22) Mention the scales of temperature.

The most commnon temperature scales are

Celsius

Fahrenheit,
Kelvin

23) State and explain Boyle's law. State and

explain Charles' law.
1)Boyle's law states that the pressure and volume
of agas are inversely proportional to each other
when the temperature and amount of gas are
constant. This means that as the volume of a gas
increases, its pressure decreases proportionally,
and vice versa.
Boyle's lawcan be expressed mathematically as
PV=k,where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the
Volume of the gas, and k is a constant for a
particular temperature and amount of gas

2)Charles's law states that the volume of a gas is

directly proportional to its absolute temperature
when the pressure is held constant. This means
that as the temperature of a gas increases, its
volume increases, and vice versa.

Charles's law can be represented by the equation:

VT =kand V1 T1 =V2T2.

Inthese equations, V is the volume of the gas, T

is the temperature of the gas, and k is a constant
for a particular pressure and amount of gas.
Newton's law of cooling
The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the body and the
surrounding.
LLEGE
Explanation
Consider a body of mass mand specific heat capacity sat temperature T2.
Let Ti be the temperature of the surroundings of the body.
According to Newton's law dt

dQ
dt
k(T:Ti)

dt
-k(T:-Ti)

Let the temperature of the body decreases by dT:in time dt.

(T,-T,)
log.
Heat lost by the body is, dQ = ms dT:
- ms
dt
-(2)

From equation (l )and (2). msk(T:-T)

dT, k
dt
(T,-T) ms 0

where K:
(T;-T) ms

Integrating. T-)= -K fdt

log.(T:-T) = -Kt + constant

T:-T, =e-Kt 4 c' Where c'= econstant

This equation shows a straight line having a negative slope.

The graph between log(T; - Ti) and time t is as shown.
25) State and explain. Mention the modes of heat
transfer.

The three main modes of heat transfer are

conduction, convection, and radiation:

Conduction

Also known as diffusion, this is the direct

exchange of kinetic energy between particles or

quasiparticles across a boundary. For example,
when you fry vegetables in a pan, heat moves
from the flame to the pan and then to the
vegetables by conduction.
Convection
This occurs when a fluid's bulk flow carries heat

through the fluid. Convection is essentially

conduction affected by fluid flow.

Radiation

This is the invisible transfer of heat. Infrared

radiation is a common form of radiation that

keeps life going. It's also more comfortable than

other forms of heat because it doesn't create air

currents that can spread dust and allergens.

26)state and Explain thermal conductivity.
Law of Thermal conductivity
1. Thermal Conductivity (k): It is a
material-specific property that measures the
material'sability to conduct heat. Materials with
high thermal conductivity (like metals) transfer
heat quickly, while materials with low thermal
conductivity (like wood or air) act as
insulators.Qis the rate of heat transfer (in Watts)
27)Convert the degree to Celsius.

28)define
i)Specific heat capacity.
Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined
as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of substance through
1°C

i)Latent heat of vaporization (Lv)

The amount of heat required to vaporize unit
of liquid completely at its boiling point is
called latent heat of vaporization.
ii)Latent heat of fusion (Lf)
The amount of heat required to melt unit mass of
solid completely at its melting point is called
latent heat of fusion.

iv) Molar specific

heat capacity It is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one mole of
substance through 1°c.
29)State law of thermal radiation.
The laws of thermal radiation describe how

objectsemit energy in the form of

electromagnetic waves due to their temperature.
Some of the laws of thermal radiation include:

Stefan-Boltzmann law

The totalenergy emitted by a black body is

directly proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.

Kirchhoff's law

The ratio of a black body's emissive power to its

absorptive power is a constant at a given
temperature. This law states that good radiators
are also good absorbers.
Planck's law

This law describes the spectral distribution of

radiation emitted by a black body in thermal
equilibrium at a specific temperature.

Wien's displacement law

This law states that the peak wavelength of
thermal radiation emitted decreases as the

temperature increases.
Isothermal process
|A process in which the temperature of the system is kept
constant throughout is
T=Constant. As the temperature is constant, nocalled isothermal process.
In this case P and V change, but an
change in internal energy., dU =0.
From first law of thermodynamics, dQ=dU+dW
dQ = dW
or dQ = Pdv
Heat supplied in an isothermal process is used to do work against the
Ex: Boiling of a liquid, melting of wax or ice etc. surrounding.

Expression for Work done during an Isothermal process

The work done is given by. W= S dw =SM PaV=

W- v (since PV= uRT)

W= RT [InV)
W=uRT In
 Anomalous expansion of water
Water contracts on heating from 0°C to 4'C. This is known as anomalous expansion of water.

1.04343

1.00013k
1.00000r
o 4 10 100
Temperature ("C) Temperature (°C)

In the temperature range of 0°C to 4C, volume of water decreases as temperature increases. Hence, Co-efficient of
cubical expansion of water is negative. Hence water has greatest density at 4°C. The graph below shows the variation
of volume and density of water with temperature.
Relation between al, aA and aV
(i)We have, =a AT
Al = lo a AT

l=lo+ lo a AT
l= lKI + a AT)

Squaring on both sides, 1²= l(1l + a, AT)²

A= Ao(l + 2a; AT + a? AT)
Since a is very small, a² AT can be neglected.
A = Al + 2a, AT)

Comparing with the equation, A

= Adl + aA AT)
We have, aA = 2a
(iü) We have,
l= lol + a AT)

Cubing on both sides, = la3(1 + al AT)}

113 KSSS PUU College Debartment of PYSICS

V= Vol + 3a, AT + 3af AT + a AT')

