CHAPTER: 1

VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

1. What is Variability?

➢ Variability is a fact of nature, and individuals are no exception to this.

➢ They vary in terms of physical characteristics, such as height, weight, strength, hair
colour, and so on.
➢ They also vary along psychological dimensions. They may be intelligent or dull,
dominant or submissive, creative or not so creative, outgoing or withdrawn, etc.

2. What are Individual differences?

Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics

and behaviour patterns. The major factors that contribute towards individual difference are-

➢ The genes that we inherit and

➢ surroundings that influence us i.e. Environment. All individuals vary in some way
and are unique. For example, difference in intelligence, preferences

3. What is Situationism?

➢ Situationism, which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed
influence one’s behaviour.
➢ A person, who is generally aggressive, may behave in a submissive manner in the
presence of her/his top boss.
➢ Sometimes, the situational influences are so powerful that individuals with differing
personality traits respond to them in almost the same ways. The situationist
perspective views human behavior is relatively more influenced by external factors.
.

4. Explain Situationist perspective

The situationist perspective views human behaviour as resulting from interaction of

external and internal factors.

5. What is assessment? Differentiate between formal & informal assessment. What is

the importance of assessment?
Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their
evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison. It is
the first step in understanding psychological attributes.
Assessments are of two types
➢ Formal assessment is objective, standardised, and organised.
➢ Informal Assessment-On the other hand, informal assessment varies from case to
case and from one assessor to another and, therefore, is open to subjective
interpretations. Psychologists are trained in making formal assessment of
psychological attributes.
➢ Importance of assessment
Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities,
behaviours and personal qualities of individuals. Once assessment is done, we can
use it to predict the behaviour, and if the predicted consequence is not what we want,
we may intervene to bring a change.

6. What is psychological assessment?

➢ Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities,

behaviours, and personal qualities of individuals.

7. What are Psychological attributes? Define each attribute (intelligence, Aptitude,

Interest, Personality, Values)

a)Aptitude: Aptitude refers to an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills.

• Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do if given proper
environment and training.
• A person with high mechanical aptitude can profit from appropriate training and can
do well as an engineer.
b)Intelligence : It is the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use
available resources effectively when faced with problems or challenges. Intelligence tests
measure a persona’s general cognitive competence (including schooling)

c)Interest: Interest is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific

activities relative to others.
▪ Assessment of interests of students may help to decide what subjects or courses they
can pursue comfortably and with pleasure.
 ▪ Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life satisfaction and
performance on jobs.

d)Values:Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour.

o A person having a value sets a standard for guiding her/his actions in life and also for
judging others.
o In value assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of a person (e.g.,
political, religious, social or economic)
e)Personality : Personality refers to relatively enduring (stable) characteristics of a
person that make her or him different from others. Personality tests try to assess an
individual’s unique characteristics e.g. dominant or submissive etc.

8. What are different assessment methods. Discuss each. (Psychological test, interview,
Case study, Observation & Self report)

Several methods are used for psychological assessment.

• Psychological Test is an objective and standardised measure of an individual’s mental

and/or behavioural characteristics. Objective tests have been developed to measure all the
dimensions of psychological attributes (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.).
These tests are widely used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel
selection, placement, and training. Besides objective tests, psychologists have also
developed certain projective tests, especially for the assessment of personality.
• Interview involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.
•Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological
attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical
environment
Case studies are based on data generated by different methods, e.g.interview, observation,
questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.
• Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Certain phenomena such as mother-
child interactions can be easily studied through observation. The major problems with
observational methods are that the observer has little control over the situation and the
reports may suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer.
• Self-Report is a method in which a person provides factual information about
herself/himself and/or opinions, beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such information may be
obtained by using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a psychological test, or a
personal diary.
9. Define Intelligence according to – Alfred and Wechsler
➢ Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning,
understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in
defining intelligence.

➢ Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He
defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.

➢ Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in
terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as the
global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and
to deal effectively with her/his environment.

➢ Other psychologists, such as Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent
individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it.

10. What is the difference between Psychometric approach and Information processing
approach?

1. The psychometric approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It

expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.

2. On the other hand, the information-processing approach describes the processes

people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving. The major focus of this
approach is on how an intelligent person acts.

3. Rather than focusing on structure of intelligence or its underlying dimensions,

information-processing approaches emphasise studying cognitive functions
underlying intelligent
4. Psychometric approach theories: One factor theory, two factor theory, theory of
primary mental abilities, level I and level, structure of intellect model
5. Information approach theories: Triarchic theory of intelligence and Pass model

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
 1) One factor theory,
2) two factor theory,
3) theory of primary mental abilities,
4) level I and level,
5) structure of intellect model
6) Theory of mutiple intelligence,
7) Triarchic theory of intelligence and
8) Pass model

11. Explain One factor theory.

➢ Binet conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which

can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment.
➢ His theory of intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of intelligence.
➢ This theory came to be disputed when psychologists started analysing data of
individuals, which was collected using Binet’s test.

