by the Network Layer

• Error Control:

o Although the network layer itself doesn’t handle errors directly, the ICMP
protocol helps detect errors, such as when a packet cannot be delivered.

• Flow Control:

o The network layer helps prevent the receiver from becoming overwhelmed with
data by ensuring the sender doesn't send more data than the receiver can process.

• Congestion Control:

o The network layer helps in managing and avoiding congestion in the network by
controlling the flow of packets, especially in high-traffic conditions.

• Quality of Service (QoS):

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o QoS ensures the network layer delivers data with a certain performance level,
managing delays, throughput, and packet loss.

1.2 Packet Switching

➢ Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which information is broken into
small, manageable pieces called packets. Each packet is sent independently through a
network, and they may take different routes to reach the destination. Once all packets
arrive, they are reassembled in the correct order to recreate the original message
➢ .Although in data communication switching techniques are divided into two broad
categories, circuit switching and packet switching, only packet switching is used at the
network layer because the unit of data at this layer is a packet.
➢ Circuit switching is mostly used at the physical layer; the electrical switch mentioned
earlier is a kind of circuit switch.
➢ At the network layer, a message from the upper layer is divided into manageable packets
and each packet is sent through the network.
➢ The source of the message sends the packets one by one; the destination of the message
receives the packets one by one.
➢ The destination waits for all packets belonging to the same message to arrive before
delivering the message to the upper layer

Today, a packet-switched network can use two different approaches to route the packets: the
datagram approach and the virtual circuit approach.

Types of Packet Switching:

• Datagram Packet Switching:

o Each packet is treated independently with no pre-established path.
o Routing decisions are made for each packet at every node.
o Examples: User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Fig 3.3: A connectionless packet-switched network

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• Virtual Circuit Packet Switching:

o A logical path (virtual circuit) is established between sender and receiver before
any packets are sent.
o Packets follow the same route, which helps maintain the order of transmission.
o Examples: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), Frame Relay.

Fig 3.4 A virtual-circuit packet-switched network

The virtual-circuit approach is a type of connection-oriented service used in data

communication networks. Before transmitting data, a logical connection, known as a virtual
circuit, is established between the sender and receiver. All data packets then follow this
predefined path throughout the communication session.

Fig 3.5: Forwarding process in a router when used in a virtual-circuit network

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➢ To create a connection-oriented service, a three-phase process is used: setup, data

transfer, and teardown.
➢ In the setup phase, the source and destination addresses of the sender and receiver are
used to make table entries for the connection-oriented service.
➢ In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the router to delete the
corresponding entries. Data transfer occurs between these two phases.

1. Setup Phase

• Goal: Establish a virtual circuit between Source A and Destination B using request and
acknowledgment packets.
• Steps in Setup:
o Request Packet:
1. Source A sends a request packet to Router R1.
2. Router R1:
▪ Identifies the outgoing port for packets to B (Port 3).
▪ Assigns:
▪ Incoming Port: 1
▪ Incoming Label: 14
▪ Outgoing Port: 3
▪ Forwards the packet to Router R3.
3. Router R3:
▪ Fills its routing table with:
▪ Incoming Port: 1
▪ Incoming Label: 66
▪ Outgoing Port: 3
▪ Forwards the packet to Router R4.
4. Router R4:
▪ Assigns:
▪ Incoming Port: 1
▪ Incoming Label: 22
▪ Outgoing Port: 4
▪ Sends the request packet to Destination B.
5. Destination B assigns Label 77 to incoming packets from A.

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Fig: 3.6: Sending request packet in a virtual-circuit network

o Acknowledgment Packet:
1. Destination B sends an acknowledgment packet back to Router R4:
▪ Router R4 fills the outgoing label as 77.
2. Router R4 sends the acknowledgment to Router R3, which fills its
outgoing label as 22.
3. Router R3 sends an acknowledgment to Router R1, which fills its
outgoing label as 66.
4. Router R1 sends the acknowledgment to Source A, which fills its
outgoing label as 14 for future packets.

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Fig: 3.7: Sending acknowledgments in a virtual-circuit network

2. Data Transfer Phase

• Goal: Transfer data between Source A and Destination B once the virtual circuit is
established.
• Steps:
1. Source A labels the packets with Label 14 (from R1).
2. Router R1:
▪ Receives packets with Label 14.
▪ Changes the label to 66 and forwards to Router R3.
3. Router R3:
▪ Receives packets with Label 66.
▪ Changes the label to 22 and forwards to Router R4.
4. Router R4:
▪ Receives packets with Label 22.
▪ Changes the label to 77 and forwards to Destination B.
5. Destination B receives the packets with Label 77 (which it recognizes from
setup).

3. Teardown Phase

• Goal: End the virtual circuit once data transmission is complete.

• Steps:
1. Source A sends a teardown packet to Destination B.
2. Destination B responds with a confirmation packet.
3. Each router along the path (R4, R3, R1) deletes the virtual circuit entries from
its routing table.

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1.3 IPv4 Datagram

• Packetizing is the primary service provided by IPv4. It defines the format of a packet (called
a datagram) to encapsulate data from the upper layers.
• An IPv4 datagram is a variable-length packet, with a header (20 to 60 bytes) and payload
(data).

• A datagram consists of two main parts:

o Header (20–60 bytes): Contains control and routing information.
o Payload (data): The actual data being transmitted from the upper layers (e.g.,
TCP/UDP).

Fig 3.8: IPv4 datagram format.

IPv4 Datagram Structure

• Header:
o 20 to 60 bytes in length.
o Contains crucial fields to ensure the proper routing and handling of the packet.
o Shown in 4-byte (32-bit) sections for easy reference.
• Payload:
o Contains the data from the upper-layer protocols, such as TCP, UDP, or other
transport or network protocols.

2. Key Header Fields

1. Version (4 bits):
o Specifies the IP version. For IPv4, the value is always 4.
2. Header Length (HLEN) (4 bits):
o Indicates the length of the header in 4-byte words.

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o Helps identify where the header ends and the data (payload) begins.
3. Service Type (8 bits):
o Originally called Type of Service (TOS), now redefined as Differentiated
Services (DiffServ).
o Used for prioritizing different types of network traffic (e.g., voice over IP).
4. Total Length (16 bits):
o Specifies the total length of the datagram, including both header and data, in
bytes.
o Helps receivers distinguish between actual data and any padding that might be
added (e.g., in Ethernet frames).
5. Identification, Flags, and Fragmentation Offset:
o Used for fragmenting datagrams that exceeds the maximum transmission unit
(MTU) of the network.
o Allows reassembly of fragmented packets at the destination.
6. Time-to-Live (TTL) (8 bits):
o Limits the number of hops a datagram can take.
o Each router decrements this value, and if it reaches zero, the datagram is
discarded.
o Prevents datagrams from endlessly circulating due to routing errors.
7. Protocol (8 bits):
o Identifies the protocol of the encapsulated payload (e.g., TCP = 6, UDP = 17).
o Ensures the correct upper-layer protocol receives the data at the destination
(demultiplexing).
8. Header Checksum (16 bits):
o Used to verify the integrity of the header (not the payload).
o Each router recalculates the checksum since fields like TTL change with every
hop.
9. Source and Destination IP Addresses (32 bits each):
o Source IP Address: The IP address of the sender.
o Destination IP Address: The IP address of the receiver.
o These fields remain unchanged as the datagram travels across the network.
10. Options (0–40 bytes):
o Optional field used for network testing, debugging, or special features.
o Adds flexibility, but may require routers to recalculate the checksum if options
are altered.

3. Payload (Data)

• The payload is the data encapsulated in the datagram, which comes from upper-layer
protocols (e.g., TCP, UDP).
• The payload is the primary reason for sending the datagram, with the header providing
the necessary instructions for delivery.

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4. Important Concepts

• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

o The Protocol field in the IP header functions like port numbers in the transport
layer.
o It ensures data is delivered to the correct upper-layer protocol.
• Fragmentation:
o Large datagrams are fragmented when they exceed the size limit of the network’s
maximum transmission unit (MTU).
o The Identification, Flags, and Fragmentation Offset fields help in
reassembling the fragments at the destination.
• TTL and Loop Prevention:
o The TTL field prevents infinite looping by limiting the number of hops the packet
can traverse.
o If the TTL reaches zero, the datagram is discarded.

• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit identifier used to uniquely define the connection of a

device (host or router) to the Internet.

