ADF 100 – FABRIC FINISHES

TOPIC SEVEN: FABRIC FINISHES

Topic Outline

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives of the topic
7.3 Classification of finishes
7.4 Preparatory processes
7.5 Development Finishes
7.6 Performance Processes
7.7 Presentation Processes

7.1 Introduction
• We have looked at how fabrics are made. However, we do realise that more
often than not, the fabrics we use have undergone other processes after they
have been constructed, that is to say, they have been “finished”.
• In textile terms, finishing is any treatment given to a yarn or cloth (fabric)
after it is constructed to give it a better appearance, performance or texture.
It is done by the converting industry or department. Goods are said to be
in the greige or gray before finishing is done.
• Finishes are done for various reasons. They may be done to modify the
appearance, that is, to make goods more beautiful, they may be done to
alter the handle or feel, to promote dimensional stability, or to improve the
serviceability for a yarn or fabric. In this section, we are going to look at
how fabrics are finished for textile purposes.

7.2 Objectives of the topic

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i) Explain how fabric finishes are classified
ii) Define the terms finishing, tentering, scouring and flock printing.
iii) Describe the process of mercerization, de-gumming and tie-dyeing.
iv) Differentiate between:
a) screen printing and block printing
b) piece dyeing, dope dyeing and spin dyeing

7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHES

• Classification of finishes may be done in any of the following ways:

a) Mechanical and Chemical Finishes

Processes are referred to as mechanical if they are done by any type of
machinery such as copper plates, roller brushes or perforated cylinders. Processes

1
are chemical if they are performed by use of chemicals such as alkalis, acids,
bleaches, starch or resin.

b) General or Functional and Non-Functional Finishes

General finishes are the routine finishes that make a fabric usable while the
non-functional ones are those that are done to meet a desired end use.

c) Permanent and Non-Permanent Finishes

Permanent finishes are those that will stand whatever affects the fabric in
its particular use, for the length of its wear life unless it is misused. Non–
permanent finishes are easily removed by use, washing or dry cleaning, and may
sometimes be replaced.
d) The finishing work may also be divided into the purpose of
processes; that is Preparatory processes, Development processes,
Performance processes and Presentation processes. This is the classification
we are going to use as we learn more about fabric finishes.

7.4 PREPARATORY PROCESSES

• As the name suggests, these processes are done to prepare the fabric for
further finishing.
• They involve the thorough cleansing of fabric by removing all the dirt,
natural impurities and manufacturing additives (for example lubricants and
sizes). They include:

7.4.1 Bleaching
• This is done to whiten cloth or prepare it for dyeing or printing.
• The chemical used to bleach the fabric depends on the fibre.
• Some of the chemicals used are Sodium hypochlorite, Hydrogen peroxide
and Sulphurous acid (sulphur dioxide gas in moisture).

7.4.2 Scouring
• Scouring removes any impurities acquired in processing the fabric such as
processing oils, sizes and natural waxes.
• It is done using soaps or synthetic detergents.

7.4.3 De-gumming
• This is done only to silks.
• It involves boiling in mild soap solution, then rinsing and drying the fabric,
resulting in a beautiful sheen and soft handle.

7.4.4 Singeing

2
 • Singeing is the removal of protruding ends of fibres to produce a clear,
smooth and uniform fabric surface.
• The cloth is passed over heated plates or gas flames to remove the
projecting fibres.

7.4.5 De-sizing
• De-sizing removes the chemicals that were applied to the yarns during yarn
construction, before they are woven into fabric.
• To do this, enzymes are introduced into a water bath then the yarns are
dipped in, causing the enzymes to digest the sizing agents in the yarns.

7.4.6 Tentering
• Tentering is the mechanical straightening of fabrics.
• The fabric is held horizontally by each selvage then the chains holding the
fabric are gradually moved apart to the desired width of the cloth.
• The marks of the clips or pins used to hold the fabric are frequently seen
on the selvage of fabrics. In fact, they are often used to identify the selvage.

7.4.7 Mercerization
• This is only applied to cellulosic fibres, especially cotton.
• It is done so as to add lustre and strength, as well as to increase dye affinity.
• To do this, the fabric is held in tension then treated with sodium hydroxide
at a temperature of between 70oC and 80oC.
• Mercerization can be done before or after bleaching, and occasionally after
dyeing.

