NAME: IVIE Y.

ESPINOSA
SECTION: B
DATE TODAY: OCTOBER 14, 2024

APP LECTURE FOR BSMLS. ASSIGNMENT

#1

SKELETAL SYSTEM. INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY

Instructions. Read carefully the questions and answer the questions in most accurate
and possible answers. Write it your output in digital or written form.

1. List the seven major functions of the muscular system.

Answer:

Following are the major functions of the muscular system:

1.Movement of the body. Contraction of skeletal muscles is responsible for

the overall movements of the body, such as walking, running, and
manipulating objects with the hands.

2. Maintenance of posture. Skeletal muscles constantly maintain tone,

which keeps us sitting or standing erect.
3. Respiration. Muscles of the thorax carry out the movements necessary
for respiration.
4. Production of body heat. When skeletal muscles contract, heat is given
off as a by-product. This released heat is critical to the maintenance of body
temperature.
5. Communication. Skeletal muscles are involved in all aspects of
communication, including speaking, writing. Typing, gesturing, and facial
expressions.
6. Constriction of organs and vessels. The contraction of smooth muscle
within the walls of internal organs and vessels causes those structures to
constrict. This constriction can help propel and mix food and water in the
digestive tract, propel secretions from organs, and regulate blood flow
through vessels.
7. Contraction of the heart. The contraction of cardiac muscle causes the
heart to beat, propelling blood to all parts of the body.

2. Define contractility, excitability, extensibility, and elasticity.

Answer:
1. Contractility (kon-trak-tili-te) is the ability of skeletal muscle to
shorten with force. When skeletal muscles contract, they cause the
structures to which they are attached to move. Skeletal muscles
 shorten forcefully during contraction, but they lengthen passively.
Either gravity or the contraction of an opposing muscle produces a
force that pulls on the shortened muscle, causing it to lengthen.

2. Excitability (ek-si’tä-bil’i-të) is the capacity of skeletal muscle to

respond to a stimulus. Normally, the stimulus is from nerves that we
consciously control.

3. Extensibility (eks-ten’si-bil’i-të) means that skeletal muscles stretch.

After a contraction, skeletal muscles can be stretched to their normal
resting length and beyond to a limited degree.

4. Elasticity (e-las-tis’i-të) is the ability of skeletal muscles to recoil to

their original resting length after they have been stretched.

3. List the connective tissue layers associated with muscles.

Answer: Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath

called the (1) epimysium (ep-i-mis’ë-üm), or muscular fascia (fash’e-a).
Each whole muscle is subdivided by a loose con- nective tissue called the
(2) perimysium (per’i-mis’ê-üm) into numerous visible bundles called
muscle fasciculi (fä-sik’ü-li). Each fascicle is then subdivided by a loose
connective tissue called the (3) endomysium (en dö-mis’é-üm) into
separate muscle cells, called muscle fibers.

4. What are fasciculi?

Answer: Each skeletal muscle consists of thousands of muscle fibers

wrapped together by connective tissue sheaths. The individual bundles of
muscle fibers in a skeletal muscle are known as fasciculi. The outermost
connective tissue sheath surrounding the entire muscle is known as
epimysium.

5. What is a muscle fiber?

Answer: A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical fiber, with several nuclei

located at its periphery. The largest human muscle fibers are up to 30 cm
long and 0.15 mm in diameter. Such giant cells may contain several
thousand nuclei. The cell membrane of the muscle fiber is called the
sarcolemma (sar’ko-lem’ä; sarco, flesh). The multiple nuclei of the muscle
fiber are located just deep to the sarcolemma. Along the surface of the
sarcolemma are many tubelike invaginations, called transverse tubules, or
T tubules, which occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber and extend
inward into it. T tubules are associated with a highly organized smooth
endoplas- mic reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum (re-tik’ü-lüm). T
tubules connect the sarcolemma to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The
sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively high concentration of Ca+, which
plays a major role in muscle contraction. Inside each muscle fiber is the
cytoplasm, called the sarcoplasm (sar’ko-plazm). It contains numerous
 myofibrils (mi-o-fibrilz; myo, muscle), threadlike structures that extend from
one end of the muscle fiber to the other. Myofibrils consist of two major kinds
of protein fibers: actin (ak’tin) myofilaments (mi-o-fil’å-ments) and myosin
(mi’ö-sin) myofilaments. The actin and myosin myofilaments are arranged
into highly ordered, repeating units called sarco- meres (sar kö-mërz), which
are joined end-to-end to form the myofibrils.