1.4 IPv4 Addresses

• The address is assigned to the connection (not the device), meaning if a device changes
its network, its IP address may also change.
• IPv4 addresses are both unique and universal, ensuring global consistency and uniqueness
across all devices connected to the Internet
1. 4.1 Address Space

• The address space is the total number of addresses available for use in the IPv4 protocol.
• IPv4 uses 32 bits, so the address space is 2³² (or 4,294,967,296 addresses).
• In theory, this would allow more than 4 billion devices to connect to the Internet, but
practical limitations such as network design reduce the usable address space.

1.4.2. IPv4 Address Notations

IPv4 addresses can be represented in three main formats:

• Binary Notation (Base 2):

o The address is shown as 32 bits, separated into 8-bit octets for readability (e.g.,
11000000 10101000 00000001 00000001).
• Dotted-Decimal Notation (Base 256):
o The address is written in decimal format, with each octet separated by dots (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
o Each octet is a value between 0 and 255.
• Hexadecimal Notation (Base 16):
o The address is represented as 8 hexadecimal digits (e.g., C0A80101).
o This format is often used in network programming.

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1.4.3. Hierarchy in IPv4 Addressing

• IPv4 addresses are hierarchical, divided into two parts:

o Prefix: Defines the network (similar to a postal country or city code).
o Suffix: Defines the specific node (device or connection) on that network (similar
to a house number in postal addressing).
• There are two main types of address hierarchy:
o Classful Addressing: Original fixed-length prefix system (now obsolete).
o Classless Addressing: Modern variable-length prefix system.

4 Classful Addressing (Obsolete)

• Classful Addressing divides the IPv4 address space into five classes (A, B, C, D, E),
designed to accommodate different network sizes.

IPv4 Address Classes:

Fig 3.9: classful addressing

1. Class A:
o Prefix length: 8 bits (first bit is always 0, so only 7 bits are available for network
identification).
o Supports up to 128 networks.
o Example range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0.
2. Class B:
o Prefix length: 16 bits (first two bits are 10, so 14 bits for network identification).
o Supports up to 16,384 networks.
o Example range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0.
3. Class C:

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o Prefix length: 24 bits (first three bits are 110, so 21 bits for network
identification).
o Supports up to 2,097,152 networks.
o Example range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0.
4. Class D (Multicast):
o First four bits are 1110.
o Reserved for multicast addresses (group communication).
o Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.

5. Class E (Experimental):
o First four bits are 1111.
o Reserved for experimental purposes.
o Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

Address Depletion

Problem: Classful addressing led to rapid depletion of IPv4 addresses due to inefficient
distribution.

• Class A:
o Designed for very large organizations.
o Only 128 networks available, each with 16,777,216 addresses.
o Most organizations didn't need so many addresses, leading to significant waste.
• Class B:
o Designed for midsize organizations.
o Despite more networks available, many addresses remained unused.
• Class C:
o Intended for smaller networks.
o Each network had only 256 addresses, which was often too few for organizations.
• Class E: Reserved and almost never used, leading to wastage of the entire class.

Solutions to Address Depletion

• Subnetting:
o Concept: Divides a large class A or class B network into smaller subnets.
o Method: Increases the prefix length, creating multiple smaller networks from a
single large network.
o Issue: Not widely adopted because large organizations were reluctant to share
unused addresses with smaller ones.
• Supernetting:
o Concept: Combines several smaller class C networks into a larger block.
o Purpose: Designed to create larger address blocks for organizations needing
more than 256 addresses.
o Issue: Made packet routing more complex, limiting its effectiveness.

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Advantage of Classful Addressing

• Simplicity: The class of an address is easily identifiable from the address itself.
• Fixed Prefix Length:
o Each address class (A, B, C) has a predefined prefix length.
o No additional information is required to determine the prefix and suffix, making
it easier to understand and manage

1.Introduction to Classless Addressing:

• Classless addressing was introduced to solve the IPv4 address depletion problem.
• It eliminates the rigid class structure (A, B, C) of classful addressing and allows
variable-length blocks of IP addresses.
• Provides more efficient and flexible distribution of IP addresses to organizations and
ISPs.
• Classful addressing wasted many IP addresses due to fixed-size blocks; classless
addressing resolves this by allowing different block sizes.

2. Why Classless Addressing Was Introduced:

• Address Depletion: The Internet’s growth led to a shortage of IPv4 addresses.

• ISPs (Internet Service Providers): ISPs required a flexible address allocation system
to serve individuals, small businesses, and organizations efficiently.
• Efficient Allocation: Classless addressing allowed ISPs to assign blocks of addresses
based on actual needs, rather than forcing organizations to take larger, unused ranges.

3. Variable-Length Blocks:

• In classless addressing, IP addresses are grouped into blocks of varying sizes, which
can be 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 addresses, and so on.
• The block sizes must be a power of 2, such as 21, 22, 23 and so on.

Fig: 3.10: Variable-length blocks in classless addressing

4. Prefix Length and Slash Notation (CIDR):

• The length of the network portion of the IP address is indicated by the prefix length.
• Slash Notation or CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing) is used to specify the
prefix length, written as /n, where n is the number of bits used for the network part.
o Example: 192.168.1.0/24 means the first 24 bits are for the network and the
remaining 8 bits are for hosts.
• Larger prefix length = smaller network (fewer hosts).

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• Smaller prefix length = larger network (more hosts).

Fig: 3.11: Slash notation (CIDR)

5. Block of Addresses:

• A block of addresses is determined by the prefix (network part) and the suffix (host
part).
• The size of the block is based on the prefix length.
• The number of addresses in a block is calculated using the formula: N=232-n where n is
the prefix length.

6. How to Extract Information from a Block:

• To extract key information from any given IP address block:

1. Number of addresses: Use N=232−n where n is the prefix length.
2. First address: Set the last (32−n) bits to 0.
3. Last address: Set the last (32 – n) bits to 1.

Fig 3.11: Information extraction in classless addressing

Example : A classless address is given as 167.199.170.82/27. We can find the above three
pieces of information as follows. The number of addresses in the network is 232 − n = 25 = 32

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addresses.

Example 18.3
In classless addressing, an address cannot per se define the block the address belongs to. For
example, the address 230.8.24.56 can belong to many blocks. Some of them are shown below
with the value of the prefix associated with that block.

Network Address
The above examples show that, given any address, we can find all information about the block.
The first address, the network address, is particularly important because it is used in routing a
packet to its destination network.

Fig 3.12: Network address

For the moment, let us assume that an internet is made of m networks and a router with m
interfaces. When a packet arrives at the router from any source host, the router needs to know to
which network the packet should be sent: from which interface the packet should be sent out.

7. Advantages of Classless Addressing:

• Efficient use of IP addresses: Avoids the waste of addresses that occurs with classful
addressing.

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• Scalability: Allows for more precise address allocation based on actual need, which is
crucial as the number of devices connected to the Internet grows.
• Better management by ISPs: ISPs can assign blocks of different sizes to customers,
ensuring everyone gets only the number of addresses they need.

Classless addressing (CIDR) was a crucial development in managing the limited IPv4 address
space. By allowing variable-length prefixes and more flexible block sizes, it ensures a more
efficient and scalable distribution of IP addresses across the Internet.

8. Block Allocation in Classless Addressing:

• Global Authority (ICANN): The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for assigning IP address blocks.
o ICANN does not assign addresses to individual users but allocates large blocks to
ISPs or large organizations.
• Responsibilities of ISPs: ISPs receive large blocks of addresses from ICANN, which
they further subdivide and assign to customers.

Restrictions for Block Allocation:

Two main restrictions ensure the proper functioning of CIDR:

1. Number of Addresses (N):

o The number of requested addresses must be a power of 2.
o This is because N=232−nN = 2^{32 - n}N=232−n, and nnn must be an integer. If
NNN is not a power of 2, nnn will not be a valid integer.
o Example: If 1000 addresses are requested, since 1000 is not a power of 2, the next
power of 2 (1024) addresses will be allocated.
2. First Address Requirement:
o The first address of the block must be divisible by the number of addresses in the
block.
o The first address should be represented as the prefix followed by (32−n) mzeros
in binary.
o The decimal value of the first address must be divisible by the number of
addresses.

Example (Block Allocation):

• An ISP requests 1000 addresses.

• Since 1000 is not a power of 2, 1024 addresses are allocated instead.
• The prefix length n is calculated as n=32−log21024=22 The ISP is assigned the block
18.14.12.0/22. The first address in this block (in decimal) is 302,910,464, which is
divisible by 1024.

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1. Overview of Subnetting:

• Subnetting: The process of dividing a larger block of IP addresses (assigned to an

organization or ISP) into smaller blocks called subnetworks (or subnets).
• Multi-level Hierarchy: Subnetting can be performed at multiple levels. For example, a
subnet can be further divided into sub-subnets, sub-sub-subnets, etc.
• Subnetting provides more granular control over IP address allocation and network design,
allowing for efficient use of address space and easier management of smaller networks.