12. Explain Two factor theory.

➢ In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence employing a

statistical method called factor analysis.
➢ He showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific
factors (s-factors).
➢ The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all
performances.
➢ In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also many specific abilities.
➢ These are contained in what he called the s-factor.
➢ Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor, but in
addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to excel in their
respective domains.

13. Explain Theory of primary mental abilities.

➢ Louis Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the theory of primary mental abilities.

➢ It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is relatively
independent of the others.
➢ These primary abilities are:
1. Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas),
 2. Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational
skills),
3. Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms),
4. Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details),
5. Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),
6. Memory (accuracy in recalling information), and
7. Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).

14. Explain Level I and Level II theory.

➢ Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of abilities

operating at two levels, called Level I and Level II.
➢ Level I is the associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the input
(e.g., rote learning and memory).
➢ Level II, called cognitive competence, involves higher-order skills as they transform
the input to produce an effective output.

15. Explain Structure of intellect model.

➢ J.P. Guilford proposed the structure of-intellect model which classifies intellectual
traits among three dimensions: operations, contents, and products.
➢ Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording,
memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
➢ Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual
operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters,
numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g., information about people’s
behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
➢ Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent.
Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and
implications.

The above mentioned theories are representations of psychometric approach to

understand intelligent behaviour.
16. Explain Theory of Multiple intelligence

➢ Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences.

➢ According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of
intelligences exist.
➢ Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person
exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on
other types of intelligences.
➢ Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences interact and work together
to find a solution to a problem.
➢ Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in
their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence.
These are as follows:

1) Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language) :

▪ It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and
understand others.
▪ Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are sensitive to different
shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can create linguistic images in their mind.
▪ Poets and writers are very strong in this component of intelligence.

2) Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving) :

▪ Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically.
▪ They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve mathematical
problems.
▪ Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong in this component.

3) Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns) :

▪ It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images.
▪ The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind.
▪ Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons are
likely to have highly developed spatial intelligence.

4) Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns) :

▪ It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns.
▪ Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in
creating new patterns of sounds.

5) Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly and

creatively) :
 ▪ This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction
of products and problem solving.
▪ Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons are likely to have
such kind of intelligence.

6) Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours) :

▪ This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people
so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.
▪ Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders are likely
to possess high interpersonal intelligence.

7) Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires):

▪ This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others.
▪ Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human
existence, and meaning of life.
▪ Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples of this type of intelligence.

8) Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world) :

▪ This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world.
▪ It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna, and
making subtle discriminations in the natural world.
▪ Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists,

17. Explain Triarchic theory of intelligence.

➢ Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment
to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”.
➢ According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence: Componential,
Experiential, and Contextual. The elements of the triarchic theory of intelligence are
shown in Figure 1.1….from book

Componential Intelligence :
▪ Componential or analytical intelligence is the analysis of information to solve
problems. Persons high on this ability think analytically and critically and succeed in
schools.
▪ This intelligence has three components, each serving a different function.
1) First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and
acquisition of the ways of doing things.
 2) The second is the meta or a higher order component, which involves planning
concerning what to do and how to do.
3) The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things.

Experiential Intelligence:
▪ Experiential or creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences creatively
to solve novel problems.
▪ It is reflected in creative performance.
▪ Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make
new discoveries and inventions.
▪ They quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation.

Contextual Intelligence :
▪ Contextual or practical intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental
demands encountered on a daily basis.
▪ It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’.
▪ Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select a more
favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the environment to fit their
needs. Therefore, they turn out to be successful in life.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence represents the information-processing

approach to understand intelligence.

18. Explain PASS model.

Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence

➢ This model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994).
➢ According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning
of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain.
➢ These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and planning
respectively.

Arousal/Attention :
▪ An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem.
▪ Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.
▪ For instance, when you are told by your teacher about a test which s/he plans to hold,
it would arouse you to attend to the specific chapters.
 ▪ Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading, learning and revising the
contents of the chapters.

Simultaneous and Successive Processing :

You can integrate the information into your knowledge system either simultaneously or
successively.

▪ Simultaneous processing takes place when you perceive the relations among various
concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension.
▪ For example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test, a design is presented from
which a part has been removed. You are required to choose one of the six options that
best completes the design.
▪ Simultaneous processing helps you in grasping the meaning and relationship between
the given abstract figures.

o Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially so
that the recall of one leads to the recall of another.
o Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc. are examples of successive
processing.