Since a; is very small, a² AT' and a² AT3 can be neglected.
V = VO(l +3a, AT)
Comparing with the equation, V= Vo1 + ay AT)
We have, ay =3ai
Further, a: aA: ay =a: 2a: 3a = 1: 2:3
Adiabatic process
The process in which heat energy neither enters nor leaves the system is called adiabatic process.
In this case, P, Vand T change, but dQ =0.
From first law of thermodynamics, dQ =dU +dW
dW= -dU
When gas expands adiabatically, Wis positive. Therefore dU must be negative. That is internal energy of the system
decreases.
Ex: Bursting of an automobile tube inflated with air, propagation of sound waves in a gas.
Expression for work done during an adiabatic process
Let a gas in state P, V,T, be adiabatically expand to the state P, V,,T,
|Work done in the process is W= PdV
For anadiabatic process PVY= Constant
W= constany

W = constant
1-y

constant
W
1-1

126 KSSS PU Colege, Departnentof PHYSTCS

Zeroth law of thermodynamics
When two systems Aand Bare separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then the two systems AandB
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. Zeroth law was formulated by RH Flower.
Significance of Zeroth law
Significance of this law is, all the systems in thermal equilibrium with one another must have a common physical
quantity that has the same value for both, called temperature.
Heat
Energy that is transferred between a system and its surroundings whenever there is a temperature difference between
the system and surroundings is called heat.
When energy is transferred to the system from its surroundings, then heat is taken as positive. When energy is
ransferred to the surroundings from the system, then heat is taken as negative.
Work done
Work is said to be done, if a system moves through a certain distance in the direction of the applied force.
Expression for work done by the system:
Let a gas taken in the cylinder.
Let the cylinder is fitted with a frictionless piston of area of cross-section A.
Let P be the pressure of the gas on the cylinder.
The force on the piston, F = PA
Let the piston be displaced through a distance dr during the expansion of the gas.
Work done by the gas, dW = F dx
dW = PA dx
dW Pdv

Total work done in which the volume changes from V, to V, is,

W-fdw - MPdv
W=P(V,- V)
34) State and explain the first lawof
thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the
total energy of a system remains constant, even if
it is converted from one form to another. For

example,kinetic energy-the energy that

object possesses when it moves-is converted to
heat energy when adriver presses the brakes on
the car to slow itdown.
35)Under what condition real gas waves as ideal
gas with virtual graph?
Real gases behaves like ideal gases at higher
temperature and lower pressure. Low pressure
decreases the effect of finite size of real particles
by increasing volume around each particle. High
temperature provides enough kinetic energy to
particle to overcome real attractions existing
between particles.
Ideal gas and real gas
1.4
Z>1 H2
less compressible
1.2 N2

CO2
1.0 ideal gas

o.6

Z<1
more compressible
O.4 200 400 600

Pressure (P)
Compressibility factor (Z) = PV/RT
priyamstudycentre.com
36)Define kinetic interpretation of temperature.
Kinetic Interpretation of temperature is defined as
the relation between the temperature and the
kinetic energy of the molecules. For gas
molecules which have a lot of free space, with the
increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of the
molecules also increases, since they get more
energy to move around.
 Heat engine
Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Parts of heat engine
Source
Source is an agency which can provide any amount of heat. It is maintained at constant, high temperature.
Working substance
It is an enclosed thermodynamic system which can do work. A mixture of fuel vapour and air is used as working
substance in gasoline or diesel engine.
127 KSSS PU College, Department of PHAYSTCS|

Sink
t can absorb any amount of heat. It is maintained at constant temperature. Temperature of the sink is less than the
temperature of the source.
Principle
Working substance absorbs heat from the source and converts a part of it into work and rejects the rest to the sink.

Source Working Sin

ubstance

W= 0, -
|Working
Let Q, amount of heat is absorbed by the working substance from the source at temperature Ti.
Let W is the total work done by the working substance.
Qis the amount of heat rejected to the sink at temperature T2.

Net amount of heat absorbed, dQ =Q1-Q:

|As the working substance returns to the original state, dU =0
From the first law of thermodynamics, dQ = dU+dW
dQ = W
W =Q1-Q:
Efficiency of heat engine
It is defined as the ratio of mechanical work done to the heat absorbed. It is denoted by n.

From the above equation, it is clear that efficiency of heat engine is less than one or 100%.
Efficiency of Carnot engine

n=1: RT,In ()
JRT,In )

n=1.
T,In () --(1)
T;in )
For the step2, we have adiabatic equation,

T,V=T,V}
T2 -.-(2)
TË

For Step 4, we have adiabatic equation,

T,V=T,v
-...-.(3)

From equation (1) and (2),

Or

In V = nV4
Equation (1) becomes,
40)State Kelvin-Planck statement.
The kelvin-Planck statement, also known as the
heat engine statement from the second law of
thermodynamics, states that it is impossible to
design a device that works on acycle and
produces no other effect other than heat transfer
from a single body for the production of work.

41) Sdynamics states that the total entropy of a

system and its surroundings will always increase
in a natural process. This means that entropy can
never decrease, and the final entropy must be
greater than the initial entropy.
econd law of thermodynamics
42)Calauis statement of thermodynamics.
The Clausius statement of the second lavw of

thermodynamics states that it is impossible to

design a device that can transfer heat from a cold

body to a hot body without any other effect. This

means that heat can only transfer spontaneously
from acolder to a warmer body if external work is
done on the system.