2. Designing Subnets:

To design subnetworks efficiently, the following steps must be followed:

1. Number of Addresses in Subnet:

o The number of addresses in each subnetwork (Nsub) must be a power of 2.
o This ensures that subnetting adheres to the same principles as block allocation,
where the address block size must be a power of 2.
2. Prefix Length for Each Subnetwork:
o The prefix length for each subnetwork (nsub) can be calculated using the formula:
nsub=32−log⁡2(Nsub)nsub = 32 - \log_2 (Nsub)nsub=32−log2(Nsub)
o This formula helps determine how many bits in the IP address are used for the
network part, and how many are left for the hosts.
3. Starting Address of Each Subnet:
o The starting address of each subnet must be divisible by the number of addresses
in the subnet.
o This can be achieved by assigning addresses to larger subnetworks first and
then working down to smaller subnets.

Example:

• Suppose an organization is granted 1024 addresses (/22).

• The organization can divide the range into subnetworks based on the number of required
addresses per subnet.
o For a subnet that needs 256 addresses, the prefix length would be
nsub=32−log2256=24
o The starting address of each subnet must be divisible by the size of the subnet
(256 in this case).

3. Finding Information About Each Subnetwork:

After designing the subnetworks, key information about each subnet (such as the first address
and last address) can be calculated using the same method applied to larger networks. The
process is as follows:

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1. First Address:
o The first address of the subnet is found by setting the host bits (the last 32−n sub
bits) to 0.
2. Last Address:
o The last address is found by setting the host bits to 1.

Steps to Find First and Last Address:

• If a subnet has a prefix length of /24, the first address will have the last 8 bits set to 0,
and the last address will have the last 8 bits set to 1.

Key Points to Remember:

• Subnetting allows an organization to efficiently use its allocated IP address block by

dividing it into smaller subnetworks.
• Each subnetwork must contain a power-of-2 number of addresses.
• The prefix length for each subnetwork is calculated based on the number of addresses it
requires.
• Proper design of subnets is crucial for efficient routing and network management.
• Once designed, the first and last address of each subnet can be determined using the
prefix length.

This approach ensures optimal usage of IP addresses, simplifies routing, and improves the
scalability of network infrastructure.

Address Aggregation
One of the advantages of the CIDR strategy is address aggregation (sometimes called address
summarization or route summarization). When blocks of addresses are combined to create a
larger block, routing can be done based on the prefix of the larger block. ICANN assigns a large
block of addresses to an ISP. Each ISP in turn divides its assigned block into smaller sub blocks
and grants the sub locks to its customers.

Example: An organization has been granted a block of 256 addresses, starting at 14.24.74.0/24.
The organization needs to divide this block into three subnets with the following requirements:

1. Subnet 1: 120 addresses

2. Subnet 2: 60 addresses
3. Subnet 3: 10 addresses

The solution involves allocating a number of addresses that are powers of 2, which are larger
than or equal to the required number. The subnets are designed by starting with the largest
requirement and working down to the smallest.

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Steps and Subnet Design:

1. Total Addresses:
o The block 14.24.74.0/24 has a total of: 232−24=256 addresses
o First address: 14.24.74.0
o Last address: 14.24.74.255

Subnet A: Largest Subnet (120 addresses)

• Required: 120 addresses, but this is not a power of 2.

• Allocated: 128 addresses (since 128=is the next power of 2).
• Prefix length: n1=32−log2(128)=25
• First address: 14.24.74.0/25
• Last address:
o The block starts at 14.24.74.0, and since there are 128 addresses, the last address
is 14.24.74.127/25.

Subnet B: Second Largest Subnet (60 addresses)

• Required: 60 addresses, but this is not a power of 2.

• Allocated: 64 addresses (since 64=26 is the next power of 2).
• Prefix length: n2=32−log2(64)=26
• First address: The next available address after the first block is 14.24.74.128/26.
• Last address:
o The block starts at 14.24.74.128, and since there are 64 addresses, the last address
is 14.24.74.191/26.

Subnet C: Smallest Subnet (10 addresses)

• Required: 10 addresses, but this is not a power of 2.

• Allocated: 16 addresses (since 16=24 is the next power of 2).
• Prefix length: n3=32−log2(16)=28
• First address: The next available address after the second block is 14.24.74.192/28.
• Last address:
o The block starts at 14.24.74.192, and since there are 16 addresses, the last address
is 14.24.74.207/28.

Remaining Addresses:

• After assigning the three subnets, the total number of allocated addresses is:
128+64+16=208 addresses
• This leaves 48 addresses unused.
• First address of unused range: 14.24.74.208
• Last address of unused range: 14.24.74.255

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• Prefix length: To be determined, but the range can be used for future subnets or other
purposes.

Summary of Subblocks:

• Subnet A:
o 120 required, 128 allocated
o First address: 14.24.74.0/25
o Last address: 14.24.74.127/25
• Subnet B:
o 60 required, 64 allocated
o First address: 14.24.74.128/26
o Last address: 14.24.74.191/26
• Subnet C:
o 10 required, 16 allocated
o First address: 14.24.74.192/28
o Last address: 14.24.74.207/28
• Unused Block:
o First address: 14.24.74.208
o Last address: 14.24.74.255
o 48 addresses left for future use.

This method ensures efficient utilization of IP addresses while allowing for potential future
expansions.

Special IPv4 Addresses

IPv4 includes several special-purpose addresses used for specific functions in networking. Here
are five important types:

1. This-host Address (0.0.0.0/32)

• Address: 0.0.0.0/32
• Purpose: Used when a host doesn't know its own IP address and needs to communicate.
• Use Case: A host might use this address as a source address before it knows its IP (e.g.,
during DHCP requests).

2. Limited-broadcast Address (255.255.255.255/32)

• Address: 255.255.255.255/32
• Purpose: Sends a datagram to all devices on the local network.
• Restrictions: Routers block these packets from being forwarded to other networks (they
stay within the local network).
• Use Case: A host can broadcast to all devices within the same local network segment.
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3. Loopback Address (127.0.0.0/8)

• Address: 127.0.0.0/8 (commonly, 127.0.0.1)

• Purpose: Used for testing and local communications within the same host. Packets sent
to this address never leave the device.
• Use Case: Software testing (e.g., running a client-server application on the same host
using 127.0.0.1 as the server address).

4. Private Addresses

• Blocks:
o 10.0.0.0/8
o 172.16.0.0/12
o 192.168.0.0/16
o 169.254.0.0/16 (link-local addresses)
• Purpose: Used for internal/private networks. These addresses are not routable on the
public Internet.
• Use Case: Networks within homes, businesses, or organizations. They require Network
Address Translation (NAT) for accessing the Internet.

5. Multicast Addresses (224.0.0.0/4)

• Address Block: 224.0.0.0/4

• Purpose: Used for multicasting, where a datagram is sent to multiple destinations
simultaneously.
• Use Case: Applications like video conferencing, live streaming, or network services that
need to send data to a group of devices.

Summary of Special IPv4 Addresses:

Type Address/Block Purpose

This-host 0.0.0.0/32 Host doesn't know its IP address

Limited- Broadcast to all devices in the

255.255.255.255/32
broadcast local network

Testing local applications

Loopback 127.0.0.0/8
(remains on host)

Private 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16, Internal, non-routable IP

Addresses 169.254.0.0/16 addresses

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Type Address/Block Purpose

Send data to multiple devices

Multicast 224.0.0.0/4
simultaneously

These addresses serve distinct roles in networking, ensuring proper communication, testing, and
private address use within internal networks.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

1. What is DHCP?
o Definition: DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automates the process
of assigning IP addresses and other essential network configurations to devices
within a network.
o Purpose: Reduces the need for manual IP address setup by network
administrators.
2. IP Address Allocation Sources
o Large Organizations and ISPs: Receive IP address blocks directly from
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers).
o Small Organizations: Obtain IP address blocks from their ISP.
3. Manual vs. Automatic Assignment
o Manual Assignment: Admins manually assign each device an IP address, which
can be time-consuming.
o Automatic Assignment with DHCP: DHCP automatically assigns IPs,
improving efficiency and reducing errors.
4. How DHCP Works
o Layer and Model: Operates at the application layer and follows a client-server
model.
o Process: Devices (clients) request IP configuration from a DHCP server, which
assigns an IP and other necessary details.
5. Plug-and-Play Protocol
o DHCP is often called "plug-and-play" because it allows devices to connect to the
network and obtain configuration settings automatically, without user
intervention.
6. Permanent vs. Temporary IP Addressing
o Permanent IP Assignment: For devices like servers and routers needing a stable
IP.
o Temporary IP Assignment: For devices requiring short-term connectivity (e.g.,
laptops in hotels).
o Example of Efficiency: ISPs with limited IPs can use DHCP to support more
devices by reallocating addresses dynamically, such as serving 4,000 households
with 1,000 IPs if only 25% are online simultaneously.
7. Essential Information Provided by DHCP
o IP Address: Unique identifier for the device.