Planning :
• After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
• It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target,
and evaluate their effectiveness.
• If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
• For example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would have to set goals,
plan a time schedule of study, get clarifications in case of problems and if you are not
able to tackle the chapters assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways
(e.g., give more time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goals.

➢ Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS).
➢ It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions
presumed to be independent of schooling.
➢ The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.
➢ The results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with
learning problems.

This model represents the information-processing approach to intelligence.

19. Intelligence is interplay of nature and nurture. Discuss.

Why are some people more intelligent than others?

Is it due to their heredity, or is it due to the influence of environmental factors?

• There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of

complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
• Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within which an
individual’s development is actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the
environment.

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture

The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on
twins and adopted children.

Twin studies:
➢ The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90.
➢ Twins separated early in childhood also show considerable similarity in their
intellectual, personality and behavioural characteristics.
➢ The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72,
➢ those of fraternal twins reared together correlate almost 0.60,
➢ and those of brothers and sisters reared together correlate about 0.50,
➢ while siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.

Studies of adopted children,

➢ which show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than
adoptive parents.

With respect to the role of environment,

➢ studies have reported that as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to
move closer to that of their adoptive parents.
➢ Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher socioeconomic
status exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
➢ There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich
nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
20. Write a note on assessment of intelligence? ( Mental and Chronological age, concept
of Intelligences Quotient and Normal Curve with fig. )

Assessment of Intelligence

• In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to
formally measure intelligence.
• In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA),
which is a measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his
age group.
• A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an intelligence test equals the
average performance level of a group of 5-year olds.
• Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
• A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.
Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being two mental age years below the
chronological age.

• In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence

Quotient (IQ).
• IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100.

• The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point.

• When the MA equals the CA, the IQ equals 100.
• If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than 100.
• IQ becomes less than 100 when the MA is less than the CA.
• For example, a 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 would have an IQ of 120
(12/10 .. 100),

❖
Normal curve distribution:
o IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of most people
tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution.
o Only a few people have either very high or very low scores.
o The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve,
called the normal curve.
o This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.
o The distribution of IQ scores in the form of a normal distribution is shown in Figure
1.2.
 o The mean IQ score in a population is 100.
o People with IQ scores in the range of 90–110 have normal intelligence.
o Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’, while persons with
IQ above 130 are considered to have exceptional talents.

Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the Basis of IQ

Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

…from book….important

21. Write a note on Variations of intelligence. ( what is intellectual deficiency and

giftedness)

Intellectual Deficiency
➢ Those children who show intellectual deficiency are termed as ‘mentally challenged’
or ‘mentally retarded’.
➢ The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation
as “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period”.

This definition points to three basic features.

1) First, in order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show significantly sub-
average intellectual functioning. Persons having IQs below 70 are judged to have sub-
average intelligence.
2) The second relates to deficits in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a
person’s capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment.
3) The third feature is that the deficits must be observed during the developmental period,
that is between 0 and 18 years of age.

➢ Individuals who are categorised as having mental retardation show significant

variation in their abilities, ranging from those who can be taught to work and function
with special attention, to those who cannot be trained and require institutional care
throughout their lives.
➢ These figures are used to understand the categories of mentally retarded. The
different levels of retardation are:
• mild retardation (IQs 55 to approx.70)
• moderate retardation (IQs 35–40 to approx.50-55),
 • severe retardation (IQs 20–25 to approx 35-40)
• profound retardation (IQs below20 - 25).

As the level of retardation increases, the difficulties are strongly marked. The people with
moderate retardation lag behind their peers in language and motor skills. They can be trained
in self-care skills, and simple social and communication skills. They need to have moderate
degree of supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals with profound and severe retardation
are incapable of managing life and need constant care for their entire lives

Intellectual Giftedness

➢ Intellectually gifted individuals show higher performance because of their outstanding

potentialities.
➢ The study of gifted individuals began in 1925, when Lewis Terman followed the lives
of about 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above to examine how intelligence was
related to occupational success and life adjustment.
➢ Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide
variety of areas.
➢ Talent is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g.,
spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are sometimes called ‘prodigies’.
➢ giftedness depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high
commitment.
➢ Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority.
➢ Even during infancy and early childhood, they show larger attention span, good
recognition memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental changes, and
early appearance of language skills.
➢ Each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics.
Some important characteristics of gifted children are :

1) Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.

