OBT357 – BIOTECHNOLOGY IN HEALTH CARE

SYLLABUS

I. PUBLIC HEALTH

Definition and Concept of Public Health, Historical aspects of Public Health, Changing
Concepts of Public Health, Public Health versus Medical Care, Unique Features of
Public Health, Determinants of Health (Social, Economic, Cultural, Environmental,
Education, Genetics, Food and Nutrition).Indicators of health, Burden of disease, Role
of different disciplines in Public Health.
II. CLINICAL DISEASES

Communicable diseases: Chickenpox / Shingles, COVID-19, Tuberculosis, Hepatitis B,

Hepatitis C, HIV / AIDS, Influenza, Swine flu. Non Communicable diseases: Diabetes
mellitus, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, Obesity, Cancer

III. VACCINOLOGY

History of Vaccinology, conventional approaches to vaccine development, live

attenuated and killed vaccines, adjuvants, quality control, preservation and monitoring
of microorganisms in seed lot systems. Instruments related to monitoring of
temperature, sterilization, environment.

IV. OUTPATIENT & IN PATIENT SERVICES

Radiotherapy, Nuclear medicine, surgical units, OT Medical units, G & Obs. units
Pediatric, neonatal units, Critical care units, Physical medicine & Rehabilitation,
Neurology, Gastroenterology, Endoscopy, Pulmonology, Cardiology

V. BASICS OF IMAGING MODALITIES

Diagnostic X-rays - Computer tomography – MRI – Ultrasonography – Endoscopy –

Thermography– Different types of biotelemetry systems.
 UNIT I - PUBLIC HEALTH

BIOTECHNOLOGY:

• Biotechnology is a branch of science that combines biology and technology with

the aim of improving people's quality of life.
• It uses living cells or any of their components to develop products with specific
objectives.
• Biotechnology is the use of biology to develop new products, methods and
organisms intended to improve human health and society.

1. DEFINITION OF PUBLIC HEALTH:

• Public health is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and
promoting physical health and efficiency through organized community efforts for
the sanitation of the environment.
• The control of community infections, the education of the individual in principles
of personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing service for the early
diagnosis and preventive treatment of disease will ensure to every individual in the
community a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health’.
(Winslow, 1920)
• Sir Donald Acheson in 1988 defined it as: ‘the science and art of preventing
disease, prolonging life and promoting, protecting and improving health through
the organized efforts of society’
• The public health pays special attention to the social context of disease and health
and focuses on improving health through society-wide measures like vaccinations,
the fluoridation of drinking water or through policies such as seatbelt and
non-smoking laws.

2. CONCEPT OF PUBLIC HEALTH

• Public health is considered to be about the health of people or communities.

• It is of everyone's responsibility to maintain the public health.
• This definition of public health is found in the preamble of the constitution of the
World Health Organization (WHO) (1948), where health isreferred to as "a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease."
• The maintenance and improvement of health, accordingly, depends not only on
external or environmental factors (including the systems of care), but also on the
efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the person.
• “The art and science of preventing disease, prolonging life and
promoting health through the organized efforts of society” (Acheson, 1988;
WHO).
• “Public health promotes and protects the health of people and the communities
where they live, learn, work and play.” (American Public Health Association
(APHA)
• Public Health studies plays a major role in fighting off the biggest killers of
humans. Public Health professionals, who have either studied a Public Health
degree or Health Studies related course, are constantly battling against diabetes,
cancer, heart disease and dementia to maintain the health and well-being of the
population.
• A fundamental quality of Public Health is its preventative nature. Prevention is far
more effective and far less expensive than cure.
• Public Health is important due to aiding and prolonging life. Through the
prevention of health issues, individuals can spend more of their years in good
health.
• Public Health helps detect health issues as early as possible and responds
appropriately to avoid the development of disease.
• It is diverse and takes into account the health of the whole population, rather than
focusing on health at an individual level.
• Public Health is important as it ensures everyone is aware of health hazards
through educational programs, campaigns and through influencing government
policies.
• It is important because you are constantly building new skills and expanding as a
person. This is due to the nature of the work promoting growth through day to day
activities and taking part in major projects and campaigns.
• Public Health is important because you are constantly striving to close the
inequality gap between people and encourage equal opportunities for children, all
ethnicities and genders.
• Health is a human right and as a Public Health professional you are ensuring no
one is disadvantaged regardless of their socio-economic background.
• Public Health is important because you become the voice for individuals who have
no voice and simply put, your influence on the improvement of someone’s health
can be a great satisfaction.
 PUBLIC HEALTH FUNCTIONS

