Unit 1

 Logical Connectives

1. AND [ ∧] (Conjunction): 2. OR [∨ ] (Disjunction):

3.If….then (Implication→) (Conditional):

4. If and only if (Double Implication, ↔) (Biconditional):

5.Not [~] (Negation):

 Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive

Let p : It rains, q : the match will be cancelled.
∴ The symbolic form of the given statement is
p → q.
Converse: q → p
i.e., If the match is cancelled then it rains.
Inverse: ~p → ~q
i.e., If it does not rain then the match will not be
cancelled.
Contrapositive: ~q → ~p
i.e. If the match is not cancelled then it does
not rain.

 Quantifiers
1. Universal Quantifier:
The symbol ‘∀’ stands for “all values of” and is known as universal quantifier.
For example, Consider A = {1, 2, 3}
Let p: ∀ x ∈ A, x < 4
Here, the statement p uses the quantifier ‘for all’(∀).

2. Existential Quantifier:
The symbol ‘∃’ stands for ‘there exists’ and is known as existential quantifier.
For example, Consider A = {4, 14, 66, 70}.
Let p: ∃ x ∈ A such that x is an odd number.
Here, the statement p uses the quantifier ‘there exists’ (∃).

 Duality
Two compound statements S1 and S2 are said to be duals of each other, if
one can be obtained from the other by interchanging ‘∧’ and ‘∨’ and vice-
versa. The connectives ‘∧’ and ‘∨’ are duals of each other. Also, a dual is
obtained by replacing t by c and c by t, where ‘t’ denotes tautology and ‘c’
denotes contradiction.
Remarks:
i. The symbol ‘∼ ’ is not changed while finding
the dual.
ii. Dual of a dual is the statement itself.
iii. The special statements ‘t’ (tautology) and ‘c’
(contradiction) are duals of each other.
iv. T is changed to F and vice-versa.
Principle of Duality:
If a compound statement S1 contains only ~, ∧ and ∨
and statement S2 arises from S1 by replacing ∧ by ∨
and ∨ by ∧, then S1 is a tautology if and only if S2 is a
contradiction.

 Negation
i. Negation of conjunction:
Negation of the conjunction of two simple statements is the disjunction of
their negations. i.e. ~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∨ ~q
ii. Negation of disjunction:
Negation of the disjunction of two simple statements is the conjunction of
their negations.
i.e. ~(p ∨ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q

iii. Negation of negation:

The negation of negation of a simple statement is the statement itself.
i.e. If p is a simple statement then ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p

iv. Negation of conditional (implication) statement:

The negation of a conditional statement p → q is p but not q.
i.e. ~(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ~q

v. Negation of biconditional (double implication) statement:

The negation of a biconditional statement
p ↔ q is the negation of p → q or q → p.
i.e. ~(p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ~q) ∨ (q ∧ ~p)

vi. Negation of a quantified statement:

While finding the negations of quantified statements, the word ‘all’ is replaced
by ‘some’ and ‘for every’ is replaced by ‘there exists’ and vice-versa.

 Algebra of statements
a. Idempotent Law:
i. p ∨ p ≡ p
ii. p ∧ p ≡ p

b. Commutative Law:
i. p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
ii. p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p

c. Associative Law:
i. (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ p ∨ q ∨ r
ii. (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r) ≡ p ∧ q ∧ r

d. Distributive Law:
i. p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
ii. p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)

e. Identity Law:
i. p ∨ F ≡ p
ii. p ∧ F ≡ F
iii. p ∨ T ≡ T
iv. p ∧ T ≡ p

f. Complement Law:
i. p ∨ ~p ≡ T
ii. p ∧ ~p ≡ F

g. Involution Law:
i. ~T ≡ F
ii. ~F ≡ T
iii. ~(~p) ≡ p

h. DeMorgan’s Law:
i. ~(p ∨ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q
ii. ~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∨ ~q

i. Absorption Law:
i. p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p
ii. p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p

j. Conditional Law:
i. p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q
ii. p ↔ q ≡ (~p ∨ q) ∧ (~q ∨ p)

 Statement
A statement is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both
simultaneously. Statements are denoted by the letters p, q, r….
For example:
i. 3 is an odd number.
ii. 5 is a perfect square.
iii. Sun rises in the east.
iv. x + 3 = 6, when x = 3.