7.4.8 Shearing
• This is the evening out of the pile or nap of cloth to make the surface
smooth and uniform.
• The design and the background can be cut in different lengths to make a
carved effect. In hard – surfaced fabrics (e.g. gabardine and denim, the one
used to make jeans) shearing removes all surface fibres.
• The process also involves cutting of knots, ends and other defects on the
fabric surface.

7.4.9 Brushing
• Brushing is done on smooth–surfaced fabrics to remove short ends of
fibres. It is usually done after shearing in order to remove the cut fibre ends.
• The cloth is passed through rollers that are covered with bristles.
• The bristles then brush out the fibres on the surface.

7.4.10 Beetling
3
 • Beetling refers to pounding that is done on the fabric with little hammers.
• After pounding, the cloth gets a glossy, hard, leathery feeling, to resemble
linen.

7.5 DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

• These processes are done to produce the required appearance, texture and
handle of the fabric. They include:
7.5.1 Dyeing
• This is the application of colour.
• There are different methods which can be used to this end or stages at
which dyes can be applied on textiles: -
i) The fibre can be dyed before spinning.
ii) The yarn can be dyed after spinning but before fabric construction.
iii) The fabric can be dyed after construction.
• However, manmade fibres can be dyed in staple form or spun dyed where
colour is put into the spinning solution so that coloured filaments are
produced. This process is also known as dope dyeing, spin dyeing or
solution dyeing.

7.5.1.1 Fibre Dyeing

• This is where the fibres are dyed before being spun into yarn.
• It leads to even colour penetration into the fibres. It is used for dyeing wool
and high-quality fabrics

75.1.2 Yarn Dyeing

• In yarn dyeing, skeins, hanks or packages of yarn are dyed from the inside
to the outside to ensure good penetration.
• Colour variation in the yarns may be got by twisting differently coloured
yarns together.

7.5.1.3 Fabric Dyeing

• This is also called piece dyeing. In involves the wholesome dyeing of a
fabric into one colour.
• Different methods are employed and they include: -

a) Jig Dyeing
• In jig dyeing, the cloth is passed through a jig dyeing machine with a large
tub holding the dye. There are rollers that guide the cloth through the dye
bath and squeeze out the excess dye at the end of the dye-bath.

b) Reel Dyeing

4
 • In this method, there is a machine with a reel that lifts the fabric in and out
of the dye bath. It is used for light weight fabrics which cannot stand
tension in dyeing, as well as heavy crepes; as the crepe surface is not
flattened.

c) Pad - Dyeing
• The cloth is passed through a cloth which contains the dye. It is then
squeezed between heavy rollers to remove the excess dye.

7.5.2 Fabric Printing

• This refers to the controlled application of various colours in pattern
formation onto a fabric. Various methods may be used. They include: -

7.5.2.1 Block Printing

• The design is engraved on to a hard wooden block.
• The rest of the surface is cut away leaving the design outstanding.
• Colour is then applied onto the block design and the face of the block is
stamped onto the fabric.
• For every colour in the desired pattern, a separate block must be cut.
7.5.2.2 Screen Printing
• The design is transferred to the screen by a photographic method whereby
the screen is treated with an emulsion to block out the areas which are
required to remain un-dyed.
• The dye paste is then applied to the design and forced through the screen
onto the part of the fabric to be so coloured.
• Another screen is used for the next colour till the design is complete. Then
the fabric is heat set for colour fastness.

7.5.2.3 Roller Printing / Direct Printing

• All the parts of one colour are engraved onto one roller.
• The rollers are set round a large drum with the colour in the sunken parts.
• Another roller applies colour to them as the fabric is fed between the rollers
and the drum.
• The rollers are synchronized so that with perfect timing the pattern colours
form a clear, even, repeat design.

7.5.2.4 Discharge Printing

• The fabric is fully piece-dyed first.
• A paste containing bleach is then applied to the areas to be printed.
• This removes the colour from these areas only, leaving them white. If be
another colour is desired, the appropriate colour dye is added to the paste

5
 and thus developed in the fabric instead of the background colour. This
method is the one used in the creation of polka dots.

7.5.2.5 Resist Printing

• In resist printing, the parts not to be dyed are covered with chemicals that
resist dye, such as wax or paraffin wax.
• The whole cloth is dyed, dried, then the wax is removed.
• The process is repeated for each colour.
• The resisted areas may be hand painted.
• An example of resist printing is batik.