1. Surveillance, analysis and evaluation of population’s health status

● Monitor health status to identify population or community health problems
● Diagnose and investigate health problems and health hazards in the community
● Act as quickly as possible with efficiency in solving and improving these
problems
2. Develop policies and plans that support individual and community health
efforts
Once the health problem is identified, public health seeks the best interventions and
strategies to solve the public health ase don and identify health and/or social ase don
agents that can be carried out in the best way ase do
3. Health Promotion
This is a public health function that tries to promote the health of the population,
educating using the different health, education and mass media facilites.
4. Disease Prevention
There are three levels of prevention
Primary Prevention: to prevent before a disease appears
Secondary Prevention: to prevent in pre-symptomatic phases
Tertiary Prevention: to prevent when the individual is already ill. Try to mitígate
the effects of disease.
5. To develop effective programs and health facilities to protect health
The development and implementation of programmes that promote health improvement
of the population as a whole, with the condition that they are ase don scientific evidence
and that they help to increase the population’s quality of life
6. Evaluation of public health policies, strategies and facilities
Having just implemented, whatever process included in society to solve or improve the
health problems must be evaluated, to check its right performance and functioning and
analyse if it is associated with an improvement of the health problemas for which were
developed.
TYPES OF PUBLIC HEALTH
• Physical Health
• Mental Health
• Social Health
• Emotional Health
• Spiritual Health

Physical Health
• Physical health- is concerned with anatomical integrity and physiological
functioning of the body.
• It means the ability to perform routine tasks without any physical restriction.
• E.g. Physical fitness is needed to walk from place to place.
Mental Health
• Mental Health is the ability to learn and think clearly and coherently.
• E.g., a person who is not mentally fit (retarded) could not learn something new at a
pace in which an ordinary normal person learns.
Social Health
• Social health is the ability to make and maintain acceptable interaction with other
people.
• E.g. to celebrate during festivals; to mourn when a close family member dies; to
create and maintain friendship etc.
Emotional Health
• Emotional health is the ability of expressing emotions in the appropriate way, for
example to fear, to be happy, and to be angry.
• The response of the body should be congruent with that of the stimuli. Emotional
health is related to mental health and includes feelings.
• It also means maintaining one’s own integrity in the presence of stressful situation
such as tension, depression and anxiety.
Spiritual Health
• Spiritual Health Some people relate health with religion; for others it has to do
with personal values, beliefs, principles and ways of achieving mental satisfaction,
in which all are related to their spiritual wellbeing.
 3. HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH

• Egyptians—constructed public drainage systems.

• Hebrew Mosaic Law (Old Testament) — describes maternal health,
communicable disease control, protection of food and water.
• Ancient Greeks—linked health to the environment, exercise, diet and sanitation.
• Romans—emphasized regulation of medicine and punishment for negligence,
provision of pure water, sewage systems.
17th Century (January 1, 1601 to December 31, 1700 ) Health
Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601- American social welfare influenced by traditions
of British settlers, established a system that guaranteed medical care for poor,
blind and lame.
Colonial Period (the time period under which India was a colony of the British.
It lasted from 1858 – 1947)
Following the American Revolution—first public health committee was
established. New York City (NYC) public health services monitored water quality,
sewage conditions and burial of the dead .
Increased urbanization and industrialization increased the incidence of smallpox,
yellow fever, cholera, typhoid, Tuberculosis (TB) and malaria.
Hospitals were unsanitary, poorly trained workers.
Inadequate housing and sanitation.
Infant mortality rates were 200/1000 births
Epidemics were seen as unnatural and warranting a response, many endemic and
chronic conditions were accepted as part and parcel of colonial life.
Although there was a significant amount of sanitary regulations being set forth
which protected the public from endemic as well as epidemic conditions, there
was a lack of systems to enforce such regulations.
Public Health Service—established in 1798 as the Marine Hospital Service to
provide health care to merchant seamen and immigrants.
In addition to protect seacoasts from epidemics by quarantine, legislation was
established.
 19th Century
Ladies Benevolent Society of Charleston (1813)- charitable assistance to the poor
and sick, the focus of care was on moral elevation rather than illness intervention.
Other charitable organizations provided care for the sick and poor.
Lemuel Shattuck a public health pioneer issued a Census of Boston which
presented the alarmingly high statistics regarding maternal-infant death rates.
Report to the Sanitary Commission of Massachusetts provided information
regarding infectious diseases.
Recommended keeping vital statistic records and other reforms to protect public
health.