6. Explain the relevance of the structural relationship among sarcomeres,

T tubules, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Answer: T tubules are associated with a highly organized smooth

endoplasmic reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum (re-tik’ü-lüm). T
tubules connect the sarcolemma to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The
sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively high concentration of Ca³, which
plays a major role in muscle contraction. Inside each muscle fiber is the
cytoplasm, called the sarcoplasm (sar’kö-plazm). It contains numerous
myofibrils (mi-o-fibrilz; myo, muscle), threadlike structures that extend from
one end of the muscle fiber to the other. Myofibrils consist of two major kinds
of protein fibers: actin (ak’tin) myofilaments (mi-o-fil’ä-ments) and myosin
(mi’ō-sin) myofilaments. The actin and myosin myofilaments are arranged
into highly ordered, repeating units called sarcomeres (sar’kö-mērz), which
are joined end-to-end to form the myofibrils.
7. What is a sarcomere?

Answer: The sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit of skeletal
muscle because it is the smallest portion of skeletal muscle capable of
contracting. The separate components of the sarcomere can slide past each
other, causing the sarcomeres to shorten. When the sarcomeres shorten,
the myofibrils shorten, which is the ultimate cause of contraction of the
muscle fiber during a contraction. Each sarcomere extends from one Z disk
to an adjacent Z disk. Each Z disk is a network of protein fibers forming an
attachment site for actin myofilaments.

8. Describe the composition of a myofibril. Describe the structure of

actin and myosin myofilaments.

Answer: The arrangement of the actin and myosin myofilaments in

sarcomeres gives the myofibril a banded appearance. A light I band, which
consists only of actin myofilaments, spans each Z disk and ends at the
myosin myofilaments. A darker, central region in each sarcomere, called an
A band, extends the length of the myosin myofilaments. The actin and
myosin myofilaments overlap for some distance at both ends of the A band.
In the center of each sarcomere is a second light zone, called the H zone,
which consists only of myosin myofilaments. The myosin myofilaments are
anchored in the center of the sarcomere at a dark-staining band, called the
M line. The alternating I bands and A bands of the sarcomeres are
 responsible for the striations in skeletal muscle fibers observed through the
microscope. It is the close association of the sarcomeres, the T tubules, and
the sarcoplasmic reticulum that enables a nerve stimulus to initiate
contraction of the muscle fiber.
9. Explain the resting membrane potential and how it is produced.

Answer:

Muscle fibers, like other cells of the body, have electrical properties. This
section describes the electrical properties of skeletal muscle fibers, and later
sections illustrate their role in contraction.

Most cells in the body have an electrical charge difference across their cell
membranes. The inside of the membrane is negatively charged while the
outside of the cell membrane is positively charged. In other words, the cell
membrane is polarized. The charge difference, called the resting membrane
potential, occurs because there is an uneven distribution of ions across the
cell membrane. The resting membrane potential develops for three reasons:
(1) The concentration of K+ inside the cell membrane is higher than that
outside the cell membrane; (2) the concentration of Na outside the cell
membrane is higher than that inside the cell membrane; and (3) the cell
membrane is more permeable to K+ than it is to Na+ . Recall from chapter 3
the different types of ion channels: nongated, or leak, channels, which are
always open, and chemically gated channels, which are closed until a
chemical, such as a neurotransmitters, binds to them and stimulates them
to open. Because excitable cells have many K+ leak channels, K+ leaks out
of the cell faster than Na+ leaks into the cell. In other words, some K+
channels are open, whereas other ion channels, such as those for Na+ , are
closed. In addition, negatively charged molecules, such as proteins, are in
essence “trapped” inside the cell because the cell membrane is
impermeable to them. For these reasons, the inside of the cell membrane is
more negatively charged than the outside of the cell membrane.

In addition to an outward concentration gradient for K+ , there exists an

inward electrical gradient for K+. The resting membrane potential results
from the equilibrium of K+ movement across the cell membrane. Because
K+ is positively charged, its movement from inside the cell to the outside
causes the inside of the cell membrane to become even more negatively
charged compared to the outside of the cell membrane. However, potassium
diffuses down its concentration gradient only until the charge difference
across the cell membrane is great enough to prevent any additional diffusion
of K+ out of the cell. The resting membrane potential is an equilibrium in
which the tendency for K+ to diffuse out of the cell is opposed by the negative
charges inside the cell, which tend to attract the positively charged K+ into
the cell. At rest, the sodium-potassium pump transports K+ from outside the
cell to the inside and transports Na+ from inside the cell to the outside. The
active transport of Na+ and K+ by the sodium-potassium pump maintains
the uneven distribution of N a+ and K+ across the cell membrane.
 A change in resting membrane potential is achieved by changes in
membrane permeability to Na+ or K+ ions. A stimulation in a muscle fiber or
nerve cell causes Na+ channels to open quickly and the membrane to
become very permeable to Na+ for a brief time. Because the Na+
concentration is much greater outside the cell than inside and the charge
inside the cell membrane is negative, some positively charged Na+ quickly
diffuses down its concentration gradient and toward the negative charges
inside the cell, causing the inside of the cell membrane to become more
positive than the outside of the cell. This change in the membrane potential
is called depolarization. Near the end of depolarization, Na+ channels close,
and additional K+ channels open. Consequently, the tendency for Na+ to
enter the cell decreases, and the tendency for K to leave the cell increases.
These changes cause the inside of the cell membrane to become more
negative than the outside once again. Additional K+ channels then close as
the charge across the cell membrane returns to its resting condition. The
change back to the resting membrane potential is called repolarization.