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o Network Prefix (Subnet Mask): Defines the device's network range.

o Default Router (Gateway): The IP address of the router to connect to external
networks.
o DNS Server Address: Resolves domain names into IP addresses, allowing easy
access to websites.
8. Uses and Benefits of DHCP
o Applications: Commonly used in all types of networks (home, office, ISP) to
manage IPs and provide necessary network details.
o Simplified Network Management: DHCP reduces setup time, decreases the
chance of configuration errors, and optimizes IP allocation.

DHCP is crucial for modern networks, making IP management simple and efficient. It provides
both permanent and temporary IP assignments along with other essential network information,
ensuring that devices can connect to the network with minimal setup.

DHCP Message Format

DHCP is a client-server protocol in which the client sends a request message and the server
returns a response message

Opcode: Operation code, request (1) or reply (2)

Htype: Hardware type (Ethernet, ...)
HLen: Length of hardware address
HCount: Maximum number of hops the packet can travel
Transaction ID: An integer set by the client and repeated by the server
Time elapsed: The number of seconds since the client started to boot
Flags: First bit defines unicast (0) or multicast (1); other 15 bits not used
Your IP address: The client IP address sent by the server
Client IP address: Set to 0 if the client does not know it
Server IP address: A broadcast IP address if client does not know it
Gateway IP address: The address of default router
Server name: A 64-byte domain name of the server
Boot file name: A 128-byte file name holding extra information
Options: A 64-byte field with dual purpose described in text

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The 64-byte option field has a dual purpose. It can carry either additional information or some
specific vendor information.
The server uses a number, called a magic cookie, in the format of an IP address with the
value of 99.130.83.99. When the client finishes reading the message, it looks for this magic
cookie. If present, the next 60 bytes are options. An option is composed of three fields: a 1-byte
tag field, a 1-byte length field, and a variable-length value field. There are several tag fields that
are mostly used by vendors. If the tag field is 53, the value field defines one of the 8 message
types shown in Figure 18.26. We show how these message types are used by DHCP.

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DHCP Operation Steps

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) enables devices to automatically acquire IP
addresses and network configuration details for seamless network connectivity. Here’s how the
DHCP process unfolds:

1. DHCPDISCOVER:
o The new host (client) sends a DHCPDISCOVER message to locate a DHCP
server. This message includes only a transaction ID, a unique random identifier
to track the session, as the host has no IP address or server information.
o The message is encapsulated in a UDP datagram with source port 68 and
destination port 67 (well-known DHCP ports).
o The IP layer uses source IP address 0.0.0.0 (since the host has no IP address)
and destination IP address 255.255.255.255 (broadcast address) to ensure it
reaches any DHCP server on the network.
2. DHCPOFFER:
o One or more DHCP servers respond with a DHCPOFFER message. This
message includes:
▪ Your IP Address: the offered IP address for the client.
▪ Server IP Address: identifies the server making the offer.
▪ Lease Time: duration for which the IP address is valid.
o The DHCPOFFER message is encapsulated in a UDP datagram with source port
67 and destination port 68 (reverse of the DISCOVER message).
o The IP layer sets the server’s IP address as the source and broadcasts the
destination address so other DHCP servers can see the offer and, if necessary,
make better offers.
3. DHCPREQUEST:
o The client selects the best offer and responds with a DHCPREQUEST message
to the chosen server.
o This message includes the chosen IP address and other relevant details and is sent
with source port 68 and destination port 67.
o The IP source address is the client’s new IP address, while the destination
remains the broadcast address, informing other servers that their offers were not
accepted.

4. DHCPACK or DHCPNACK:

• The selected server confirms the IP assignment with a DHCPACK message,

finalizing the process.
• If the IP is no longer available, the server sends a DHCPNACK message, and the
client restarts the process.
• The server broadcasts this message so other DHCP servers can see if the request
was accepted or rejected.

The DHCP protocol relies on two well-known ports (68 and 67) and includes features for file
retrieval, error control, and address allocation management. Here's a breakdown of these aspects:

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1. Two Well-Known Ports (68 and 67):

o Port 68 is used by the DHCP client, while Port 67 is used by the DHCP server.
o The choice of a well-known client port (68) over a temporary (ephemeral) port
helps avoid confusion if multiple applications are running. For example, if both a
DHCP and a different service client (like DAYTIME) were waiting for responses
on the same port, both could mistakenly receive each other's packets if the server
broadcast a response. Using Port 68 isolates DHCP responses to the DHCP client.
o If multiple DHCP clients are on the network after events like a power
restoration, they can be identified by their unique transaction ID, avoiding
interference.
2. Using FTP for Additional Configuration:
o After a client receives a DHCPACK message with basic information, it may need
more configuration details, such as the DNS server address.
o The DHCP server includes a pathname in the DHCPACK message, guiding the
client to a file where additional setup details are stored.
o The client can then retrieve this file using FTP (File Transfer Protocol) or
similar methods.
3. Error Control in DHCP:
o DHCP operates over UDP, which lacks built-in reliability. To manage errors,
DHCP implements:
▪ UDP checksum: Ensures data integrity as UDP’s checksum is mandatory
for DHCP.
▪ Timers and Retransmission: If the client doesn’t receive a response, it
retransmits its request. To avoid congestion, especially if multiple devices
need to retransmit (e.g., after a power outage), DHCP uses a random
timer for retransmissions.
4. Transition States in DHCP:
o DHCP functions as a state machine, where the client transitions through several
states depending on the messages exchanged. The main states include:
▪ INIT: Client starts here when joining a network.
▪ SELECTING: Client waits for DHCPOFFER messages.
▪ REQUESTING: Client selects an offer and sends a DHCPREQUEST.
▪ BOUND: Client is assigned an IP and can use the network.
▪ RENEWING/REBINDING: Client attempts to extend its lease as it
approaches expiration.
▪ REBINDING: If lease renewal fails, the client tries to contact any server
to rebind its lease.

Figure 18.28 shows the transition diagram with the main states.

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DHCP Client State Transitions and Timers

The DHCP client progresses through several states as it acquires and manages its IP address
lease. Key stages and timers include:

1. INIT State (Initializing):

o The client begins in the INIT state, where it needs an IP address.
o It broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER message to find a DHCP server.
2. SELECTING State:
o Upon receiving DHCPOFFER messages, the client enters the SELECTING
state.
o It may receive multiple offers from different servers. The client picks the best
offer.
3. REQUESTING State:
o After selecting an offer, the client sends a DHCPREQUEST message to confirm
its choice.
o It then enters the REQUESTING state, waiting for the server’s acknowledgment
(ACK).
4. BOUND State:
o When the client receives a DHCPACK message, it transitions to the BOUND
state and begins using the assigned IP address.
5. RENEWING State:
o When 50% of the lease time has passed, the renewal timer triggers, moving the
client to the RENEWING state.

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oIn this state, the client attempts to renew its lease directly with the server.
o If the server renews the lease, the client moves back to the BOUND state.
6. REBINDING State:
o If the lease isn’t renewed and 75% of the lease time expires, the rebinding timer
triggers, moving the client to the REBINDING state.
o The client tries to renew the lease by broadcasting a request to any available
DHCP server.
o If successful, the client moves back to the BOUND state.
7. INIT State (Again):
o If the lease expires (without renewal) or no server responds, the client’s
expiration timer (set to 100% of the lease time) triggers, returning it to the INIT
state to request a new IP address.

DHCP Timers

• Renewal Timer: 50% of lease time (triggers entry to RENEWING state).

• Rebinding Timer: 75% of lease time (triggers entry to REBINDING state).
• Expiration Timer: 100% of lease time (client returns to INIT to get a new IP address).