4. CHANGING CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH

4 evolving concepts:
The biomedical concept: views health as absence of disease
The ecological concept: sees health as a dynamic equilibrium between humans
and their environment.
The psychosocial concept: recognizes health as a combination of social,
psychological and cultural influences.
The holistic concept: recognizes health as a combination of physical, mental,
emotional, social, and spiritual components.
Changing phases in public health
1. Disease control phase (1880 - 1920)
2. Health promotional phase (1920 - 1960)
3. Social engineering phase (1960 - 1980)
4. Health for All phase (1981 - 2000)
1. Disease control phase (1880 - 1920)
● Public health during the 19th century was largely amatter of Sanitary legislation
and Sanitary reformsaimed at the control of man's Physical environment,e.g.,
water supply, sewage disposal, etc.
● Clearly these measures were not aimed at the controlof any specific disease
● However, these measures vastly improved the healthof the people due to disease
and death control.
2. Health promotional phase (1920 - 1960)
At the beginning of the 20th century, a newconcept, the concept of "Health
Promotion"began to take shape.
✔ Mother and child health services
✔ Industrial health services
✔ Mental health and
✔ Rehabilitation services.
a) Provision of Basic Health Services
● PHC's (Primary Health Centre) and Sub centers for rural and urban areas
b) Community development programme, 1952
● It is an attempt to bring about asocial and economictransformation of village
lifethrough theefforts of the peoplethemselves
● Promote village development
● Active participation of the whole community
3. Social engineering phase (1960 - 1980)
● With the advances in preventive medicineand practice of public health, the
patternof disease began to change in thedeveloped world.
● Many of the acute illness problems havebeen brought under control.
● Chronic diseases eg: cancer, diabetes, CVD, alcoholism, and drug addiction.
● A new concept, the concept of "risk factors" asdeterminants of these diseases came
into
existence.
● The consequences of these diseases, unlike the swift death brought by acute
infectious diseases, was to place a chronic burden on thesociety that created them.
These problems broughtnew challenges to public health which neededreorientation
more towards social objectives.
4. Health for All (1981 - 2000)
● Most people in the developed countries, and the elite ofthe developing countries,
enjoy all the determinants ofgood health - adequate income, nutrition,
education,sanitation, safe drinking water and comprehensivehealth care.
● In contrast, only 10 to 20% of the population indeveloping countries enjoy ready
access to health services of any kind.
 5. PUBLIC HEALTH VERSUS MEDICAL CARE
Public health stresses the prevention of disease, while medical care deals with the
prevention, diagnosis and treatment of individuals.
Medical care Public health
Primary focus on individual Primary focus on population
Personal service ethic, conditioned by Public service ethic, tempered by concerns
awareness of social responsibilities for the individual
Emphasis on diagnosis and treatment, care Emphasis on prevention, health promotion
for the whole patient for the whole community
Medical paradigm places predominant Public health paradigm employs a
emphasis on medical care spectrum of interventions aimed at the
environment, human behavior and
lifestyle, and medical care
Engineering and physical sciences Engineering relevant, especially systems
relevant, especially materials science, analysis, operations management, sanitary
electronics, imaging, and information engineering, and information technology
technology
Social sciences tend to be an elective part Social sciences an integral part of public
of medical education health education

Clinical sciences an essential part of Clinical sciences peripheral to

professional training professional training

Rooted mainly in the private sector Rooted mainly in the public sector
Uniform system for certifying specialists Variable certification of specialists beyond
beyond professional medical degree professional public health degree

6. UNIQUE FEATURES OF PUBLIC HEALTH

Some of the key features of Public Health:

Surveillance and Epidemiology:
• Public health constantly monitors health trends and threats through rigorous data
collection and analysis.
• This enables early identification of diseases.
• It takes action to prevent the spread of diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria,
jaundice, etc.