 Logical Connectives:
The words or group of words such as “and, or, if …. then, if and only if, not” are
used to join or connect two or more simple sentences. These connecting
words are called logical connectives.

 Compound Statements:
The new statement that is formed by combining two or more simple
statements by using logical connectives are called compound statements.
 Component Statements:
The simple statements that are joined using logical connectives are called
component statements.

 Truth Table
A table that shows the relationship between truth values of simple statements
and the truth values of compounds statements formed by using these simple
statements is called truth table.

 Logical Equivalence
Two logical statements are said to be equivalent if and only if the truth values
in their respective columns in the joint truth table are identical.
If S1 and S2 are logically equivalent statement patterns, we write S1 ≡ S2
For example:
To prove: p ∧ q ≡ ~(p → ~q)

 Tautology
A statement pattern having truth value always T, irrespective of the truth
values of its component statement is called Tautology.
For example, consider (p ↔ q) ↔ (q ↔ p)

In the above truth table, all the entries in the last column are T.
∴ The given statement pattern is a tautology.

 Contradiction
A statement pattern having truth value always F, irrespective of the truth
values of its component statement is called a Contradiction.
For example, consider p ∧ ~ p

In the above truth table, all the entries in the last column are F.
∴ The given statement pattern is a contradiction.
 Contingency
A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called
Contingency.
For example, consider (p ↔ q) ∧ ~(p → ~ q)

 Conjunctive Normal Form

A formula is in CNF if it is a conjunction (logical AND, ∧\land∧) of clauses,

where each clause is a disjunction (logical OR, ∨\lor∨) of literals.

Definition:

 Each Aij is a literal (a propositional variable or its negation, e.g., P,~QP).

 Each clause (e.g., A11∨A12) must be in disjunctive form (OR).

Properties:

1. CNF is an AND of ORs.

2. A formula in CNF is true if and only if every clause in it is true.
3. Useful for SAT solvers and resolution in logic.

The formula:(P∨ ~Q)∧(R∨Q)∧(~R)

is in CNF because it is a conjunction of disjunctions of literals.

 Disjunctive Normal Forms

A formula is in DNF if it is a disjunction (logical OR, ∨\lor∨) of terms, where

each term is a conjunction (logical AND, ∧\land∧) of literals.

Definition:

 Each Aij is a literal.

 Each term (e.g., A11∧A12) must be in conjunctive form (AND).
Properties:

1. DNF is an OR of ANDs.
2. A formula in DNF is true if and only if at least one term in it is true.
3. Useful for expressing truth tables directly.

The formula:(P∧Q)∨(~Q∧R)∨(~R)

is in DNF because it is a disjunction of conjunctions of literals.

UNIT 2
 Permutation
Each of the different arrangements, which can be made by taking some or all of a number of
objects is called permutation. The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a
time is represented as

Note: (i) In permutation, the order of the items plays an important role.
(ii) The number of all permutations of n distinct objects taken all at a time is n!

 Permutation with repetition

These kinds of problems occur with permutations of different objects in which some of the
objects can be repeated.
The no. of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time when each object may be
repeated any number of times is nr .
Illustration 8: A student appears in an objective test which contains 10 multiple choice
questions. Each question
has four choices in which one is the correct option. What maximum number of different
answers can the student
give? How will the answer change if each question may have more than one correct answers?
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: Use the concept of Permutation with Repetition.
For the first part each question has four possible answers. So, the total possible answers = 4 ×
4 × .... 10 times = 410.
For the second part. Suppose the choices for each question are denoted by A, B, C and D.
Now the choice A is either correct or incorrect (two ways) similarly the other choices are either
correct or incorrect. Thus, this particular question can have 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16 possible
answers. But this includes the case when all the four choices are incorrect. Thus the total
number of answers = 15. Now, as there are 10 questions and each question has 15 possible
answers. Therefore the total number of answers = 1510.
 Combination
Each of the different groups or selection which can be made by some or all of a number of
given objects without reference to the order of the objects in each group is called a
combination. The number of all combinations of n objects, taken r at a time is generally
denoted by C(n, r) or

Note:
(a) The number of ways of selecting r objects out of n objects, is the same as the number of
ways in which the
remaining (n - r) can be selected and rejected.
(b) The combination notation also represents the binomial coefficient. That is, the binomial
coefficient nCr is the combination of n elements chosen r at a time.