Network Address Resolution (NAT)

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technology used to manage IP address shortages by

enabling multiple devices on a local network to share a single or limited number of public IP
addresses. Here’s a breakdown of NAT's role and benefits:

1. The Problem with Limited IP Ranges:

o ISPs provide small blocks of IP addresses to businesses or households. However,
if the business or household needs more addresses (due to growth or increased
device usage), the ISP may not be able to accommodate because adjacent IP
addresses may already be assigned to others.
o Not every device on a local network needs simultaneous internet access. For
example, a business with 20 computers may find that only a maximum of 4 need
access at any given time.
2. How NAT Solves This Problem:
o Private IP Addresses for Internal Use: NAT allows a local network to use
private IP addresses (such as those in the 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, or 192.168.0.0
blocks) for devices communicating within the local network.
o Public IP Addresses for Internet Access: A small number of public IP addresses
(e.g., those provided by the ISP) are shared by multiple devices to access the
Internet through NAT.
3. How NAT Works:
o The NAT-capable router has one public IP address for communication with the
internet and multiple private IP addresses for devices on the local network.

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o When a device on the local network requests internet access, the NAT router
translates the private IP address into the router’s public IP address, creating a
mapping table to keep track of active connections.
o Translation Table: NAT maintains a table mapping each internal device’s
private IP and port to an external IP and port, allowing multiple internal devices
to share the same public IP address while still keeping connections unique.
4. Virtual Private Network (VPN) Compatibility:
o NAT supports VPNs by allowing secure and private communication within the
local network, even when some devices communicate with the global internet.
5. Types of NAT:
o Static NAT: Maps a single private IP to a single public IP.
o Dynamic NAT: Maps a private IP to any available public IP from a pool.
o Port Address Translation (PAT): Also known as "overloading," it allows
multiple devices to share one public IP by assigning different port numbers to
each connection.
6. Advantages of NAT:
o Conserves IP Addresses: NAT reduces the number of public IP addresses
needed, which is useful with the limited IPv4 address pool.
o Security: NAT hides internal IP addresses from external networks, adding a layer
of security.

Overview of Address Translation

• Functionality of NAT:
o NAT (Network Address Translation) is a method used to modify IP address
information in packet headers while in transit across a routing device.
o It primarily allows multiple devices on a local network to share a single public IP
address for Internet communication.

Outgoing Packets

• Process:
o When a device within a private network sends a packet to the Internet, the packet
is routed through the NAT router.
o The NAT router modifies the packet:
▪ It replaces the source address (the private IP address of the sending
device) with its own global NAT address (the public IP address assigned
by the ISP).
o This allows the packet to be routed properly through the Internet.

Incoming Packets

• Process:
o Incoming packets from the Internet are also processed by the NAT router.
o The NAT router changes the packet:

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▪ It replaces the destination address (the NAT router's global address) with
the appropriate private IP address of the intended recipient within the local
network.

Translation Table

• Purpose:
o The translation table is essential for keeping track of the mappings between
private and public addresses.
o It solves the challenge of identifying which internal device should receive packets
that are addressed to the public IP.
• Structure:
o In its simplest form, the translation table contains two columns:
▪ Private Address: The internal IP address of a device in the local network.
▪ External Address: The corresponding public IP address that the device
used when communicating with the Internet.
• Operation:
o When a packet is sent out:
▪ The NAT router records the destination address of the outgoing packet
in the translation table along with the modified source address.
o When a response packet arrives:
▪ The NAT router checks the source address of the incoming packet (the
public address).
▪ It looks up this address in the translation table to find the corresponding
private address.
▪ The router then modifies the packet's destination address to route it to the
correct internal device.

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Overview of NAT with a Pool of IP Addresses

• Challenge with Single Global Address:

o Using only one global address in NAT limits the number of private-network hosts
that can communicate with the same external host simultaneously.
o This can create connectivity issues in scenarios where multiple devices need to
access the same external resource.

Pool of Global Addresses

• Functionality:
o To overcome the limitation of a single global address, a NAT router can utilize a
pool of global addresses.
o For example, instead of just one address (e.g., 200.24.5.8), a NAT router can
manage multiple addresses (e.g., 200.24.5.8, 200.24.5.9, 200.24.5.10, and
200.24.5.11).
• Benefits:
o With a pool of global addresses, multiple private-network hosts can communicate
with the same external host simultaneously.
o Each private address can pair with a unique global address, effectively allowing
up to four private hosts to connect to the same external server at the same time.

Limitations of Using a Pool

• Connection Restrictions:
o Even with a pool of addresses, the NAT router imposes some limitations:
▪ No more than the number of global addresses in the pool can be used to
connect to the same destination simultaneously (in this case, a maximum
of four connections).
▪ A private-network host cannot access multiple external server programs
(e.g., HTTP and TELNET) simultaneously due to the shared global
address.
▪ Two private-network hosts cannot access the same external server
program (e.g., both trying to access an HTTP server) at the same time if
they require the same global address.

Using Both IP Addresses and Port Addresses

• Many-to-Many Relationships:
o To facilitate a many-to-many relationship between private-network hosts and
external server programs, more detailed information must be included in the NAT
translation table.
o The translation table can expand from two columns to five, incorporating:
▪ Private Address: The internal IP address of the private-network host.
▪ Global Address: The external IP address assigned by the NAT router.

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▪ Source Port: The port number used by the private-network host for the
outgoing connection.
▪ Destination Port: The port number used by the external server for the
service being accessed.
▪ Transport Layer Protocol: Identifies the protocol used (e.g., TCP, UDP)
for the connection.
• Example Scenario:
o If two hosts (172.18.3.1 and 172.18.3.2) need to access the same HTTP server
(25.8.3.2):
▪ The translation table can differentiate the two requests based on their
source ports.
▪ This eliminates ambiguity and allows both hosts to maintain separate
connections to the external server without conflict.

1.5 IPv6 Datagram

Transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6 involves changing the packet format to accommodate a larger
address space. The designers aimed to address IPv4's limitations while implementing new
features.

Key features in IPv6

1. Better Header Format

o Structure: IPv6 uses a new header format that separates options from the base
header.
o Benefits: This separation simplifies routing by allowing routers to process
packets more quickly, as most options are not checked during routing.
2. New Options
o Functionality: Introduces new options that enhance the protocol's capabilities,
allowing for more advanced networking functions.
3. Allowance for Extension
o Future Readiness: IPv6 is designed to be extensible, facilitating the integration
of new technologies and applications as they emerge.
4. Support for Resource Allocation
o Traffic Class & Flow Label: Replaces the IPv4 type-of-service field.

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o
Special Handling: These new fields enable the source to request prioritized
handling for certain types of traffic, which is crucial for real-time applications
like audio and video streaming.
5. Enhanced Security
o Encryption & Authentication: Built-in options for encryption and
authentication improve the confidentiality and integrity of data packets.
o Secure Communications: These security features provide a more robust
framework for safe data transmission.

Packet Format

The IPv6 packet is shown in Figure 22.6. Each packet is composed of a base header followed
by the payload. The base header occupies 40 bytes, whereas payload can be up to 65,535
bytes of information. The description of fields follows.

1. Version

• Definition: A 4-bit field that specifies the version number of the IP protocol.
• Value for IPv6: The version is set to 6.

2. Traffic Class

• Field Size: 8 bits.

• Purpose: Used to differentiate between different types of payloads with varying delivery
requirements.
• Replacement: This field replaces the type-of-service field from IPv4.

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3. Flow Label

• Field Size: 20 bits.

• Purpose: Designed to provide special handling for specific flows of data.
• Details: More information will be discussed later regarding its usage.

4. Payload Length

• Field Size: 2 bytes.

• Purpose: Specifies the length of the IP datagram's payload, excluding the header.
• Note: In IPv6, the base header length is fixed at 40 bytes, so only the payload length
needs to be defined.

5. Next Header

• Field Size: 8 bits.

• Purpose: Indicates the type of the first extension header (if present) or the type of data
following the base header.
• Comparison: Similar to the protocol field in IPv4; more details will be covered when
discussing the payload.

6. Hop Limit

• Field Size: 8 bits.

• Purpose: Functions like the TTL (Time to Live) field in IPv4, limiting the number of
hops a packet can make.

7. Source and Destination Addresses

• Source Address: A 16-byte (128-bit) address identifying the original source of the
datagram.
• Destination Address: A 16-byte (128-bit) address identifying the intended recipient of
the datagram.

8. Payload

• Comparison to IPv4: The payload field in IPv6 has a different format and meaning
compared to IPv4, accommodating new types of data and extension headers.

Payload Structure

• Definition: In IPv6, the payload consists of zero or more extension headers followed by
the data from higher-layer protocols (e.g., UDP, TCP).
• Extension Headers: Unlike IPv4, where options are part of the main header, IPv6
treats options as separate extension headers.