Prevention and Intervention:

 • It provides quality healthcare services either free or at a low cost so that even the
poor can seek treatment.
• Public health focuses on preventing disease and promoting well-being rather than
treating illness.
• This includes vaccination programs, education campaigns and policies that support
healthy behaviors and environments.
Health Equity and Social Justice:
• Public health supporters provide essential services and resources, striving to
address health disparities and promote social justice for all.
Population Focus:
• Unlike clinical medicine, which focuses on individual patients, public health aims
to improve health outcomes for entire populations.
• This can include local communities, entire countries or even global populations.
Preventive Approach:
• Public health emphasizes prevention rather than treatment.
• This includes efforts to prevent disease outbreaks, promote healthy lifestyles and
reduce risk factors through education, policy and environmental changes.
Interdisciplinary Nature:
• Public health draws from a wide range of disciplines, including medicine,
epidemiology, environmental science, social sciences and policy studies.
• This interdisciplinary approach helps address complex health issues from multiple
angles.
Health Promotion and Education:
• Public health professionals work on promoting healthy behaviors and educating
communities about health risks and prevention strategies.
• This can involve campaigns on topics like vaccination, smoking and nutrition.
Policy and Advocacy (supporting or promoting):
• A significant part of public health involves shaping and advocating for policies
that support health and safety.
• This includes developing regulations, advocating for health equity and influencing
legislation to improve health outcomes.
Data-Driven:
 • Public health depends heavily on data collection and analysis to track health
trends, identify risk factors and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions.
• Epidemiological studies, health surveys and statistical analysis are fundamental
tools in this field.
Community and Global Impact:
• Public health initiatives can range from local community projects to global health
programs.
• Efforts to control pandemics, manage environmental health and address social
determinants of health demonstrate its wide-reaching impact.
Focus on Health Equity:
• Public health aims to address health disparities and promote equity by targeting
resources and interventions to underserved and marginalized populations.
• This involves tackling social determinants of health such as poverty, education and
access to healthcare.
Emergency Preparedness and Response:
• Public health plays a crucial role in preparing for and responding to health
emergencies such as pandemics, natural disasters and bioterrorism.
• This includes planning, coordination and implementation of response strategies.
Surveillance and Monitoring:
• Continuous monitoring of health indicators, disease outbreaks and environmental
hazards is essential for public health.
• Surveillance systems help in early detection and response to health threats.

7. DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH (SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, CULTURAL,

ENVIRONMENTAL, EDUCATION, GENETICS, FOOD AND
NUTRITION)

• Determinants of health refer to the various factors that influence an individual's or

a population's overall health status.
• These factors can be biological, social, economic, environmental or behavioral and
they interact in complex ways to affect health outcomes.
• Each of these determinants can interact with one another, creating a complex web
of influences that shape individual and population health.
Social Determinants:
• Social Support Networks: Strong social connections and support networks can
improve mental health and overall well-being.
• Social Capital: Community engagement and the strength of social networks can
enhance access to resources and opportunities.
• Social Inequality: Income disparities, discrimination and social exclusion can
negatively impact health outcomes and access to care.
Economic Determinants:
• Income and Wealth: Higher income and wealth typically provide better access to
healthcare, nutritious food and safe living conditions.
• Employment: Job stability, working conditions and job security affect physical
and mental health. Unemployment and job insecurity are linked to poorer health
outcomes.
• Economic Policies: Government policies on welfare, housing and healthcare can
influence health equity and access to resources.
Cultural Determinants:
• Cultural Norms and Values: Cultural beliefs and practices can influence health
behaviors, dietary choices and attitudes towards healthcare.
• Health Practices and Traditions: Cultural traditions may affect health practices,
such as use of traditional medicine or health rituals.
• Stigma and Discrimination: Cultural stigma surrounding certain health issues
(e.g., mental health, sexual health) can affect help-seeking behavior and treatment.
Environmental Determinants:
• Physical Environment: Factors such as air and water quality, housing conditions
and exposure to environmental pollutants affect health.
• Built Environment: Access to parks, recreational facilities and walking habit can
impact physical activity levels and overall health.
• Climate Change: Environmental changes and extreme weather events can affect
health through increased risk of diseases, injuries and displacement.

Educational Determinants:
 • Education Level: Higher levels of education are associated with better health
outcomes due to increased health literacy, better employment opportunities and
healthier lifestyle choices.
• Health Education: Access to and quality of health education can influence
knowledge about health risks, preventive measures and healthy behaviors.
Genetics:
• Genetic Predisposition: Genetic factors can influence susceptibility to certain
diseases and health conditions. While genetics play a role, they interact with other
determinants of health.
• Inherited Conditions: Some individuals may be at higher risk for hereditary
conditions, which can impact overall health and require specific management
strategies.

