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Lecture 22

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8 views10 pages

Lecture 22

Uploaded by

Ashish Sharma
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Multivariable Calculus

Sartaj Ul Hasan

Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu
Jammu, India

Email: [email protected]

Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 0/9


Multivariable Calculus
(February 07, 2022)
Lecture 22

Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 1/9


Euclidean Spaces
Let m ∈ N, and consider the m dimensional Euclidean space

Rm := {(x1 , . . . , xm ) : xj ∈ R for j = 1, . . . , m}.

If m = 1, then an element of R1 := R is called a scalar and if m > 1, then


an element of Rm is called a vector.
We shall consider sequences in Rm , and functions from subsets of Rm to
R, and we shall study their properties.
We shall set up the basic structure in Rm , and then restrict ourselves to
m := 2, 3.
For x := (x1 , . . . , xm ), y := (y1 , . . . , ym ) ∈ Rm , and a ∈ R, let

x + y := (x1 + y1 , . . . , xm + ym ) ∈ Rm ,
ax := (ax1 , . . . , axm ) ∈ Rm ,

called the sum of x and y, and the scalar multiple of a and x.


Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 2/9
Norm of an element of Rm
Let x := (x1 , . . . , xm ) ∈ Rm . We define the norm of x by
1/2
||x|| := (x12 + · · · + xm
2
) .

For m = 1, the norm of x ∈ R is its absolute value |x|. Note that:

max{|x1 |, . . . , |xm |} ≤ ||x|| ≤ |x1 | + · · · + |xm |.


Let 0 := (0, . . . , 0). Then ||x|| = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.
For x := (x1 , . . . , xm ) ∈ Rm and y := (y1 , . . . , ym ) ∈ Rm , let

x · y := x1 y1 + · · · + xm ym ∈ R,

called the dot product or the scalar product of x and y.

Theorem (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality and Triangle Inequality)


For x, y ∈ Rm , |x · y| ≤ ||x||||y|| and ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y||.

Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 3/9


Proof: If ||x|| = 0 or ||y|| = 0, then x = 0 or y = 0, so done.
Suppose ||x|| = 6 0 and ||y|| =
6 0. Then
!
|xj | |xj | 1 |xj |2 |yj |2
≤ + for j = 1, · · · .m,
||x|| ||x|| 2 ||x||2 ||y||2

since ab ≤ (a2 + b 2 )/2 for all a, b ∈ R. Hence


m
X ||x||||y||
|x · y| ≤ |xj ||yj | ≤ (1 + 1) = ||x||||y||.
2
j=1

for all x, y ∈ Rm . As a consequence,


m
X
||x + y||2 = (xj + yj )2 = ||x||2 + ||y||2 + 2x · y
j=1

≤ ||x||2 + ||y||2 + 2||x||||y|| = ||x|| + ||y||2 .

Thus, ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y|| for all x, y ∈ Rm . 


Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 4/9
Let x, y ∈ Rm . We say that x and y are orthogonal or perpendicular (to
each other) if
x·y =0
If x 6= 0 and y 6= 0, then the angle between them is the unique θ ∈ [0, π]
such that cos θ = x · y/||x||||y||. (Cosine Rule)
Let m ∈ N and x0 ∈ Rm . For x ∈ Rm , ||x − x0 || is called the distance of x
from x0 . For r > 0, the subset

B(x0 , r ) := {x ∈ Rm : ||x − x0 < r }

of Rm is called the neighbourhood of x0 of radius r .


If m := 1, then B(x0 , r ) is the interval (x0 − r , x0 + r ) in R.
If m := 2 and x0 := (x0 , y0 ), then B(x0 , r ) is the disk
{(x, y ) ∈ R2 : (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )62 < r } in R2 .
If m := 3 and x0 := (x0 , y0 , z0 ), then B(x0 , r ) is the ball
{(x, y , z) ∈ R3 : (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2 < r 2 } in R3 .

Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 5/9


Sequence in R2 and its Limit

A sequence in R2 is a function from N to R2 . We denote the nth term of


such a sequence by (xn , yn ), and the sequence itself by ((xn , yn )).

Definition
A sequence ((xn , yn )) in R2 is convergent in R2 if both (xn ) and (yn ) are
convergent sequences in R. In this case, we write

(xn , yn ) → (x0 , y0 ), where xn → x0 and yn → y0 .

For n ∈ N,

max |xn − x0 |, |yn − y0 | ≤ ||(xn , yn ) − (x0 , y0 )|| ≤ |xn − x0 | + |yn − y0 |.

Hence (xn , yn ) → (x0 , y0 ) ⇐⇒ ||(xn , yn ) − (x0 , y0 )|| → 0.

Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 6/9


Functions on subsets of R2
Let D be a subset of R2 , and let f be a real-valued function defined on D.
The subset
{(x, y , f (x, y )) ∈ R3 : (x, y ) ∈ D}
is called the graph of f . It is the surface z = f (x, y ) in R3 .

Let c ∈ R. Then the set {(x, y , c) ∈ R3 : (x, y ) ∈ D and f (x, y ) = c} is


called a contour line of f . It is the intersection of the graph of f by the
horizontal plane z = c in R3 .

Also, {(x, y ) ∈ D : f (x, y ) = c} ⊂ R2 is called a level curve of f . It is the


projection of the corresponding contour line on the plane z = 0 in R3 .

Contour lines and level curves help us visualize the behaviour of a function
f on its domain in R2 . Such a visualization is not possible for functions
defined on subsets of R3 .

Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu) Calculus 7/9


ontour lines and level curves
Contour lines and level curves
The picture below on the left gives a general illustration of contour lines
The picture below on the left gives a general illustration of
and level curves.
contour lines and level curves.

Examples:
Examples: p
(i) Let D := {(x, y ) 2 R2 : x 2 + y 2  9}, and let
(i) Let D := {(x, y ) ∈ R2 : x 2 + y 2 ≤ 9}, and let
f (x, y ) := 9 − x 2 − y 2pfor (x, y ) 2∈ D. The graph of f is the upper
hemispheref of
(x,radius
y ) := y 2 This
9 atx the origin.
3 centered for (x, y ) 2 D.
is depicted by the
picture on the right above. It is easy to visualize what the contour lines
The
and graph
the levelof f isare
curves thein upper
this case.hemisphere of radius 3 centered
theSartaj
origin. This
Ul Hasan (IIT Jammu)is depicted by the picture on the right above
Calculus 8/9
(ii) Let D := R2 , and let f (x, y ) := x 2 + y 2 for (x, y ) ∈ D. The graph of
f is a(ii) Let D := R2 , and let f (x, y ) := x 2 + y 2 for (x, y ) 2 D.
paraboloid.
The graph of f is a paraboloid.
z

x y

Figure:
Figure: Contour
Contour lines and
and the
the corresponding
corresponginglevel
levelcurves.
curves

(iii) Let D := {(x, y ) 2 R2 : x 6= y }, and let


(iii) Let Dy:=
f (x, ) :={(x,
(xy+)∈ R2 : x 6=
y )/(x }, and
y )yfor (x, ylet
) 2f (x, ) := (x
D. yThen y )/(x − y ) for
the+ contour
∈ D.
(x, y )line Then the contour line corresponding to c
corresponding to c = 2 is {(x, x/3, 2) : x 2 R \ {0}}.= 2 is
{(x, x/3, 2) : x ∈ R\{0}}.
Level curves are lines Level
throughcurves
the are linesinthrough
origin R2 . the origin in R2 .
Prof.
Sartaj Ul Hasan (IIT Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay
Jammu) CalculusMA 105 Calculus: Division 3, Lecture 20 9/9

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