2) High speed in processing information.
3) Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
4) Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
5) High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
6) Independent and non-conformist thinking.
7) Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.
22. Distinguish between Individual & Group test and Verbal test, Non- Verbal test,
Performance test, culture fair test, culture biased test.

Individual and Group Tests

1) An individual intelligence test is one which can be administered to one person at a

time. A group intelligence test can be administered to several persons simultaneously.

2) Individual tests require the test administrator to establish a rapport with the subject
and be sensitive to her/his feelings, moods and expressions during the testing session.
Group tests, however, do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’
feelings.

3) Individual tests allow people to answer orally or in a written form or manipulate

objects as per the tester’s instructions. Group tests generally seek written answers
usually in a multiple-choice format.

• E.g. Standard Binet intelligence scale, WAIS.

Group Test
• Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously
• Do not allow to be familiar with the subject’s feeling
• Answers are in multiple choice format
• e.g. Group test by Prayag Mehta
Group Test by S. Jalota

Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests

1) Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses either orally or in a written form.
Therefore, verbal tests can be administered only to literate people.

2) The non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations as test items.

Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is an example of a non-verbal test.
In this test, the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the
alternatives that will complete the pattern.
 3) Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects and other materials to
perform a task. Written language is not necessary for answering the items.
For example, Kohs’ Block Design Test contains a number of wooden blocks.
The subject is asked to arrange the blocks within a time period to produce a given
design.
A major advantage of performance tests is that they can be easily administered to
persons from different cultures.

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

1) Many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed.
Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural
ethos. Hence, educated middle class white subjects generally perform well on those
tests. The items do not respect the cultural perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms
for these tests are also drawn from western cultural groups.

2) It is nearly impossible to design a test that can be applied equally meaningfully in

all cultures. Psychologists have tried to develop tests that are culture-fair or culturally
appropriate, i.e. one that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to
different cultures.
a) Culture Biased test show a bias to the culture in which they are developed
b)E.g. American test intelligence favour educated whites
c)The items in the test are culture / people specific and the norms are also drawn from
specific groups
a) Culture Fair Test are fair to people of any culture
b) They include items that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to different
cultures
c) Items try to measure common experiences to all cultures and have questions where
language is not required.
d) E.g. Non-verbal and performance test

23. Distinguish between Technological intelligence and Integral intelligence.

❖ Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, has argued that culture provides a social context in
which people live, grow, and understand the world around them.

❖ For example, in less technologically developed societies, social and emotional skills
in relating to people are valued, while in technologically advanced societies, personal
 achievement founded on abilities of reasoning and judgment is considered to represent
intelligence.

❖ Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and achievements in art

and literature.

❖ Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a

product of culture.

Technologically advanced societies

➢ adopt child rearing practices that foster skills of
▪ generalisation and
▪ abstraction,
▪ speed,
▪ minimal moves, and
▪ mental manipulation among children.
➢ These societies promote a type of behaviour, which can be called technological
intelligence.
➢ In these societies, persons are well-versed in skills of
o attention,
o observation,
o analysis,
o performance,
o speed, and
o achievement orientation.
➢ Intelligence tests developed in western cultures look precisely for these skills in an
individual.

Some non-western societies value self-reflection and collectivistic orientation as opposed to

personal achievement and individualistic orientation.

Intelligence in the Indian Tradition

Contrary to technological intelligence,

➢ intelligence in the Indian tradition can be termed as integral intelligence,
➢ which gives emphasis on connectivity with the social and world environment.
➢ Indian thinkers view intelligence from a holistic perspective where equal attention is
paid to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as well as their integration.
 ➢ Buddhi, according to J.P.Das, includes such skills as mental effort, determined action,
feelings, and opinions along with cognitive competence such as knowledge,
discrimination, and understanding.
➢ the notion of buddhi has affective and motivational components besides a strong
cognitive component.
➢ Unlike the western views, which primarily focus on cognitive parameters, the
following competencies are identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian tradition
:
1) Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem
solving, and effective communication).
2) Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the
needy, concern about others, recognising others’ perspectives).
3) Emotional competence (self regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty,
politeness, good conduct, and self-evaluation).
4) Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work,
vigilance, and goal-directed behaviours).

24. What is Emotional intelligence?

• Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and
regulation of emotions.
• It is the feeling side of intelligence.
• This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered emotional
intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and
actions”.
• Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as
IQ is used to express intelligence.
• In simple terms, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional
information accurately and efficiently.
Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons
1) Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
2) Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body
language, voice and tone, and facial expressions.
3) Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while
solving problems and taking decisions.
4) Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.
5) Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and
others to achieve harmony and peace.
25. How is Aptitude different from intelligence and interest? How is it measured?
SPECIAL ABILITIES

Aptitude : Nature and Measurement

➢ intelligence tests assess a general mental ability.

➢ Aptitude refers to special abilities in a particular field of activity.
➢ It is a combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire
some specific knowledge or skill after training.
➢ The knowledge of aptitude can help us to predict an individual’s future performance.
➢ EG.When you have a problem in mathematics, you may turn to Aman for help, and
with similar difficulties in literature you may consult Avinash. These specific skills
and abilities are called aptitudes.
➢ With proper training these abilities can be considerably enhanced.
➢ In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and
interest.

➢ Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform

that activity.

➢ A student with high mechanical aptitude and strong interest in engineering is more
likely to be a successful mechanical engineer.

➢ Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude tests and
multiple (generalised) aptitude tests.
➢ Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB),
and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known
aptitude test batteries.
➢ Among these, DAT is most commonly used in educational settings. It consists of 8
independent subtests:
(i)Verbal Reasoning,
(ii)Numerical Reasoning,
(iii)Abstract Reasoning,
(iv)Clerical Speed and Accuracy,
(v)Mechanical Reasoning,
(vi)Space Relations,
(vii)Spelling, and
 (viii)Language Usage.
➢ J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.

26. How is Creativity linked with intelligence? Differentiate between :Divergent

thinking & Convergent thinking

➢ Manifestations of creativity can be observed in a novel solution to a problem, an

invention, composition of a poem, painting, new chemical process, an innovation in
law, a breakthrough in preventing a disease and the like.
➢ Despite differences, one common element among these is the production of something
new and unique.
➢ Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative.
➢ At the same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not have a very
high IQ.
➢ Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.
➢ Researchers have found that the relationship between creativity and intelligence is
positive.
➢ All creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to
comprehend, retain, and retrieve.
➢ Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing with language.
➢ The artist must understand the effect that will be produced by a particular technique
of painting, a scientist must be able to reason and so on.
➢ Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that
intelligence does not correlate well with creativity.
➢ Creativity tests came into existence to assess variations in terms of the potential for
creativity in contrast to intelligence.

➢ A general feature of most of the creativity tests is that they are open-ended.
➢ They permit the person to think of different answers to the questions or problems in
terms of her/his experiences, whatever these may have been.
➢ Therefore, there is freedom to use one’s imagination and express it in original ways.

➢ Creativity tests involve divergent thinking and

• assess such abilities as ability to produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which are off-
the-beaten track,
• ability to see new relationships between seemingly unrelated things,
• ability to guess causes and consequences,
• ability to put things in a new context, etc.
➢ This is contrary to the tests of intelligence which mostly involve convergent
thinking.
• In tests of intelligence, the person has to think of the right solution to the problem and
the focus is on assessing abilities such as memory, logical reasoning, accuracy,
perceptual ability, and clear thinking.
• There is little scope for the expression of spontaneity, originality, and imagination.

➢ A few investigators have also developed tests of creativity in different areas such as
literary creativity, scientific creativity, mathematical creativity, etc.
➢ Some of the famous psychologists who have developed creativity tests are Guilford,
Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.
➢ How do we explain variations in the potential for creativity?
➢ There is no disagreement that creativity is determined by both heredity and
environment. Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity, environmental factors
stimulate the development of creativity. How much of the creative potential can be
realised, when and in what specific form and direction is largely determined by
environmental factors such as motivation, commitment, family support, peer
influences, training opportunities, etc.

Other Important Questions

Q1. What is aptitude ? Discuss the uses of aptitude test.

Aptitude is a combination of characteristics implicative of individual potential to
acquire some specific skills with training e.g. possession of certain qualities in
different proportion to become a dancer or a computer programmer.
Aptitude tests designed to measure capacities i.e. to predict what one can accomplish
with training.
1. Aptitude test measure more specific abilities : Mechanical aptitude test measure
various types of eye hand coordination.
2. Selection and recruitment: Aptitude tests are used for employee selection. They
test specific abilities required for a particular job.
3. Career Guidance : Aptitude tests also provide career guidance
4. Prediction: Aptitude tests are used to predict success in various specific
professions.
Q2. 'Variability is a fact of nature and individuals are no exception to this’ Justify?
 Individual vary in terms of their physical characteristics such as height, weight,
strength, hair colour and also along psychological dimensions such as intelligence,
dominance creativity etc. Different traits exists in varying degrees in individuals so
each one of us in unique as compared to others and that leads to individual differences.
Individual difference refers to distinctiveness and variations among people's
characteristic and behaviour patterns. These differences make the world beautiful,
purposeful and goal directed. Different people have specific needs and to satisfy these
needs different skills are indispensable, i.e., variability is a fact of nature which helps
in adaptation and individuals are no exception to this.

Q3."The relationship between creativity and intelligence is positive but intelligence

by itself does not ensure creativity" - Explain?
Intelligence may be defined as an individual’s abilities to understand, to adapt and to
learn from experience. Creativity on the other hand involves the ability to produce
work i.e. both novel and appropriate. Researchers have found that the relationship
between creativity and intelligence is positive. All creative acts require some
minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain and
retrieve. According to Guilford (1967) creativity is a subset of intelligence as
creativity involves divergent thinking which is one of the five operations of the
intellect.

According to Sternberg triarchic theory, three aspects of intelligence are synthetic,

analytical and practical abilities. It means that creative people may have high
intelligence or average intelligence but highly intelligent person may not be creative
Intelligence by itself does not ensure creativity.
Q4. Elaborate the status of intelligence testing in India.
Ans. The development of intelligence tests in India has for long remained one of the
fascinating and popular academic pursuits.
• The first systematic attempt to standardize a test of intelligence, was Binet's
intelligence test which was adopted by Dr. Rice in Urdu and Punjabi in 1930s.
 • Mahalanobis also attempted to standardize Binet s test of intelligence in Bengali.
Attempts were also made to develop Indian norms for some other foreign tests like
WAIS, RPM and Kohs' Block Design test and others.
• The first doctorate on test construction was awarded to K.G. Desai inl954 for the
development of a group tests of intelligence in Gujarati.
• Dr. S.M. Mohsin developed first group test of intelligence in Hindi.
• Some tests developed in India include Group test of intelligence: by Prayag Mehta,
Draw a man test bv Promila Pathak, CIE Non-verbal test etc.
Q5. What is mental retardation?
Ans. The term mental retardation refers to intellectual functioning that is considerably
below average combined with varying degrees of difficulty in meeting the demands
of everyday life. In short it is a deficit in potential.
• The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation
as "significantly sub average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period."
• People are appropriately regarded as mentally retarded if
• They attain IQs below 70 on an appropriate intelligence test
• Their adaptive skills are inadequate to cope with the ordinary daily tasks
• The deficits must be observed during the developmental "period i.e. between zero and
eighteen years of age.

Catagories of mental retardation

Category IQ Scores Behavioural
Characteristic
Mild Retardation IQs 55 to Development typically slower than
approx.70 peers but can function independently,
can hold jobs and may lead families
life.
Moderate Retardation IQs 35–40 Slower than peers in language and
to motor abilities, they can be trained in
 approx.50- self-help skills, social and
55 communication skills, require
moderate level of supervision in daily
tasks.
Severe Retardation IQs 20–25 Incapable of managing life and need
to approx constant care for their entire lives.
35-40
Profound Retardation IQs
below20 –
25

Q6. How Creative tests are different from intelligence tests ?

Ans. Creative tests are different from Intelligence Tests as:
• Creative tests measure creative thinking ability whereas intelligence tests measure
general mental ability.
• Creative test measure convergent and divergent thinking whereas intelligence test
measure convergent thinking only.
• Creative tests measure imagination and spontaneous expression to produce new ideas,
to see new relationship, to guess causes and consequences and ability to put things in
a new context. Intelligence tests measure potential.
• In creative test questions are open - ended that is no specified answers whereas
intelligence tests mostly use close ended questions.

Learning Checks (1 markers)

1) Gardener Proposed -
a. Two cluster of mental abilities,
b. Theory of Multiple Intelligence,
 c. Triarchic theory of intelligence.
d. Two factor Theory

A. Theory of Multiple Intelligence.

2) Who was the first person to devise Systematic Test to measure intelligence of
children?
A. Alfred Binet

3) Who proposed Structural Model Theory of Intelligence?

A. Guilford

4) Test designed to measure capacities, that are to predict what one can accomplish with
training are called ?
A. Aptitude Tests.

5) An I.Q. below _______ is generally considered retarded.

A. 70

6) Which is not only a measure of relative brightness but also a measure of the
individual’s rate of intellectual development ?
A. I.Q.

7) ________ retarded people have the I.Q. ranging from 25 to 39 ?

A. Severe

8) ____________ intelligence not only helps in better career building but also answers
in developing better relationships in life.
A. Emotional Intelligence

9) Who defined Intelligence as the global capacity of an individual think rationally and
to deal effectively with the environment?
A. David Wechsler.