7.5.2.6 Tie and Dye

• Tie and dye is a type of resist dyeing whereby the fabric is first bunched
into sections. Each section is tied with thread then dipped into the dye bath.
• The fabric is then dried and the ties are removed. This produces areas
which are dyed while the tied areas do not have the dye. The process may
be repeated to come up with many different colours.

7.5.2.7 Flock Printing

• This is the application of short, dyed cotton, rayon or wool fibres, on either
fabric or paper.
• The fibres are pressed onto an adhesive which is printed on the fabric. They
adhere onto the fabric in form of small, spot designs.

7.5.2.8 Painted Design

• In painting, the design is outlined onto the fabric with wax. The design is
printed in one or more colours.
• The wax is mixed with a different dye so the outline appears in a different
colour and, therefore, stands out from the background.

7.5.3 Embossing
• The fabric is given a glaze, softened by heat then fed between engraved
rollers which impress the design onto it.

7.5.4 Polishing
• Rollers with special chemicals produce a fabric with a degree of permanent
finish through friction.
• The fabric is passed through two rolls, one at very high speed, and the other
at low speed, thus producing a sheen.

7.5.5 Raised surfaces

6
 • This is where a soft, hairy surface is produced on top of the background
fabric. It may be done by: -
7.5.5.1 Napping
• Cylinders with fine metal wires with small hooks are used. The wires pull
fibre ends to the surface of the fabric.
• This hides the fabric weave.
• The fabric must be made of staple fibres, and soft – spun yarns with low
twists.
• Examples of such fabrics are flannels, flannelettes, blankets and suede.

7.5.5.2 Gigging
• This is used where a short, lustrous nap is desired.
• Thorns from the thistle plant are attached to a cylinder.
• The fabric is fed into the machine and the thorns gently tease and pull fibre
ends to the surface to produce the nap.
• This produces a soft nap and does not damage the fabric.

7.5.6 Acid Finishes

• Acid finishes are used to produce transparent or parchment-like cotton with
permanent stiffness.
• The cotton is immersed in sulphuric acid briefly then it is neutralized.
• This produces clear organdie.
• An acid resistant substance can be printed onto parts of the fabric before
the acid treatment to produce designs with opaque (frosted) areas and
transparent areas. In burnt out designs, the fabric is made up of two fibres;
one that is easily affected by acid, the other is resistant to acid.
• The acid is printed onto the fabric, burning out one fabric and leaving the
other intact, thus creating the design.

7.5.7 Basic Finishes

• This is the application of chemical bases or alkalis such as caustic soda
(NAOH) in parts of the fabric.
• It causes the coated areas to shrink and the untreated areas to pucker
because of the fibre shrinkage around the area. This produces a crepe or
seer sucker look.

7.5.8 Sizing and Slashing

• This is the application of stiffening materials to yarns or fabrics.
• The sizing or size used is either starch or a resin
• Slashing refers to the application of size to warp yarns to prevent damage
during weaving.

7
 • The yarns or fabrics are passed through a starch solution and then between
rollers that pad starch into them and remove any excess solution.

7.5.9 Weighting
• This is a sizing technique applied specifically to silks
• After degumming silk, the fibres are very soft.
• For heavy and stiff fabrics to be made, metallic salts such as stannous
chloride or serian are added to silks.
• If too much of the salts are added, the silk cracks and splits
• It adds body and density to the fabric but makes the silk more sensitive to
sunlight, sweat and dirt.

7.5.10 Schreinering
• This refers to the production of a soft, silk-like lustre on a fabric
• It is produced by a schreiner calendar
• Rollers flatten the yarns; creating a smooth, compact, soft and lustrous
fabric.

7.5.11 Moire’ Finish (a Watered Silk Finish)

• This finish produces a soft lustre with an optical effect on the fabric
• Two layers of identical fabric are placed face to face then subjected to heat
and pressure. They are then passed between rollers.
• A pattern of parallel lines formed by weft threads of one fabric is impressed
upon the weft threads of the other fabric and vice versa.
• Therefore, the fabrics must have a predominant weft rib effect for the finish
to be effective

7.6 PERFORMANCE PROCESSES/ (APPRET FINISHES)

These are processes done to improve the performance of the fabric. In other
words, they make the fabric better suited for its end purpose. They include the
following:

7.6.1 Anti-Static Finish

• This is used to reduce static electricity in synthetics and, therefore,
eliminate the clinging that is often a characteristic of these fabrics.
• To do this, lubricants or softening agents are used to coat the fabric.
• They increase softness, absorbency and comfort in wear by coating the
fibres and thus allowing the static charge to leak away.
• The finish may not be long lasting.