10. Describe the production of an action potential.

Answer: The rapid depolarization and repolarization of the cell membrane

is called an action potential. In a muscle fiber, an action potential results in
muscle contraction.

(1) An action potential (orange part of the membrane)

generates local currents that depolarize the membrane
immediately adjacent to the action potential.
(2) When depolarization caused by the local currents reaches
threshold, a new action potential is produced adjacent to
where the original action potential occurred.
(3) The action potential is conducted along the axon cell
membrane.

11. What is a neuromuscular junction? What happens there?

Answer: The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a synaptic connection

between the terminal end of a motor nerve and a muscle (skeletal/ smooth/
cardiac). It is the site for the transmission of action potential from nerve to
the muscle. It is also a site for many diseases and a site of action for many
pharmacological drugs.

12. Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.

Answer: The sliding filament model of muscle contraction describes how

muscles generate force and produce movement. Muscle contraction occurs
as a result of the sliding of thin filaments (actin) over thick filaments (myosin)
within muscle fibers.

13. Explain how an action potential results in muscle contraction.

 Answer: The action potential invades T-tubules and causes the L-type
calcium channels to open, which in turn causes ryanodine receptors (RyRs)
in the SR to open and release calcium, which stimulates contraction.

14. Define muscle twitch, tetanus, and recruitment.

Answer: A muscle twitch is the contraction of a muscle fiber in response

to a stimulus. Because most muscle fibers are grouped into motor units, a
muscle twitch usually involves all the muscle fibers in a motor unit. A muscle
twitch has three phases. The lag phase, or latent phase, is the time between
the application of a stimulus and the beginning of contraction. The
contraction phase is the time during which the muscle contracts, and the
relaxation phase is the time during which the muscle relaxes.

During the lag phase, action potentials are produced in one or more motor
neurons. An action potential travels along the axon of a motor neuron to a
neuromuscular junction. Once the stimulus reaches the neuromuscular
junction, acetyl- choline must be released from the presynaptic terminal,
diffuse across the synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors that allow the entry of
Na+, which initiates an action potential on the postsynaptic membrane.

Tetanus (tet’a-nus; convulsive tension) is a sustained contraction that

occurs when the frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation
occurs. It should be noted, however, that complete tetanus is rarely achieved
under normal circumstances and is more commonly an experimentally
induced muscular response. The increased force of contraction produced in
summation and tetanus occurs because Ca builds up in myofibrils, which
promotes cross-bridge formation and cycling. The buildup of Ca+ occurs
because the rapid production of action potentials in muscle fibers causes
Ca²+ to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum faster than it is actively
transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

In recruitment, the number of muscle fibers contracting is increased by

increasing the number of motor units stimulated, and the muscle contracts
with more force. When only a few motor units are stimulated, a small force
of contraction is produced because only a small number of muscle fibers are
contracting. As the number of motor units stimulated increases, more muscle
fibers are stimulated to contract, and the force of contraction increases.
Maximum force of contraction is produced in a given muscle when all the
motor units of that muscle are stimulated (recruited).

If all the motor units in a muscle could be stimulated simultaneously, the

resulting motion would be quick and jerky. However, because the motor units
are recruited gradually, some are stimulated and held in tetanus while
additional motor units are recruited; thus, contractions are slow, smooth, and
sustained. In the same way, smooth relaxation of muscle occurs because
some motor units are held in tetanus while other motor units relax.

15. Describe the two ways energy is produced in skeletal muscle.

 Answer: Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding cells whether at rest or
during any form of exercise. This energy comes from either aerobic (with
O2) or anaerobic (without O2) ATP production. Generally, ATP is derived
from four processes in skeletal muscle:

1. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise and normal

conditions.
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine (kré’a-tên) phosphate to
ATP.
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one AMP (adenosine
monophosphate) during heavy exercise.

Aerobic respiration, which occurs mostly in mitochondria, requires O2 and

breaks down glucose to produce ATP, CO2 and H2O. Aerobic respiration
can also process lipids or amino acids to make ATP. Anaerobic respiration,
which does not require breaks down glucose to produce ATP and lactate.

Reference:

• VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of

anatomy & physiology (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.