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Extension Headers

• Flexibility: The payload can contain multiple extension headers, allowing for
customization based on specific requirements.
• Mandatory Fields:
1. Next Header: Indicates the type of the next header (which can be another
extension header or the data payload).
2. Length: Specifies the length of the extension header in bytes.

Next Header Field

• Field Values: Each next header field value (code) defines the type of the next header:
o Types: This includes options like hop-by-hop options, source routing options, etc.
o Final Header: The last next header field in the chain specifies the protocol type
of the payload data (e.g., UDP, TCP).

Concept of Flow and Priority in IPv6

The Internet Protocol (IP) was originally designed as a connectionless protocol, meaning each
packet operates independently, with no connection between sender and receiver. Over time, there
has been a trend toward using IP as a connection-oriented protocol to improve efficiency and
guarantee certain types of service. In IPv4, the MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching)
technology is used to simulate connection-oriented behavior by encapsulating packets with
labels. However, IPv6 integrates a flow label directly into its datagram format, allowing IPv6 to
achieve a similar effect natively.

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Flow Label in IPv6

In IPv6, the flow label is a unique identifier for a sequence of packets, known as a flow, that
share common characteristics. For example, packets within the same flow typically travel the
same path, use the same resources, and may have similar security or processing requirements.
The flow label allows routers to efficiently manage packets with different requirements. Routers
that handle flow labels have a flow label table where each active flow label has a corresponding
entry.

1. Flow Label Table:

o The table contains entries with the specific services required by each flow.
o When a packet arrives, the router consults this table based on the packet’s flow
label. This bypasses the need for repeated routing calculations, as the flow label
table directly provides the necessary information, such as the next hop address.
2. Flow Label for Priority and Real-Time Data:
o Flow labels improve efficiency by allowing routers to quickly forward packets
based on pre-established flows.
o They are also crucial for real-time audio and video transmissions, which
require resources such as high bandwidth and large buffers to avoid delays.
With IPv6 flow labels, these resources can be reserved in advance to meet the
demands of real-time data.
3. Supporting Protocols:
o While the flow label identifies the flow, it does not contain all information needed
for the router’s flow label table entries. Instead, other protocols or options like
hop-by-hop options, RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol), and RSVP
(Resource Reservation Protocol) are used to provide additional context and
enable resource reservations.

Fragmentation and Reassembly

In IPv6, fragmentation and reassembly processes are handled differently than in IPv4, with a few
key distinctions aimed at optimizing network performance.

1. Source-Only Fragmentation:
o IPv6 fragmentation is handled solely by the source, not by intermediate
routers. This change reduces the processing load on routers, enhancing their
efficiency and speed.
o When a source needs to send a large packet, it is responsible for determining
whether fragmentation is necessary. If the packet exceeds the Maximum
Transmission Unit (MTU) of the path, the source fragments it before sending.
2. Router Processing:
o Routers do not fragment packets in IPv6. Fragmenting packets at a router
requires considerable processing, such as recalculating the values of
fragmentation-related fields. By removing this requirement, IPv6 reduces router
processing demands and allows packets to be processed more swiftly.

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3. Reassembly at the Destination:

o Fragmented packets are reassembled only at the destination. This approach
reduces the complexity and workload on intermediate routers, which only forward
packets without performing reassembly.
4. MTU Checks and ICMPv6 Messages:
o Routers check the size of each packet against the MTU of the network they are
about to forward it to. If a packet is too large, the router drops the packet and
sends an ICMPv6 “packet-too-big” error message back to the source. This
informs the source that it must fragment the packet or reduce its size to fit the
MTU.

Extension Header

An IPv6 packet is made of a base header and some extension headers. The length of the
base header is fixed at 40 bytes. To give more functionality to the IP datagram, the base header
can be followed by up to six extension headers.

Many of these headers are options in IPv4. Six types of extension headers have been
defined. These are hop-by-hop option, source routing, fragmentation, authentication, encrypted
security payload, and destination option (see Figure 22.8).

Hop-by-Hop Option

The hop-by-hop option is designed for scenarios where information needs to be processed by
every router along the datagram’s path. This is typically used for control functions, debugging,
and packet management. Some defined hop-by-hop options include:

• Pad1: A 1-byte option added for alignment purposes to ensure certain options start at
specific bits within a 32-bit word.
• PadN: Similar to Pad1 but used when more than 1 byte of padding is needed for
alignment.
• Jumbo Payload: Extends payload capacity beyond the typical IPv6 limit of 65,535 bytes,
enabling larger datagrams if necessary.
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Destination Option

The destination option is used when information should be read only by the destination node.
Routers along the way do not access this information, keeping it private for the destination. This
option has the same format as the hop-by-hop option and currently includes:

• Pad1 and PadN: Similar to the hop-by-hop options, these padding bytes are used for
alignment in the destination option header.

Source Routing

The source routing extension header allows the sender to specify specific intermediate nodes
or addresses that the packet must visit before reaching its destination. This combines the
functionalities of IPv4's strict and loose source routing options, enabling flexible routing paths
for specific applications.

Fragmentation

IPv6 fragmentation functions similarly to IPv4 but with key differences in where fragmentation
occurs:

• Only the original source is allowed to fragment IPv6 packets, which reduces the load on
routers.
• The source uses Path MTU Discovery to determine the smallest MTU on the packet’s
path and fragments the packet accordingly.
• If Path MTU Discovery is not available or used, the source fragments the packet to a size
of 1280 bytes or smaller, as this is the minimum MTU for networks connected to the
Internet.

Authentication

The authentication extension header ensures that a packet originates from a genuine sender
and maintains data integrity. This prevents impersonation and verifies that data has not been
altered en route, securing the communication between sender and receiver.

Encrypted Security Payload (ESP)

The ESP extension header provides confidentiality for data in transit by encrypting the payload,
protecting it from eavesdropping. This extension helps ensure secure transmission over
potentially untrusted networks. Each of these headers allows IPv6 to be flexible, secure, and
suitable for a wide variety of applications while keeping the base header lightweight.

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Comparison of IPv4 Options and IPv6 Extension Headers

IPv6 introduces a new approach to handling packet options by using extension headers instead
of embedding options within the main header as in IPv4. Here’s a comparison of specific options
between IPv4 and IPv6:

1. Padding Options:
o IPv4: Utilizes no-operation and end-of-option fields for alignment.
o IPv6: Replaces these with Pad1 (1 byte) and PadN (for 2+ bytes) to manage
alignment within extension headers.
2. Record Route Option:
o IPv4: Includes a record route option, but it was seldom used.
o IPv6: This option is removed due to limited use.
3. Timestamp Option:
o IPv4: Includes a timestamp option for tracking packet times along the route, but
it was also rarely used.
o IPv6: This option is not implemented.
4. Source Route Option:
o IPv4: Has a source route option, allowing the sender to specify the route.
o IPv6: Implements this as the source route extension header, allowing more
flexible source-routing control.
5. Fragmentation:
o IPv4: Handles fragmentation within the base header, allowing both the source
and routers to fragment packets.
o IPv6: Moves fragmentation control to the fragmentation extension header,
where only the original source handles fragmentation.
6. Authentication:
o IPv4: Lacks built-in support for authentication.
o IPv6: Adds a new authentication extension header to validate the sender’s
identity and ensure data integrity.
7. Encrypted Security Payload (ESP):
o IPv4: Has no built-in option for encryption.
o IPv6: Introduces the ESP extension header for encrypting data, enhancing
confidentiality and protecting against eavesdropping.

IPv6's extension headers streamline packet processing, enhance security, and add flexibility,
while removing outdated or rarely-used options from IPv4. This modular approach makes IPv6
better suited to handle diverse network demands.

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Introduction to Routing Algorithms

Unicast Routing Protocols: DVR, LSR, PVR, Unicast Routing protocols: RIP, OSPF, BGP, Multicasting
Routing-MOSPF

1. Introduction:
• Unicast routing in the Internet, with a large number of routers and a huge number of
hosts, can be done only by using hierarchical routing: routing in several steps using
different routing algorithms.
• The source host needs no forwarding table because it delivers its packet to the default
router in its local network. The destination host needs no forwarding table either because
it receives the packet from its default router in its local network.
• Routers that glue together the networks in the internet need forwarding tables.
• There are several routes that a packet can travel from the source to the destination; what
must be determined is which route the packet should take.
1.1 An Internet as a Graph:
• An internet can be modeled as a graph. A graph in computer science is a set of nodes and
edges (lines) that connect the nodes.
• Each router as a node and each network between a pair of routers as an edge.
• Internet is, modeled as a weighted graph, in which each edge is associated with a cost.
1.2 Least-Cost Routing
Internet is modelled as a weighted graph; the source router chooses a route to the destination
router in such a way that the total cost for the route is the least cost among all possible routes.

An internet and its graphical representation

• The best route between A and E is A-B-E, with the cost of 6.

• Each router needs to find the least-cost route between itself and all the other routers to be
able to route a packet using this criteria.

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Least-Cost Trees
• If there are N routers in an internet, there are (N − 1) least-cost paths from each router to
• any other router. This means we need N × (N − 1) least-cost paths for the whole internet.
• A least-cost tree is a tree with the source router as the root that spans the whole graph
(visits all other nodes) and in which the path between the root and any other node is the
shortest.
• One shortest-path tree for each node; we have N least-cost trees for the whole internet.

Least-cost trees for nodes in the internet

Least-cost trees for a weighted graph can have several properties:

1. The least-cost route from X to Y in X’s tree is the inverse of the least-cost route
from Y to X in Y’s tree; Eg. The route from A to F in A’s tree is (A → B → E
→ F), but the route from F to A in F’s tree is (F → E → B → A).
2. Instead of travelling from X to Z using X’s tree, we can travel from X to Y using
X’s tree and continue from Y to Z using Y’s tree. Eg. We can go from A to G in
A’s tree using the route (A → B → E → F → G). We can also go from A to E in
A’s tree (A → B → E) and then continue in E’s tree using the route (E → F →
G).

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2. Routing Algorithms
Depending on way they interpret the least cost and the way they create the least-cost tree:
• Distance-Vector Routing
• Link-State Routing
• Path-Vector Routing

2.1Distance-Vector Routing
• Each node creates is its own least-cost tree with the rudimentary information it has about
its immediate neighbours.
• The incomplete trees are exchanged between immediate neighbors to make the trees more
and more complete and to represent the whole internet.
• Use Bellman-Ford Equation.
Bellman-Ford Equation.
This equation is used to find the least cost (shortest distance) between a source node, x, and
a destination node, y, through some intermediary nodes (a, b, c, . . .) when the costs between
the source and the intermediary nodes and the least costs between the intermediary nodes
and the destination are given.

• The general case in which Dij is the shortest distance and cij is the cost between nodes i
and j.

• In distance-vector routing, normally we want to update an existing least cost with a least
cost through an intermediary node, such as z.

The Bellman-Ford equation enables us to build a new least-cost path from previously established
least-cost paths.

Distance Vectors
• A least-cost tree is a combination of least-cost paths from the root of the tree to all
destinations.
• These paths are graphically glued together to form the tree.
• Distance-vector routing unglues these paths and creates a distance vector, a one-
dimensional array to represent the tree.

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The distance vector corresponding to a tree

That the name of the distance vector defines the root, the indexes define the destinations, and the
value of each cell defines the least cost from the root to the destination.

Step 1:
• Each node in an internet, when it is booted, creates a very rudimentary distance vector
with the minimum information the node can obtain from its neighborhood.

The first distance vector for an internet

• Discovers the identity of the immediate neighbors and the distance between itself and
each neighbor.
• A simple distance vector is created by inserting the discovered distances in the
corresponding cells and leaves the value of other cells as infinity.
• These rudimentary vectors cannot help the internet to effectively forward a packet. For
example, node A thinks that it is not connected to node G because the corresponding cell
shows the least cost of infinity.
• After each node has created its vector, it sends a copy of the vector to all its immediate
neighbors. After a node receives a distance vector from a neighbor, it updates its distance
vector using the Bellman-Ford equation.

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Updating distance vectors

In the first event, node A has sent its vector to node B. Node B updates its vector using the cost
cBA = 2. In the second event, node E has sent its vector to node B. Node B updates its vector
using the cost cEA = 4.
After the first event, node B has one improvement in its vector: its least cost to node D has
changed from infinity to 5 (via node A). After the second event, node B has one more
improvement in its vector; its least cost to node F has changed from infinity to 6 (via node E).

Distance-Vector Routing Algorithm

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Count to infinity:
If a link is broken (cost becomes infinity), every other router should be aware of it immediately,
but in distance-vector routing, this takes some time. The problem is referred to as count to
infinity.

Two-Node Loop;

• At the beginning, both nodes A and B know how to reach node X. But suddenly, the link
between A and X fails. Node A changes its table. If A can send its table to B immediately,
everything is fine.
• However, the system becomes unstable if B sends its forwarding table to A before
receiving A’s forwarding table.
• Node A receives the update and, assuming that B has found a way to reach X,
immediately updates its forwarding table. Now A sends its new update to B. Now B
thinks that something has been changed around A and updates its forwarding table. The
cost of reaching X increases gradually until it reaches infinity.
• Packets bounce between A and B, creating a two-node loop problem.

Split Horizon:
Instead of flooding the table through each interface, each node sends only part of its table through
each interface.

2.2 Link – State Routing

Distance-vector routing algorithm, each router tells its neighbors what it knows about the
whole internet.
Link-state routing algorithm, each router tells the whole internet what it knows about its
neighbors.
This method uses the term link-state to define the characteristic of a link (an edge) that represents
a network in the internet. In this algorithm the cost associated with an edge defines the state of
the link. Links with lower costs are preferred to links with higher costs;
The collection of states for all links is called the link-state database (LSDB).

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Flooding: The process of creating LSDB that contains information of whole internet. Each node
can send some greeting messages to all its immediate neighbors (those nodes to which it is
connected directly) to collect two pieces of information for each neighboring node: the identity
of the node and the cost of the link.
The combination of these two pieces of information is called the Link State - LS packet (LSP);
the LSP is sent out of each interface, as shown in Figure:

LSPs created and sent out by each node to build LSDB

Formation of Least-Cost Trees

To create a least-cost tree for itself, using
the shared LSDB, each node needs to run
the famous Dijkstra Algorithm. This
iterative algorithm uses the following steps:
1. The node chooses itself as the root of
the tree, creating a tree with a single
node, and sets the total cost of each
node based on the information in the
LSDB.
2. The node selects one node, among all
nodes not in the tree, which is closest
to the root, and adds this to the tree.
After this node is added to the tree,
the cost of all other nodes not in the
tree needs to be updated because the
paths may have been changed.
3. The node repeats step 2 until all
nodes are added to the tree.

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Example:

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XB4MIexjvY0
2.3Path-Vector Routing
Both link-state and distance-vector routing are based on the least-cost goal, does not allow a
sender to apply specific policies to the route a packet may take.
Path-vector routing: Route is determined by the source using the policy it imposes on the route.
In other words, the source can control the path. Although path-vector routing is not actually used
in an internet, and is mostly designed to route a packet between ISPs
Spanning Trees:
• The path from a source to all destinations is also determined by the best spanning tree.
The best spanning tree, however, is not the least-cost tree.
• The tree determined by the source when it imposes its own policy. If there is more than
one route to a destination, the source can choose the route that meets its policy best.
• A source may apply several policies at the same time. One of the common policies uses
the minimum number of nodes to be visited (something similar to least-cost). Another
common policy is to avoid some nodes as the middle node in a route.

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Spanning trees in path-vector routing

From the above example figure, the policy imposed by all sources is to use the minimum number
of nodes to reach a destination. The spanning tree selected by A and E is such that the
communication does not pass through D as a middle node.
Creation of Spanning Trees:
The spanning trees are made, gradually and asynchronously, by each node. When a node is
booted, it creates a path vector based on the information it can obtain about its immediate
neighbor. A node sends greeting messages to its immediate neighbors to collect these pieces of
information.

Path vectors made at booting time

Each node, after the creation of the initial path vector, sends it to all its immediate neighbours.
Each node, when it receives a path vector from a neighbour, updates its path vector using an
equation similar to the Bellman-Ford, but applying its own policy instead of looking for the
least cost. We can define this equation as:

Path(x, y) = best {Path(x, y), [(x + Path(v, y)]} for all v’s in the internet.
The policy is defined by selecting the best of multiple paths. Path-vector routing also imposes
one more condition on this equation: If Path (v, y) includes x, that path is discarded to avoid a
loop in the path.

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Updating path vectors

In the first event, node C receives a copy of B’s vector, which improves its vector: now it knows how to
reach node A.
In the second event, node C receives a copy of D’s vector, which does not change its vector. As a matter
of fact the vector for node C after the first event is stabilized and serves as its forwarding table.

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3. Unicast Routing Protocols

Three common protocols used in the Internet:
1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP), based on the distance-vector algorithm.
2. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), based on the link-state algorithm.
3. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), based on the path-vector algorithm.

3.1 Internet Structure

• The Internet has changed from a tree-like structure, with a single backbone, to a multi-backbone
structure run by different private corporations today.
• There are several backbones run by private communication companies that provide global
connectivity. These backbones are connected by some peering points that allow connectivity
between backbones.
• At a lower level, there are some provider networks that use the backbones for global connectivity
but provide services to Internet customers.
• Finally, there are some customer networks that use the services provided by the provider
networks.
Hierarchical Routing:
Hierarchical routing means considering each ISP as an autonomous system (AS). Each AS can run
a routing protocol that meets its needs, but the global Internet runs a global protocol to glue all ASs
together.
• The routing protocol run in each AS is referred to as intra-AS routing protocol, intradomain
routing protocol, or interior gateway protocol (IGP);
• The global routing protocol is referred to as inter-AS routing protocol, interdomain routing
protocol, or exterior gateway protocol (EGP).
Presently,
• The two common intradomain routing protocols are RIP and OSPF;
• The only interdomain routing protocol is BGP.

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Autonomous Systems:
As we said before, each ISP is an autonomous system when it comes to managing networks and
routers under its control. Although we may have small, medium-size, and large ASs, each AS is given
an autonomous number (ASN) by the ICANN.
Stub AS: A stub AS has only one connection to another AS. The data traffic can be either initiated or
terminated in a stub AS; the data cannot pass through it. A good example of a stub AS is the customer
network, which is either the source or the sink of data.
Multihomed AS. A multihomed AS can have more than one connection to other ASs, but it does not
allow data traffic to pass through it. A good example of such an AS is some of the customer ASs that may
use the services of more than one provider network, but their policy does not allow data to be passed
through them.
Transient AS. A transient AS is connected to more than one other AS and also allows the traffic to pass
through. The provider networks and the backbone are good examples of transient ASs.

3.2 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

• Most widely used intradomain routing protocols based on the distance-vector routing
algorithm.
Hop Count:
• RIP routers advertise the cost of reaching different networks instead of reaching other
nodes in a theoretical graph.
• The cost is defined as the number of hops, which means the number of networks (subnets)
a packet needs to travel through from the source router to the final destination host.
• RIP can be used only in autonomous systems in which the diameter of the AS is not more
than 15 hops.

Figure shows the concept of hop count advertised by three routers from a source host to a
destination host.
Forwarding Tables

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A forwarding table in RIP is a three-column table in which the first column is the address of the
destination network, the second column is the address of the next router to which the packet
should be forwarded, and the third column is the cost (the number of hops) to reach the
destination network.
RIP Implementation

RIP message format

• RIP messages are encapsulated inside UDP user datagrams.
• RIP has two types of messages: request and response. A request message is sent by a
router that has just come up or by a router that has some time-out entries. A request
message can ask about specific entries or all entries.
• A response (or update) message can be either solicited or unsolicited.
o A solicited response message is sent only in answer to a request message. It
contains information about the destination specified in the corresponding request
message.
o An unsolicited response message, on the other hand, is sent periodically, every
30 seconds or when there is a change in the forwarding table.
RIP Algorithm:

• Instead of sending only distance vectors, a router needs to send the whole contents of its
forwarding table in a response message.
• The receiver adds one hop to each cost and changes the next router field to the address
of the sending router. We call each route in the modified forwarding table the received
route and each route in the old forwarding table the old route. The received router selects
the old routes as the new ones except in the following three cases:
1. If the received route does not exist in the old forwarding table, it should be added to the
route.
2. If the cost of the received route is lower than the cost of the old one, the received route
should be selected as the new one.
3. If the cost of the received route is higher than the cost of the old one, but the value of the
next router is the same in both routes, the received route should be selected as the new
one.

Example of an autonomous system using RIP: PTO

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3.3 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

• OSPF is also an intradomain routing protocol like RIP, but it is based on the link-state
routing protocol, OSPF is an open protocol, which means that the specification is a public
document.
• Each link (network) can be assigned a weight based on the throughput, round-trip time,
reliability, and so on. An administration can also decide to use the hop count as the cost.
• Different service types (TOSs) can have different weights as the cost.

Forwarding tables in OSPF:

Each OSPF router can create a forwarding table after finding the shortest-path tree between itself
and the destination using Dijkstra’s algorithm.

Areas:

• Compared with RIP, which is normally used in small ASs, OSPF was designed to be able
to handle routing in a small or large autonomous system.
• The formation of shortest-path trees in OSPF requires that all routers flood the whole AS
with their LSPs to create the global LSDB leads to a huge volume of traffic in a large AS.
• The AS needs to be divided into small sections called areas. Each area acts as a small
independent domain for flooding LSPs.

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• However, each router in an area needs to know the information about the link states not
only in its area but also in other areas. For this reason, one of the areas in the AS is
designated as the backbone area, responsible for gluing the areas together.

Areas in an autonomous system

Link-State Advertisement:

OSPF is based on the link-state routing algorithm, which requires that a router advertise the
state of each link to all neighbors for the formation of the LSDB.

5 types of l ink-state advertisements: router link, network link, summary link to network,
summary link to AS border router, and external link.

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Router link. A router link advertises the existence of a router as a node. In addition to giving
the address of the announcing router, this type of advertisement can define one or more types
of links that connect the advertising router to other entities.

Network link. A network link advertises the network as a node. However, since a network
cannot do announcements itself (it is a passive entity), one of the routers is assigned as the
designated router and does the advertising.

Summary link to network. This is done by an area border router; it advertises the summary
of links collected by the backbone to an area or the summary of links collected by the area to
the backbone.

Summary link to AS. This is done by an AS router that advertises the summary links from
other ASs to the backbone area of the current AS, information which later can be
disseminated to the areas so that they will know about the networks in other ASs.

External link. This is also done by an AS router to announce the existence of a single network
outside the AS to the backbone area to be disseminated into the areas.

OSPF Implementation:

OSPF is implemented as a program in the network layer, using the service of the IP for
propagation. An IP datagram that carries a message from OSPF sets the value of the protocol
field to 89. This means that, although OSPF is a routing protocol to help IP to route its
datagrams inside an AS, the OSPF messages are encapsulated inside datagrams.

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Performance:

• Use Areas: Divide large networks into multiple OSPF areas to reduce the size of LSDB
and SPF calculations.
• Tune Timers: Adjust Hello and Dead intervals to improve convergence time, but balance
with CPU/memory usage.
• Summarize Routes: Implement route summarization at ABRs and ASBRs to limit the
number of routes and LSAs exchanged.
• Reduce LSA Flooding: Use LSA throttling and limit the scope of LSAs to reduce
network overhead.
• Enhance Router Resources: Ensure routers have sufficient CPU and memory to handle
SPF calculations and large LSDBs.
• Implement OSPF Authentication: Secure the OSPF network by using authentication,
reducing the risk of rogue LSAs.

3.4 Border Gateway Protocol Version 4 (BGP4)

The Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP4) is the only interdomain routing protocol used
in the Internet today. BGP4 is based on the path-vector algorithm

A sample internet with four ASs

• An internet with four autonomous systems. AS2, AS3, and AS4 are stub autonomous
systems; AS1 is a transient one. In our example, data exchange between AS2, AS3,
and AS4 should pass through AS1.
• Each autonomous system in this figure uses one of the two common intradomain
protocols, RIP or OSPF.

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• To enable each router to route a packet to any network in the internet, we first install
a variation of BGP4, called external BGP (eBGP), on each border router (the one at
the edge of each AS which is connected to a router at another AS).
• We then install the second variation of BGP, called internal BGP (iBGP), on all
routers.
• This means that the border routers will be running three routing protocols
(intradomain, eBGP, and iBGP), but other routers are running two protocols
(intradomain and iBGP).

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4. Multicasting Routing-MOSPF
• Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) is the extension of the Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) protocol.
• It also uses the source-based tree approach to multicasting.
• MOSPF routers maintains current image of network topology through OSPF.
• Routers are required to implement a local group database which maintain a list of directly
attached group.

A router goes through the following steps to forward a multicast packet received from source
S and to be sent to destination G (a group of recipients):

1. The router uses the Dijkstra algorithm to create a shortest-path tree with S as the root
and all destinations in the internet as the leaves. Each source we need to create a
different tree.
2. The router finds itself in the shortest-path tree created in the first step. In other words,
the router creates a shortest-path subtree with itself as the root of the subtree.
3. The shortest-path subtree is actually a broadcast subtree with the router as the root
and all networks as the leaves. The IGMP protocol is used to find the information at
the leaf level. MOSPF has added a new type of link state update packet that floods
the membership to all routers.
4. The router can now forward the received packet out of only those interfaces that
correspond to the branches of the multicast tree.

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