10) Match List A with List B:-

List – A List - B
1) One factor theory a) Thurston
2) Two factor theory b) Binet
3) Structure of Intellect Model c) Spearman
4) Theory of Primary Mental Abilities d) Guilford
A. 1(b), 2(c), 3(d), 4(a)

11) The Mental Age (MA) of an 8 year old child with an I.Q. of 110 is ______ years.
IQ = MA/CA x 100
110 = MA/8 x 100
100MA = 110x8
MA = 110 x 8/100
MA = 8.8 years.

12) The ratio which states the relationship between the Mental age and the Chronological
age is called ?
A. Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)

13) What are the full forms of DAT, GATB and ASVAB?
A. DAT – Differential Aptitude Test
GATB- General Aptitude Test Battery
ASVAB - Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

14) Who proposed the concept of I.Q. and when?

A. William Stern in 1912

15) What are the full forms of AAMD, CAS, RPM, WAIS and NCERT
A. AAMD - American Association on Mental Deficiency
CAS - Cognitive Assessment System
RPM - Raven's Progressive Matrices
WAIS - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
NCERT - National Council of Educational Research and Training

16) Name the most commonly used Aptitude Test.

A. Differential Aptitude Test.

17) Name an Indian Psychologist who constructed the Intelligence test in Hindi.
A. M.C Joshi

18) Who proposed to concept of EQ ?

A. Salovey and Maver.

19) Name a psychologist who developed Creativity Test.

A. J.P. Guilford
20) Louis Thurstone's Theory of Intelligence is known as ____________
A. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities.

21) The PASS Model of Intelligence was given by___________

A. J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby (1991)

22) Intelligence consists of a General Factor (g) plus Specific Abilities (‘s’) was said by
A. Charles Spearman

23) The Psychometric Approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It

expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.
True / False

24) Name the psychologist who worked on gifted children.

A. Louis Terman

25) Arthur Jenson proposed that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities.
True / False

26) Match the following-

List-A List-B
1) Met a Components a) Executive strategies
2) Performance Components b) Control Monitor
3) Knowledge Acquisition Components c) Encode Combine

A. 1(b), 2(a), 3(c)

27) The ability to size up situations and adapt to real life demands is_____
A. Contextual Intelligence.

28) Contextual Intelligence is also known as Practical/Creative Intelligence.

A. Practical Intelligence.

29) Clerical Aptitude Test is a Specialized/Generalized Aptitude Test.

A. Specialized Aptitude Test.

30) Binet and Simon defined retardation as being ______ years below the CA.
A. Two Years.

31) Who made an Indian adaptation of DAT ?

A. J.M. Ojha

QUESTION BANK

ASSIGNMENT
Learning Checks

1. Gardner proposed
(a) Two cluster of mental abilities
(b) Theory of multiple intelligence
(c) Triarchic theory of intelligence
(d) Two factor theory of intelligence

2. Match the two lists and choose the correct answers

List – A List – B
(1) One factor theory (a) Thurstone
(2) Two factor theory (b) Binet
(3) Structure of intellect Model (c) Spearman
(4) theory of primary mental abilities (d) Guilford

3. According to Binet intelligence refers to

(a) Comprehension (b) Invention
(c) Direction (d) All of the above

4. Who among the following defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of
the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with the
environment?
(a) Spearman (b) Wayatt
(c) David Wechsler (d) Galton

5. Who among the following was the first person to devise systematic test to measure
intelligence of children.
(a) Terman (b) Binet
(c) Thorndike (d) Wechsler

6. Binet and Simon published two subsequent revisions of __________ test scale.
(a) 1903 (b) 1905
(c) 1902 (d) 1906
7. Who among the following had given the ‘structural Model Theory’ of intelligence?
(a) Spearman (b) Thurstone
(c) Guilford (d) Thorndike

8. __________________ Intelligence not only helps in better career building, but also
encourages in developing, better relationship and better health in later life.
(a) Verbal (b) Non-verbal
(c) Emotional (d) Artificial

9. Tests designed to measure capacities, that are to predict what one can accomplish,
with training, are called.
(a) Achievement tests (d) Aptitude tests
(c) Intelligence tests (d) Interest tests

10. I.Q. below _________________ is generally considered retarded.

(a) 100 (b) 70
(c) 120 (d) 110

11. Why of the following is not only a measure of relative brightness, but also a measure
of the individual’s rate of intellectual development?
(a) M.A. (b) I.Q.
(c) D.Q. (d) P.Q.