Food and Nutrition:

• Access to Healthy Food: Availability and affordability of nutritious food can
affect dietary choices and overall health. Food deserts, where access to fresh
produce is limited, can lead to poorer nutrition.
• Dietary Habits: Nutritional choices, including consumption of fruits, vegetables,
and whole grains versus processed foods, impact health outcomes such as obesity,
diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
• Food Security: Reliable access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food is essential
for health. Food insecurity can lead to malnutrition and adverse health effects.

8. INDICATORS OF HEALTH

• Indicators of health are measurable factors or metrics used to assess an individual's

or a population's overall health status.
• These indicators provide valuable information for evaluating health conditions.
• Health indicators help in understanding the overall health landscape, identifying
areas of concern, and formulating strategies for health improvement and disease
prevention.
• They can be broadly categorized into several types:
Biological Indicators: These include measures related to the body’s biological functions
and health status, such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels, blood sugar levels, Body
Mass Index (BMI) and the presence of biomarkers(pathogens) in blood or urine.
Clinical Indicators: These involve specific medical diagnoses or conditions assessed
through medical evaluations, such as the prevalence of chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes,
hypertension) or the rates of infections and hospitalizations.
Behavioral Indicators: These reflect lifestyle and behavior patterns that impact health,
such as smoking habits, alcohol consumption, physical activity levels and dietary habits.
Environmental Indicators: These relate to external factors that influence health,
including air and water quality, access to healthcare facilities and living conditions.
Socioeconomic Indicators: These encompass social and economic factors that affect
health, such as income level, education, employment status and housing conditions.
Self-Reported Indicators: These are based on individuals' own assessments of their
health, such as self-reported health status, quality of life and mental well-being.
Physical Health Indicators
(a)Vital Signs:
1. Heart Rate: Normal resting heart rate is typically between 60-100 beats
per minute.
2. Blood Pressure: A normal range is generally around 120/80 mmHg.
3. Respiratory Rate: Normal is about 12-20 breaths per minute.
(b)Body Metrics:
1. Body Weight and BMI: Monitoring weight and Body Mass Index (BMI)
can provide insights into overall health. BMI is calculated from height and
weight.
2. Body Temperature: A normal range is typically around 97°F to 99°F
(36.1°C to 37.2°C).
(c)Physical Fitness:
1. Endurance and Strength: Ability to perform physical activities without
excessive fatigue.
2. Flexibility and Mobility: Range of motion in joints and muscles.
(d)Nutrition and Hydration:
1. Balanced Diet: Intake of essential nutrients, including vitamins, minerals,
proteins and healthy fats.
2. Hydration Levels: Regular water intake and balanced electrolytes.
(e)Sleep Quality:
1. Duration and Consistency: Most adults need 7-9 hours of sleep per night.
 2. Restfulness: Quality of sleep, including how often you wake up during the
night.
Mental Health Indicators
(a) Mood and Emotions:
1. Emotional Well-being: Regular feelings of happiness, contentment and
stress management.
2. Resilience: Ability to cope with stress and adversity.
(b) Cognitive Function:
1. Memory and Concentration: Ability to focus and retain information.
2. Problem-Solving Skills: Effective decision-making and critical thinking.
(c) Social Interactions:
1. Relationships: Quality of relationships and social support.
2. Engagement: Participation in social activities and hobbies.
Overall Wellness Indicators
(a) Energy Levels:
1. Daily Activity: Feeling energetic and motivated throughout the day.
2. Recovery: Ability to recover from physical or mental exertion.
(b) Skin and Hair Health:
1. Appearance: Healthy skin, hair, and nails can be indicators of overall
well-being.
2. Hydration and Nutrition: Skin and hair condition can reflect nutritional
status and hydration.
(c) Digestive Health:
1. Regularity: Consistent bowel movements and absence of digestive
discomfort.
2. Appetite: Balanced appetite without loss of hunger.

Preventive Health Measures:

1. Regular Check-ups: Routine medical examinations and screenings.
2. Vaccinations: Up-to-date immunizations and preventive care.
 3. Tracking these indicators regularly can help to maintain or improve health.