Example: 7: A basketball coach must select two attackers and two defenders from among
three attackers and five defenders. How many different combinations of attackers and
defenders can he select?
Sol: The number of ways two attackers and two defenders can be selected is
3
C2 and 5 C2 respectively.
∴ He can select in 3 C2 × 5 C2 = 5.4.3.2.1
2.2
= 30 different combinations.

UNIT 3
 Definition of Sets:
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
There are two methods of representing a set
(i) Roaster or tabular form
(ii) Set builder form

 Subsets:
A set A is said to be a subset of set B if every element of A is also an
element of B. In symbols we write A ⊂ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B.
We denote
set of real numbers by R
set of natural numbers by N
set of integers by Z
set of rational numbers by Q
set of irrational numbers by T
We observe that
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R,
 T ⊂ R, Q ⊄ T, N ⊄ T

 Equal Sets: Given two sets A and B, if every elements of A is also an

element of B and if every element of B is also an element of A, then the
sets A and B are said to be equal. The two equal sets will have exactly the
same elements.

 Empty Sets:
A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the void
set or null set and is denoted by { } or φ.

 Universal Sets: This is a basic set; in a particular context whose elements

and subsets are relevant to that particular context. For example, for the set
of vowels in English alphabet, the universal set can be the set of all
alphabets in English. Universal set is denoted by U.

 Finite and Infinite Set: A set which consists of a finite number of elements
is called a finite set otherwise, the set is called an infinite set.

 Power sets:The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of
A. It is denoted by P(A). If the number of elements in A = n , i.e., n(A) = n,
then the number of elements in P(A) = 2n .

 Operations on Sets: Union

The union of any two given sets A and B is the set C which consists
of all those elements which are either in A or in B. In symbols, we write
C = A ∪ B = {x | x ∈A or x ∈B}

 Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set which consists of all those
elements which belong to both A and B. Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x : x
∈ A and x ∈ B}.
When A ∩ B = φ, then A and B are called disjoint sets.
 Complement of Sets
Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U. Then the complement of A is
the set of all elements of U which are not the elements of A.
Symbolically, we write
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}. Also A′ = U – A
Some properties of complement of sets
(i) Law of complements:
(a) A ∪ A′ = U
(b) A ∩ A′ = φ
(ii) De Morgan’s law
(a) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
(b) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
(iii) (A′ )′ = A
(iv) U′ = φ and φ′ = U

 Set difference
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A – B is defined
as set of elements which belong to A but not to B. We write
A – B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
also, B – A = { x : x ∈ B and x ∉ A}

 Venn Diagrams
Venn Diagrams are the diagrams which represent the relationship between
sets. For example, the set of natural numbers is a subset of set of whole
numbers which is a subset of integers. We can represent this relationship
through Venn diagram in the following way:
 UNIT 4

 Measures of Central Tendency

Measure of Central Tendency: Usually when two or more different data sets
are to be compared it is necessary to condense the data, but for comparison
the condensation of data set into a frequency distribution and visual
presentation are not enough. It is then necessary to summarize the data set in
a single value. Such a value usually somewhere in the center and represent the
entire data set and hence it is called measure of central tendency or averages.
Since a measure of central tendency (i.e. an average) indicates the location or
the general position of the distribution on the X-axis therefore it is also known
as a measure of location or position.
Types of Measure of Central Tendency
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Geometric Mean
3. Harmonic Mean
4. Mode
5. Median
 Arithmetic Mean or Simply Mean: “A value obtained by dividing the sum
of all the observations by the number of observation is called
arithmetic Mean”

Example: Find Arithmetic mean

 Harmonic Mean:
“The reciprocal of the Arithmetic mean of the reciprocal of the values is called
Harmonic mean”

Formula:

 Geometric Mean: “The n th root of the product of “n” positive values is called
geometric mean”
Geometric Mean=

The following are the formulae of geometric mean:

Example: Using formula of geometric mean for ungrouped data:

n9
 Mode:
In Ungrouped Data: “A value that occurs most frequently in a data is called
mode”.
In Discrete Grouped Data: “A value which has the largest frequency in a set of
data is called mode”
In Continuous Grouped Data: : In case of continuous grouped data, mode
would lie in the class that carries the highest
frequency. This class is called the modal class.