7.6.2 Bacteriostatic or Sanitized Finish

8
 • This stops bacterial growth that occurs in garments that are dirty or have
absorbed perspiration.
• It stops development of perspiration odours, retards the rotting of fabrics
and controls damage from mildew, mould and moths.
• It can be applied to all types of fibres.
• It is washable and fast to dry cleaning
• Garments or fabrics treated with this finish are usually labelled sanitized.

7.6.3 Crease– Resistant Finish

• The fabric is treated with synthetic resins by impregnating, drying and
heating to cure the resin.
• The resin is thus fixed to last the life time of the garment.
• The fabric sheds wrinkles easily and is slightly more soil resistant.
• It is more difficult to set sharp edges or pleats on such fabrics
• Fabrics so treated are labelled either
Everglaze wrinkle shed easy care or
Perma pressed crease release durable
press
Tebilized wash ‘n wear

7.6.4 Crimping
• This finish gives permanent waviness to a synthetic fibre, thereby giving it
more absorbency, softness and comfort in wear.

7.6.5 Fire Retardant Finish

• This is applied only to cellulosic fibres, especially cotton.
• The fabric is impregnated with a solution of a phosphorous compound, then
it is dried. It is then treated so that the chemicals react to build up an
insoluble polymer inside the fibres of the fabric, which is then washed and
dried.
• The fabric is labelled Proban–treated
• It is non-toxic but should only be washed with a soap less detergent. This
is because soaps have lime deposits which are flammable and could mask
the fibre, causing it to burn despite being finished.
• It should not be boiled, bleached or starched, as this would damage the
finish.

7.6.6 Heating Setting

• This is done on synthetic fibres

9
 • Sufficient heat is applied to soften the fabric, then it is permanently pleated.
Unless these temperatures used are reached in normal laundering, the
pleats cannot be undone.

7.6.8 Mildew Resistance

• This is a type of bacteria-resistant finish used on cellulosic and protein
fibres
• It retards mould and mildew growth.

7.6.9 Moth Proof

• The fabric is impregnated with certain chemicals, which are toxic to
clothes’ moth grubs.
• The finish may either be permanent or not.

7.6.10 Anti-Shrink
• This is a controlled form of shrinkage
• The fabric is compression shrunk so that it will not shrink further.
• It is then labelled sanforized

7.6.11 Water Proofing

• Waxes, oil compounds or rubber-like films for coating fibres and blocking
the spaces between them are used.
• The finish does not allow air to circulate
• The fabrics are, therefore, non-porous, water proofed and they can be
uncomfortable to wear.

7.7 PRESENTATION PROCESSES

• These include the final neatening by blowing the fabric to remove any
loose threads, pressing, folding and rolling if necessary.
• They are done to make the fabric presentable and appealing to the
consumer as well as make them easy to transport from the factory.

Activity
1. Discuss how finishes are classified, giving examples to support your answer.
2. Define the following terms used in this topic:
a. Finishing
b. Scouring
c. In the grey
d. Schreiner calendar
2. Describe how the following fabric finishes are done:
a. Mercerization

10
 b. Tie-dyeing
c. Singeing
d. Tentering
e. Anti-static

7.8 Summary

In this topic, we have learnt how fabrics are finished. We have learnt that:
1. Finishing is any treatment given to a yarn or cloth (fabric) after it is
constructed to give it a better appearance, performance or texture. It is
done by the converting industry or department.
2. Finishes are classified according to their use, nature or durability.
3. Preparatory finishes are done to prepare the fabric for further finishing
and involve the thorough cleansing of fabric by removing all the dirt,
natural impurities and manufacturing additives.
4. Development processes are done to produce the required appearance,
texture and handle of the fabric
5. Performance processes improve the performance of the fabric, while
presentation processes involve the final neatening of the fabric.

7.9 Further Reading

1. Maguire, A. M (1978). Fabrics and Sewing Processes. Blackie

and Sons Limited, London. Pgs 17-22
2. Makokha, J. (1990). Textiles for Schools and Colleges English
Press, Nairobi. Pgs 45-56
3. Onyango, R. O. (1997). Textiles: A Home Science Handbook.
Nairobi University Press. Pgs 105-113
4. Neal. M. M. (1976). Needlework for Schools. Blackie and Sons
Limited, London. Pg 221

11