9. BURDEN OF DISEASE

• The "burden of disease" refers to the impact of health problems on a population,

measured in terms of various factors such as mortality, morbidity and disability.
• It provides a comprehensive view of the total health impact of diseases, including
both the economic and social costs.
• Key components of the burden of disease include:
Mortality: The number of deaths caused by a particular disease or condition. This is
often measured in terms of the number of deaths per 100,000 people per year.
Morbidity: The prevalence of disease or illness within a population.
Disability: The impact of diseases or conditions on an individual's ability to perform
normal activities and their overall quality of life. This includes both physical and mental
disabilities.
Quality of Life: The extent to which health issues affect an individual’s overall
well-being and life satisfaction, including physical, mental and social dimensions.
Economic Impact: The financial costs associated with a disease, including direct costs
like medical expenses and indirect costs like loss of productivity and income.
Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs): A measure that combines years of life lost
due to premature death and years lived with disability. It helps quantify the overall
burden of a disease on a population.
Years of Life Lost (YLLs): A measure of the number of years lost due to premature
death from a health condition.
Years Lived with Disability (YLDs): A measure of the number of years that individuals
live with a disability or health condition.
Quality-Adjusted Life Years (QALY): A measure that assesses the quality and quantity
of life lived. It's used to evaluate the value of medical interventions.

10. ROLE OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES IN PUBLIC HEALTH

Public health is a multidisciplinary field to promote and protect the health of

populations. Some of the major disciplines and their roles in public health are:
Epidemiology: Epidemiologists are crucial in public health because they investigate
disease outbreaks, track disease trends and identify risk factors. By analyzing data from
populations, they determine how diseases spread and recommend interventions to control
or prevent them. Epidemiological studies provide the evidence base for public health
policies and interventions.
Biostatistics: Biostatisticians play a fundamental role in public health by applying
statistical methods to biological and health-related data. They design studies to collect
relevant data, analyze the data to draw meaningful conclusions and interpret findings to
inform public health decisions. Biostatistics is essential for assessing the effectiveness of
interventions, understanding disease patterns and predicting health outcomes.
Environmental Health Sciences: This discipline focuses on understanding the impact of
environmental factors on human health. Environmental health scientists assess
environmental risks such as air and water quality, hazardous waste and climate change.
They develop regulations and guidelines to minimize exposure to environmental hazards
and promote healthier living and working environments.
Health Policy and Management: Professionals in health policy and management
analyze healthcare systems, policies, and organizations to ensure effective delivery of
healthcare services. They develop and implement policies that improve access to
healthcare, allocate resources efficiently and promote equitable health outcomes. Health
policy experts also address issues such as healthcare financing, health insurance and
healthcare delivery models.
Social and Behavioral Sciences: These disciplines focus on understanding how social,
cultural, economic, and behavioral factors influence health outcomes. Social scientists
study social determinants of health, such as income, education and social support, which
impact access to healthcare and health disparities. Behavioral scientists investigate health
behaviors like smoking, diet and exercise, developing interventions to promote healthy
behaviors and prevent chronic diseases.
Nutrition Sciences: Nutritionists and dietitians study the relationship between diet,
nutrition, and health. They assess nutritional needs, develop dietary guidelines and
promote healthy eating habits to prevent and manage nutrition-related diseases such as
obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Nutrition sciences also address food security
issues and the impact of food systems on population health.
Global Health: Global health professionals work across borders to address health
challenges that affect multiple countries or regions. They focus on infectious diseases,
maternal and child health, healthcare access and health equity. Global health initiatives
involve collaboration between governments, organizations and communities to improve
health outcomes worldwide through research, policy development and interventions.
Health Economics: Health economists analyze the economic aspects of healthcare
systems, including costs, financing and resource allocation. They assess the economic
impact of healthcare interventions and policies, guiding decisions on healthcare spending
and investment. Health economics also explores ways to achieve cost-effective healthcare
delivery and improve healthcare quality and efficiency.
Occupational Health: Occupational health specialists focus on the health and safety of
workers in various industries. They assess workplace hazards, develop and implement
workplace health programs, and promote policies to prevent occupational diseases and
injuries. Occupational health professionals collaborate with employers and employees to
create safe work environments and protect worker health.
Medical and Clinical Sciences: Medical and clinical professionals contribute to public
health through clinical practice, research and education. They diagnose and treat diseases,
conduct clinical trials to evaluate new treatments and develop clinical guidelines for
disease prevention and management. Medical and clinical sciences provide the
foundation for evidence-based healthcare practices and contribute to public health efforts
to improve population health outcomes.
These disciplines work collaboratively to address complex public health
challenges, integrating their expertise to develop comprehensive strategies and
interventions that promote health, prevent disease and improve quality of life for
populations worldwide.