12. ________________ retarded people have the I.Q. ranging from 25 to 39.
(a) Mild (b) Moderate
(c) Severe (d) Profound

13. The mental age (MA) of an 8 year old child with an I.Q of 110 is _____________
years.

Very short Question 2 Marks

1. What is 'situationism'?
2. Mention some psychological assessment methods.
3. What are the qualities of persons with experiential intelligence?
4. Who developed cognitive assessment system (CAS)?
5. What is 'Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

Short Questions - I 3 Marks

6. Discuss the domains of psychological attributes.
7. What do you mean by the word 'aptitude'? Briefly explain.
8. Briefly explain hierarchical model of intelligence.
9. Differentiate between interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence.
10. Define IQ. How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
11. Discuss Creativity Tests
Differentiate between Psychometric and information processing approach.

Short Questions - II 4 Marks

12. Mention the differences between

a) Individual and group test
b) Verbal and Non-verbal test.

13. Intelligence is the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Discuss.

14. Analyse the definition of intellectual or mental deficiency as proposed by American

Association on Mental Deficiency.

15. Point out important characteristics of gifted children.

16. What are the characteristics of emotionally intelligent persons?

Long Questions 6 Marks

17. Explain the multiple intelligences identified by Gardener.

18. Explain PASS Model.

19. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualization of intelligence?

20. "Individuals vary in their intellectual ability". Explain.

Value based questions

1. 'Variability is a fact of nature and individuals are no exception to this' - Justify?
2. "Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological
systems" Explain with reference to PASS MODEL.
3. "The relationship between creativity and intelligence is positive but intelligence by itself
does not ensure creativity" - Explain with an example.
4. Talent and Giftedness are often used interchangeably they mean different things. How
are they different?
5. Wechsler defined intelligence as "the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to
think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment"
What do you understand by think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively?
 Board Questions

1)What is a psychological test? (2008) 2marks

2)Explain contextual intelligence. (2008) 2marks

3)Describe verbal,non-verbal and performance tests(2008) 3marks

4)State any four methods used for psychological assessment. Explain self report measures
method.(2009) 4 marks

5)Explain Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.What is naturalistic

intelligence?(2009) 4marks

6)Explain the variations in intellectual ability of mentally challenged and intellectually

gifted individuals.(2009) 4marks

7)Explain logical –mathematical intelligence.(2009) 2marks

8)What is aptitude?(2010) 2marks

9)Discuss Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences with suitable examples.(2010) 6

marks.

10)Discuss the effect of heredity(nature) and environment( nurture) on intelligence. 6

marks

11)What is emotional intelligence?(2010) 2marks

12)Distinguish between belief and value.(2010) 3marks

13)What is creativity?Explain how it is related to intelligence with examples.(2010+2015-

3marks) 6marks

14)Discuss the triarchic theory of intelligence giving suitable examples.(2010+2016) 6

marks
15)Explain intrapersonal communication.(2011) 2marks

16)Differentiate between Psychometric and information processing approaches to

intelligence.(2011) 4 marks

17)State the Gardner’s eight types of intelligences.Describe any one with the help of
examples.(2011) 4marks

18)Explain interpersonal communication.(2011) 2marks

19)Explain any two methods used for psychological assessment.(2011+2014) 4 marks

20)Give the meaning of aptitude. How it is measured?(2011) 4marks

21)Explain Spatial intelligence.(2012) 2marks

22)What is meant by technological intelligence?(2012) 2 marks

23)How does triarchic theory explain intelligence?(2012) 4 marks

24)What is interpersonal communication?(2013) 2marks

25)What is emotional intelligence?Give two characteristics of emotionally intelligent

persons.(2013)4marks

26)Describe the key features of Case Study method.(2013) 4marks

27)How is aptitude different from intelligence? Explain how does the PASS model help us
to understand intelligence.(2014) 6marks
28)How are IQ scores distributed in a population?(2015) 2marks

29) Explain the competencies of indian notion of intelligence.(2015) 4marks

30)Explain the term giftedness.(2016) 2marks

31)Explain Aptitude.Differentiate between aptitude and interest.(2017) 4marks

32)Explain the Psychometric approach to understand intelligence. State two theories based
on this approach.(2017) 4marks.
34)Explain Emotional Intelligence.State any two characteristics of emotionally intelligent
persons. (2018) 4marks
35)Intelligence is the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems.Explain this
theory.(2019) 4 marks
35)Explain the relationship between creativity and intelligence.State the important features
of creativity tests.(2019) 4marks.
36)You have assessed twenty peers of your class for mathematical
comprehension/Knowledge.Create a distribution for the results that you are most likely to
expect.What is the shape of the distribution?(2020-3marks)

37)Angad has been a topper in class.He went to the topmost college ,where he was neither
sensitive to his own self or to others.This led to problems in interpersonal relationships
with reference to his condition.Explain the importance of emotional intelligence in his
life.(2020- 4 marks)