Module 1: Parallel Database, Distributed Database, and ORDBMS

1. Explain Types of Databases

 Centralized Database:

o Data is stored and maintained in a single location (e.g., mainframe or a central

server). Example: University of Mumbai.

o Advantages: Simplifies management and backups.

o Disadvantages: Vulnerable to server failure, Complex to update, and performance

bottlenecks.

 Distributed Database:

o In distributed database data is distributed among different database systems of an

organization and are connected via communication links helping the end-users to
access the data easily. Examples: Oracle, ApacheS

o Advantages: Fault tolerance, scalability, and improved performance.

o Disadvantages: Complex synchronization, data consistency issues, and higher

maintenance.

 Relational Database (RDBMS):

o Data is stored in structured tables with predefined schemas (e.g., MySQL,

PostgreSQL).

o Advantages: ACID compliance, data integrity, and structured query language (SQL).

o Disadvantages: Difficulty in handling unstructured data and complex relationships.

 Object-Oriented Database (OODBMS):

o Data is represented as objects, combining the principles of object-oriented

programming with database management.

o Advantages: Suitable for complex data models, supports inheritance and

encapsulation.

o Disadvantages: Higher learning curve, less adoption in enterprise systems.

 Object-Relational Database (ORDBMS):

o Hybrid between relational databases and object-oriented databases, supporting

user-defined types and inheritance (e.g., PostgreSQL with object-relational
extensions).

o Advantages: Richer data models, support for both relational and complex data.

o Disadvantages: More complex than traditional RDBMS, requires specialized

knowledge.

 NoSQL Database:
 o Designed for unstructured or semi-structured data. Types include document stores,
key-value stores, and graph databases (e.g., MongoDB, Cassandra).

o Advantages: High scalability, flexible schema, handles large volumes of data.

o Disadvantages: Lack of standardization, limited ACID compliance.

 Cloud Database:

o Hosted on cloud platforms such as AWS, Google Cloud, providing scalability,

flexibility, and global access.

o Advantages: Scalability, reduced management costs, disaster recovery features.

o Disadvantages: Dependency on internet connectivity, security concerns.

 Time-Series Database:

o Optimized for storing time-stamped data such as sensor readings and logs (e.g.,
InfluxDB, TimescaleDB).

o Advantages: Efficient storage and querying of time-series data.

o Disadvantages: Not ideal for general-purpose data storage.

2. What is Distributed Database? Explain Types of Distributed Database Architecture

Definition:
A distributed database is a collection of databases stored across different physical locations,
interconnected by a network, and presented as a single logical database.

Types of Distributed Database

I. Homogeneous Distributed Databases

II. Heterogeneous Distributed Databases
 .

Homogeneous Distributed Databases

In a homogeneous distributed database, all the sites use identical DBMS and operating

systems. Its properties are −

o The sites use very similar software.

o The sites use identical DBMS or DBMS from the same vendor.
o Each site is aware of all other sites and cooperates with other sites to process user
o requests.
o The database is accessed through a single interface as if it is a single database.

Types of Homogeneous Distributed Database−

Autonomous − Each database is independent that functions on its own. They are integrated

by a controlling application and use message passing to share data updates.

Non-autonomous − Data is distributed across the homogeneous nodes and a central or

master DBMS co-ordinates data updates across the sites.

Heterogeneous Distributed Databases:

In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites have different operating systems,DBMS

products and data models.

Its properties are −

o Different sites use dissimilar schemas and software.

o The system may be composed of a variety of DBMSs like relational, network, hierarchical or
object oriented.
o Query processing is complex due to dissimilar schemas. Transaction processing is complex
due to dissimilar software.
o A site may not be aware of other sites and so there is limited co-operation in processing user
requests.

Types of Heterogeneous Distributed Databases

Federated − The heterogeneous database systems are independent in nature and integrated

together so that they function as a single database system.

Un-federated − The database systems employ a central coordinating module through which

the databases are accessed.

Types of Distributed Database Architectures:

1. Client - Server Architecture for DDBMS

2. Peer - to - Peer Architecture for DDBMS

3. Multi - DBMS Architecture

 Client-Server Architecture:

o Is a two-level architecture in which the functionality is divided into servers and

clients.

o Server functions include primarily encompass data management, query processing,

optimization and transaction management whereas the client functions include
particularly user interface with common functionalities like consistency checking and
transaction management.

Client - server architectures are classified as:

o Single Server Multiple Client

o Multiple Server Multiple Client

 Peer-to-Peer Architecture:

o All nodes in the system act as both clients and servers. There is no central server.

o This architecture commonly has four levels of schemas −

 Global Conceptual Schema: Illustrates the global logical view of data.
 Local Conceptual Schema: Illustrates logical data organization ateach site.
 Local Internal Schema − Illustrates physical data organization at
 each site.
 External Schema – Illustrates user view of data.

 Multi - DBMS Architectures:

o It is an integrated database system formed by a collection of two or more
autonomous database systems.
o Multi-DBMS can be expressed through six levels of schemas −
 Multi-database View Level − Illustrates multiple user views comprising of
subsets of the integrated distributed database.
 Multi-database Conceptual Level − Illustrates integrated multi-database that
comprises of global logical multi-database structure definitions.
  Multi-database Internal Level − Illustrates the data distribution across
different sites and multi-database to local data mapping.
 Local database View Level − Illustrates public view of local data.
 Local database Conceptual Level − Illustrates local data organization at each
site.
 Local database Internal Level − Illustrates physical data organization at each
site.

3. OODBMS vs ORDBMS

Aspect OODBMS ORDBMS

Data Model Object-oriented structure. Hybrid of relational and object models.

Query Language Object Query Language (OQL). SQL with object extensions (SQL3).

Inheritance Support Fully supports inheritance. Partial support for inheritance.

Relationships Managed via object references. Uses primary and foreign keys.

Schema
Classes and objects. Tables extended with object features.
Representation

Data Type Support Complex and multimedia types. Limited complex type support.

Industry Adoption Limited adoption. Widely adopted in enterprise systems.

Best for object-heavy Optimized for structured and hybrid

Performance
applications. workloads.

4. Short Notes on Abstract Data Types (ADT)

Definition:
An Abstract Data Type (ADT) defines a set of operations on data without specifying the
implementation details. Focuses on what operations are available rather than how they are
implemented.

Characteristics:

 Logical abstraction that emphasizes operations over data.

 Provides encapsulation by combining data and its associated operations.

Examples:

 Stack: Operations include push (add) and pop (remove).

 Queue: Operations include enqueue (add) and dequeue (remove).

 Set: Operations include union, intersection.

Advantages:
  Encourages modularity in software design.

 Simplifies the development process by separating the "what" from the "how".

 Allows for reusable components.

Operations:

 Access operations (e.g., peek at stack top).

 Modification operations (e.g., add/remove elements).

Applications:

 Used in developing algorithms, databases, and various software systems.

Relation to Data Structures:

 ADTs define how the data behaves, and the data structures are the concrete
implementations that realize these behaviors.

Real-Life Examples:

 Undo stack in text editors, task queues in operating systems.

5. Distinguish Between Parallel Database and Distributed Database

Aspect Parallel Database Distributed Database

Uses multiple processors to execute Data stored across multiple locations

Definition
queries simultaneously. connected by a network.

Centralized system with shared Decentralized system with independent

Architecture
resources. nodes.

Scalability Limited by hardware upgrades. Scales horizontally by adding more nodes.

High, due to replication and distributed

Fault Tolerance Low, as it depends on shared resources.
data.

High, since processors access shared Essential for maintaining data consistency
Synchronization
data. across sites.

Data Access Single access point (centralized). Multiple access points (distributed).

Focuses on availability and data

Performance Focuses on speed and query execution.
consistency.

High-performance computing,
Use Cases Large-scale applications, global systems.
simulations.

6. Distinguish Between Centralized Database and Distributed Database

Aspect Centralized Database Distributed Database

All data stored at a single

Definition Data stored across multiple physical sites.
location.

Architecture Managed by one central server. Managed by interconnected nodes.

Scalability Limited scalability. High scalability with additional nodes.

Vulnerable to single point of

Fault Tolerance High fault tolerance with data replication.
failure.

Performance Dependent on server capacity. Enhanced performance with distributed load.

Data Access Single access point (centralized). Access from multiple nodes (distributed).

Lower setup and maintenance Higher setup costs due to replication and
Cost
costs. synchronization.

Small-scale systems, local

Use Cases Large-scale applications, cloud platforms.
businesses.

7. Define Parallel Database. Explain Types of Parallel Database Architectures

Definition:
A parallel database system uses multiple processors and storage resources to execute queries and
manage data concurrently, improving performance and handling large-scale data more efficiently.

Parallel database systems are classified into two groups:

i. Multiprocessor architecture and

ii. Hierarchical System or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture

i. Multiprocessor architecture:

It has the following alternatives:

 Shared memory architecture

 Shared disk architecture
 Shared nothing architecture

Types of Parallel Database Architectures:

 Shared Memory:

o In shared memory architecture multiple processors share the same single

primary/main memory and have its own hard disk for storage.

o Advantages: Fast communication, Simple to implement

o Disadvantages: Scalability is limited by memory bandwidth and size, Limited degree

of parallelism
 Shared Disk:

o In shared disk architecture each processor has its own private memory sharing the
single mass storage in common.

o Each processor has its local memory but can access a shared disk.

o Advantages: Fault tolerance, simplifies data sharing, Supports large number of

processors

o Disadvantages: Potential disk contention, performance bottlenecks.

 Shared Nothing:

o In shared nothing architecture, each processor has its own main memory and mass
storage device setup The entire setup is a collection of individual computers
connected via a high speed communication network..

o Advantages: Highly scalable, avoids bottlenecks.

 o Disadvantages: Requires complex data partitioning and management, Cost of
communication is higher

 Hybrid:

o Combines features of shared memory and shared disk architectures.

o Advantages: Balances scalability with efficient communication.

o Disadvantages: More complex to implement and manage.

ii. Hierarchical System or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture:

o It has the non-uniform memory access.

o NUMA takes longer time to communicate among each other as it uses local and remote
memory.
o Advantages: Proper resource utilization, Improved performance
o Disadvantages: High cost , Complexity in managing the systems