Mode= 4
 Mode= 4

 Median: “When the observation are arranged in ascending or descending

order, then a value, that divides a distribution into equal parts, is
called median”

For Ungrouped data:

For Discrete Grouped Data:

For Continuous Grouped Data:

 Quartiles
“when the observation are arranged in increasing order then the values, that divide
the whole data into four (4) equal parts, are called quartiles”
These values are denoted by Q1, Q2 and Q3. It is to be noted that 25% of the data falls
below Q1, 50% of the data falls below Q2 and 75% of the data falls below Q3.

UNIT 5
 Definition of a matrix:
A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers (or functions).

 Types of Matrices
(i) Row Matrix: A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
(ii)Column Matrix: A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one
column.
(iii)Square Matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the
number of columns, is said to be a square matrix. Thus, an
m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if m = n and is
known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.
(iv)Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix B = [bij] n×n is said to be a diagonal
matrix if its all non diagonal elements are zero, that is a
matrix B = [bij] n×n is said to be a diagonal matrix if bij =
0, when i ≠ j.
(v)Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal
elements are equal, that is, a square matrix B = [bij] n×n is
said to be a scalar matrix if
bij = 0, when i ≠ j
bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
(vi) Identity Matrix: A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all
1 and rest are all zeroes is called an identity matrix.
In other words, the square matrix A = [aij] n×n is an
identity matrix, if
aij = 1, when i = j and aij = 0, when i ≠ j.
(vii)Zero/ Null Matrix: A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its
elements are zeroes. We denote zero matrix by O.
(ix)Equal Matrices: Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if
(a) they are of the same order, and
(b) each element of A is equal to the corresponding
element of B, that is,
aij = bij for all i and j.

 Operations on matrices

1) Addition of Matrices: Two matrices can be added if they are of the same
order.
Example: Add the following Matrices

2) Subtraction of Matrices:
Example:

3) Multiplication of Matrices:
The multiplication of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of
columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk] be an n × p matrix. Then the
product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of order m × p. To get the
(i, k) th element cik of the matrix C, we take the i th row of A and k th column
of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products i.e.,
cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bnk
The matrix C = [cik]m×p is the product of A and B.
Notes:
1. If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined.
2. If A, B are, respectively m × n, k × l matrices, then both AB and BA are
defined if and only if n = k and l = m.
3. If AB and BA are both defined, it is not necessary that AB = BA.
4. If the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, it is not necessary that one of
the matrices is a zero matrix.
5. For three matrices A, B and C of the same order, if A = B, then AC = BC, but
converse is not true.
6. A. A = A2 , A. A. A = A3 , so on

Example:

 Inverse:
To find A–1 using elementary row operations, write A = IA and apply a
sequence of row operations on (A = IA) till we get, I = BA. The matrix B will be
the inverse of A.
Similarly, if we wish to find A–1 using column operations, then, write A = AI
and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI till we get, I = AB.
Note : In case, after applying one or more elementary row (or column)
operations on
A = IA (or A = AI), if we obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix A
on L.H.S.,
then A–1 does not exist.

Example:
 det(A) = (4 . 6)−(7 . 2) = 24−14 = 10

 Transpose:
1. If A = [aij] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A.
Transpose of the matrix A is denoted by A′ or (AT ). In other words, if
A = [aij]m×n , then AT = [aji] n×m .
2. Properties of transpose of the matrices
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (AT )T = A,
(ii) (kA)T = kAT (where k is any constant)
(iii) (A + B)T = AT + BT
(iv) (AB)T = BT AT

Example: