Academic Writing

Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
• Apply the principles of academic writing
• Demonstrate the different styles of academic writing
• Develop ideas into reports and essays.
• Develop and apply critical thinking to
research/academic writing.
• Apply the rules of the English language in research
• Distinguish the various fallacies and avoid them in
research writing.
• Evaluate academic writing for accuracy and relevance
of information, correctness and appropriateness.
 Academic Writing
• Writing is an aspect of communication that allows a
person to:

• Compose thoughts and ideas.

• Note down the ideas for other people to read.

• Hence, writing requires a careful use of words,

punctuations, spellings and tone.

• What is written and how it is written would affect

the overall message and its reception by the reader/s.
• Academic writing involves the various forms of
writing within an academic institution ensuing from
research. It includes essays and reports.

• Academic or research writing brings together

different views, evidence, and facts about a topic
from books, articles, experiments and interviews

• Interprets the information into the writer’s own.

Academic writing will show:
• What the student knows or learned about a
certain topic.
• What other people know about the same topic.
There is need to:
• Understand and analyze the topic of interest.
• Identify key ideas and concepts.
• Acquire related and relevant information.
• Apply the rules of language in the writing.
 Language Development
• One way of mastering a language is through
using it.
• With English as the language of instruction in
Zambia, it is necessary to use it constantly in
both speech and writing.
• Aspects of the language to consider:
✓Sentence Structure
✓Word order
✓Clauses
 Sentence
• A sentence is a group of words that convey
meaning.
• It contains:
✓A subject and verb or predicate
✓May also contain an object, adverb,
preposition, adjective, etc.
✓A sentence can be divided into:
• Subject
• Predicate
 Sentence Structure
Subject Verb/Predicate
• Dr. Tembo teaches chemistry.
• Eric completed his assignment
yesterday.
• The beautiful is my sister.
girl in red
• The most happened to me.
wonderful
thing
• UNZA gave me admission.
 Word Order
• Word order is important while organizing
words into a sentence.
• It is important to know where to place the
various parts of a sentence depending on the
situation.
• Word order is different in statements,
questions, commands, exclamations, direct and
indirect speech.
• For example, the word ‘read’ in the following
sentences occupy various positions and serves
different purposes.
• Examples:
✓Statement – I read Things Fall Apart.
✓Question – Have you read Things Fall Apart?
✓You are going to read Things Fall Apart, aren’t
you?
✓Command – Read Things Fall Apart!
✓Exclamation – What, read Things Fall Apart!
✓Direct speech – “I have read Things Fall
Apart,” he said.
✓Indirect speech – He said he had read Things
Fall Apart.
 Clauses
• A clause is a group of words with the following
components:
✓Subject
✓Verb
✓Object (optional)
✓Complement (optional)
✓Adverbial (optional)
Example:
The class went smoothly

Subject Verb Adverbial

(optional)
• Examples:
I ate the food hurriedly

subject verb object adverbial(optional)

Dorcas became sick suddenly(optional)

complement (adjective)
 The Main Clause
✓Independent
✓Makes complete sense
✓A group of words containing a finite verb.
Examples:
I sat under the sun after school yesterday.
Mrs. Phiri has a new handbag which is very
fashionable.
The UNZA has a library with a lot of
informative books
 The Subordinate/Dependent Clause
✓Dependent
✓Does not make sense on its own.
✓A subordinate/dependent clause must be
attached to a main clause for it to make sense.
✓Examples:
✓I sat under the sun after school yesterday.
✓Mrs. Phiri has a new handbag which is very
fashionable.
✓The UNZA has a library with a lot of
informative books
 Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences
• Simple sentences:

✓Sentences that express a single main idea.

For e.g.,

• I started classes last week.

• My class will visit Kalimba Farms tomorrow.

• 1 love dancing.

• Natasha attends classes twice a week.

➢Compound sentences

✓Sentences which contain two or more main clauses.

✓Each clause:

• Is independent

• Makes complete sense on its own.

• Simple sentences become a compound or a

complex sentence when joined.
• Examples:
• Mfula was sick but he refused to see a doctor.
• He became very sick therefore he had to be
admitted at the Teaching Hospital.
➢Complex sentences: contain a mixture of
main and subordinate clauses.
Examples:
• I want Philip, who is a good football player, to
be in my team, because you’ve got Kaweme.
• Romeo and Juliet was an exciting film,
although I enjoyed the book better.
 Note-taking and Summary Writing

✓While reading and obtaining information or

ideas for an academic writing, note-taking and
summary writing skills are vital (study the
note on study and examination skills for tips
on note-taking and summary writing).
✓Paraphrasing: retains the meaning but uses
different words or phrases. (Summarizing
focuses on the general idea; paraphrasing
concerns itself with specific part of the
content, passages).
 Process of Academic Writing
• Academic writing involves the following
overlapping stages:
 Prewriting
Includes:
• Thinking about and/or choosing a topic/subject
Points to consider while choosing a topic include:
✓Pick a topic of interest to you and your reader/s
✓Choose a topic that has enough material
• Narrow down the topic by:
✓Identifying a possible thesis statement.
✓Jot listing – to organize one’s thoughts
✓Preparing preliminary outlines
✓Listing questions
✓Preparing a concept map
✓Engaging someone to ask questions about the topic
• Discovering and reading information about the
topic/subject/thesis statement.
✓Write down where and whom the information came
from – citation.
• Revise the thesis statement based on the collected
information through:
✓Brainstorming
 Writing Process/Stage
• An academic paper follows standard compositional
(essay) format comprising:
✓A title
✓Introduction
✓Body
✓Conclusion
• The writing process involves:

How to invent, compose, and revise.

 Inventing
Devise a game plan: schedule the writing
process
Ask questions to explore the
situation

✓Purpose?
✓Audience?
✓Genre?
✓Style?
✓Research?
 Inventing Strategies
Ask more critical Explore classic topics
questions Ask stasis questions
Use tagmemics
Free write and
Record ideas without
brainstorm
revising or proofreading

Map and cluster Invent and organize

ideas visually to explore
relationships, processes

Keep a journal Write personal explorations

and reflections on ideas
 Composing

Conduct research

Narrow topic These steps are

sequential
Develop thesis

Organize ideas

Write first draft

 Organizing Strategies
• Introduction
✓Set the context
✓Explain why the topic is important
✓State the thesis.
• Body
✓Build points
✓Support the main claim
• Conclusion
✓Reemphasize the main idea
✓Restate the thesis
Create an outline using the above structure
 Thesis Statement

• Thesis statement is the main idea/point of a written

assignment characterized by:

✓Being specific

✓Often appears at the end of the first paragraph of a

paper

✓Can be modified to reflect what the paper ended up

discussing
 Introduction

• Introduction is the broad beginning of a written

assignment/paper. It should:
✓Express the central idea
✓Set the context for the paper/assignment.
✓State why the main idea is important.
A thesis statement is mainly placed at the end of an
introduction.
 Body Paragraphs
• Refers to paragraphs between the introduction and
the conclusion
• Each body paragraph typically follows the pattern
here-
• A paragraph is a related group of sentences that
develops one main idea.
Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:
✓A topic sentence that states the main or controlling
idea.
✓Supporting sentences to explain and develop the point
✓Evidence - from the reading, or by an example drawn
from the subject area
✓ Analysis - analyze and interpret the evidence.
✓Comment on the implication/significance/impact
✓Conclude the paragraph with a critical conclusion
drawn from the evidence.
 Transitions
• Transition refers to words or phrases that connect ideas
in one paragraph with ideas in the next.
• Effective transitions use key phrases from a previous
paragraph in the next paragraph
• Some common transitional devices are:
✓ Furthermore
✓ Additionally, in addition
✓ Moreover
✓ On the contrary, in contrast
✓ Meanwhile
✓ However
✓ Nevertheless
 Conclusions
• The conclusion is the ending part of the written
assignment/paper that sums what the writer has
been discussing in the paper.
Conclusions could do the following:
✓Restate the topic and its importance.
✓Restate the thesis statement.
✓Resolve opposing viewpoints.
✓Include a call for action.
✓Present an overview of future research possibilities.
 Revising: Review and Proofread
Is the thesis clear?
Review
Do the words communicate the ideas
clearly?
Does the organization of the paper
move from the general to the
specific ideas to support the thesis?
What about the paragraph structure?
Does the conclusion restate the
thesis and overviews the main ideas?
Proofread

Spellings and punctuations

Documentation style
Reviewing Strategies

Refocus

Reorder

Add

Cut
 Proofreading strategies

Run spell and

grammar check
Remember,
you are
Read aloud smarter than a
computer!
Seek clarifications
from your lecturers
 Five Steps of the Writing Process
• STEP 1: PREWRITING (THINK)
✓Decide on a topic to write about.
✓Consider who will read or listen to the written work
– the audience.
✓Brainstorm ideas about the subject.
✓Identify and list places most likely to yield
information.
✓Conduct the research.
 Step 2:Drafting (Write)
✓Put the information from the research into your own
words.

✓Write sentences and paragraphs even if they are not

perfect.

✓Read what you have written and judge if it says

what you mean.

✓Show it to others and ask for suggestions.

 Step 3: Revising (Make it Better)

✓Read what you have written again.

✓Think about what others said about it.

✓Rearrange words or sentences. Take out or add parts.

✓Replace overused or unclear words.

✓Read your writing aloud to be sure it flows

smoothly.
Step 4: Proofreading (Make it Correct)
✓Be sure all sentences are complete. Subjects and
verbs agree.
✓Tenses are consistent, pronouns agree with the
nouns they substitute.
✓Correct spelling, capitalization, and
punctuation.
✓Change words that are not used correctly.
✓Have someone check your work.
✓Recopy it correctly and neatly.
✓References are cited properly.
 Step 5: Publishing(Share the Finished
Work)
✓Read your writing aloud to a group.

✓Create a book of your work.

✓Put your writing on display

 Editing and Proofreading
• The process of editing and proofreading ensures
coherence, flow, clarity and unity in academic
writing.
• Both are important components of academic writing
but differ in focus.
• Editing is a broader process concerned with
content, clarity and logic of argument, structure and
style.
• Proofreading is the final 'micro' process concerned
with spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors.
 Editing
• Editing begins with the first draft.
Reread the draft to see whether the paper is:
✓well-organized
✓ the transitions between paragraphs are smooth
✓the evidence backs up the argument.
• Edit on several levels: content, overall structure,
structure within paragraphs, clarity, style, citations,
references.
Content: Content asks the following questions:
✓Is the thesis statement clear and responds logically
to the topic?
✓Is the argument clear and supports the thesis?
✓Is the evidence supporting the argument compelling
and cited appropriately?
✓Are there any logical gaps or absences in the
argument
Structure:
✓Does the introduction include the thesis statement
and primary argument?
✓Does the argument follow a logical sequence?
✓Is the evidence clearly linked to the argument in the
same paragraph?
✓Are the paragraphs coherently linked by a single
main idea in each?
✓Is the conclusion clear and does not introduce any
new argument?
Clarity
✓Are the keywords clearly defined?
✓Is the meaning of each sentence clear?
✓Are the most meaningful words chosen to express
the ideas?
Style
✓Is the tone of the paper appropriate and consistent?
(e.g., formal or informal, persuasive or descriptive).
✓Is the language gender sensitive and free of
stereotypes?
✓Are the sentence lengths varied with the voice
predominantly active?
✓Is the paper clear of wordiness? (e.g., instead of ‘due
to the fact that...’ use ‘as’ or ‘because’).
• Citations
✓Have you acknowledged the resources?

✓Have you used your department’s/school’s preferred

citation style?

✓When you paraphrased, have you sufficiently

changed the words from the original yet maintained
the ideas and cited your source?
 Proofreading
• It means to correct the mistakes in the
documents regarding spelling, punctuation,
sentence structure.

• It is a review of what one has written and is the

final stage of the editing process.

• This process is essential for all writers to ensure

what has been written is relevant and current.
• Steps

✓Use word processor’s spell and grammar check

(Note: spell check will not find all the errors!).

✓Proofread the soft copy

✓Proofread the hard copy

✓Switch with a friend

✓Make the corrections/final changes including

making visibly appealing
 Academic Writing: Essay
An academic essay includes a piece of writing that:
• Answers a question
• Presents a point of view in a clear and logical
manner
• Is supported by evidence from academic sources.
• Uses evidence to reason its argument.
• Academic essays encourage the students to:
• Broaden their knowledge about a question/problem
• Respond to questions using their own words
• Take a stand on their views
• Be able to raise more questions
Characteristics of Academic Essays
Writer’s Purpose:
Content:
To describe
Theories
To discuss
Concepts
To analyze
Facts
To evaluate
Opinions
To clarify
etc
To interpret, etc.

Reader's expectation: essays must be

Focused on the topic
Based on wide and critical reading
Reasoned argument
Competently presented
 Academic Essay: Types
• Descriptive: describes a subject, e.g.; a person,
place or event.

• Expository: explains a concept or theory.

• Argumentative/Persuasive presents an argument

through reasoning and the use of evidence.

• Narrative: tells a story or about an event/incidence.

 Essay Preparation: Stages
• Choose the topic
• Analyze the question and define key terms
• Prepare an outline
• Locate and evaluate resources
• Research/organize notes
• Make your final essay plan
• Write the rough draft to include introduction, body and
conclusion
• Proofread and edit
• Write the final draft
• Complete or finalize the references and citations
• Final draft completed - submit
Choosing a topic: consider the following:
✓The topic that interests you
✓Has ample resources and information
✓Has relevance to you, personally and professionally
✓The easiest for you to handle
Analyze the question
✓Ensure you understand the issue/problem that must
be addressed.
• Analyze the question according to:
✓Direction words: words that tell you what to do
with the topic. e.g. discuss, compare, argue.
✓Content words: words that indicate the areas on
which the essay will focus, the subject areas of the
topic.
✓Delimiting words: words that limit the essay to a
particular place, time, group, length, etc. They tell
the scope or boundaries of the essay.
✓Examples: Discuss the effects of covid-19
pandemic in the academic life of undergraduate
natural science students in Zambia (1000 words).
✓The content words are ‘the effects of the covid-19
pandemics’- they tell the subject matter of the essay
question.
✓The delimiting words are those that tell the
boundaries of the essay: ‘the academic life of
undergraduate natural science students in the Uni.
of Zambia’ and 1000 words.
✓The direction word is ‘discuss’- tells what to do
with the topic.
• Examples: Direction words
✓Analyze: Break into separate parts and discuss,
examine, or interpret each part.
✓Compare: Examine two or more things. Identify
similarities and differences. Comparisons generally
ask for similarities more than differences.
✓Comment on: Express your opinion about a subject.
✓Contrast: Show differences. Set in opposition.
✓Criticize: Make judgements. Evaluate comparative
worth. Criticism often involves analysis.
✓Define: Give the meaning - usually a meaning
specific to the subject.
✓Describe: Give a detailed account. Take a picture
with words. List characteristics, qualities and parts.
✓Discuss: Consider and debate or argue the pros and
cons of an issue. Write about any conflict. Compare
and contrast.
✓Evaluate: Give your opinion or cite the opinion of an
expert. Include evidence to support the evaluation.
✓Illustrate: Give concrete examples. Explain clearly
by using comparisons or examples.
✓Interpret: Comment upon, give examples, describe
relationships. Explain the meaning. Describe, then
evaluate.
✓Justify: Give good reasons for decisions, actions or
conclusions.
✓Outline: Describe main ideas, characteristics, or
events.
✓Summarize: Give a brief, condensed account. Include
conclusions. Avoid unnecessary details.
• Analyze the question:
✓Writing down everything you know about a topic is
not enough to make a good academic essay.
✓Analyzing, then answering the essay's question or
task is central.
✓Be sure that you understand exactly what the
question requires you to do.
✓Identify the key words (like discuss or analyze) and
clarify the approach you are required to take.
• Construct an initial plan – it is the road map of
the reading and writing.
Example:
Discuss the effects of covid-19 pandemic in the
academic life of undergraduate natural science
students in the Uni. of Zambia. (1000 words)
• A possible plan
1. Introduction
a. General effects of covid-19 in academics
b. Importance of understanding its effect on student’s
academic life
c. Thesis statement
2. Body
a. Economic effects of covid-19 on the students’ stud
b. Effects on knowledge acquisition and transfer
c. Effects on health.
d. Effects on relationships and extra-curricular
activities
3. Conclusion: restate the main points
The essay would then develop from this plan; each point
might become the focus of a paragraph.
Think of an essay as having four parts(first draft):
• The introduction- 10% 0f total words. It contains
general statement on the topic, thesis statement and
a summary of your key points.
✓Explains the academic problem as the writer sees it
✓Indicates how the writer intends to handle it.
• It tells the reader what to expect, and what to look
for.
• The body or content - 80% of total words.
✓Contains the points the writer wants to make
✓Supporting arguments and evidence
✓Citations to indicate where the evidence comes from
✓It must show the reader that the writer knows the
subject.
• The conclusion -10% of total words.
✓ Reaffirms the thesis statement
✓ Summarizes and makes final statement on the
argument.
• The references - the list of books and other sources
used in the essay.
• Locate and evaluate resources
✓ Use as many information sources as possible - libraries,
course reading lists, professional associations, etc.
✓ Look at contents’ pages, indexes, abstracts (if they
exist), subheadings, diagrams, tables, graphs,
introductions and conclusions for about 5-10 minutes.
✓ Decide which resources will be useful and then
prioritize your reading.
• Researching the topic
✓Most academic writing draws on the work of other
writers and researchers making reading and
researching vital to essay writing.
✓Researching provides the knowledge and evidence
for developing a thesis and argument to answer the
essay question.
✓ Read the resources with a purpose. Apply the
reading strategies –scanning, skimming, etc.
Consider these questions:
✓What do I already know about the topic? If a topic is
unfamiliar, do some introductory reading.
✓What do I need to read to be able to answer the
essay question?
✓Is this material useful and relevant to my thesis/
argument?
✓How will this material further explore my
argument?
• Taking notes
✓Take/ make notes from the readings. The notes will
be the basis of the essay.
✓Copy down the bibliographic details of everything
you read. Include author, date, title, publisher and
place of publication, etc. These will help with
referencing.
• Edit and proofread the final draft before submission
or publication.
• Essay writing requires both creative and critical
thinking.
• Creative thinking encourages the broadening of
ideas. Examples: Brainstorming and mapping
• Critical thinking encourages narrowing of the focus
or scope of the ideas.
 Critical Thinking
• Paul and Elder (2020: 9) define critical thinking as
‘the art of analyzing and evaluating thought
processes with a view to improving them.’
COMPONENTS
• Critical thinking gives due consideration to:
✓ The evidence
✓The context of judgment
✓The criteria for making judgments
✓The methods or techniques used to make judgments.
✓An understanding of the nature of the problem and
the question at hand.
 Why Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is not only about logic, but also
about:
• Clarity,
• Credibility
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Relevance,
• Depth and breadth
• Significance and fairness
• ‘THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX.’
 Becoming a Critical Thinker: When?
It occurs whenever one:
✓Judges
✓Decides
✓Solves a problem
✓Must figure out what to believe or what to do, and
do so in a reasonable and reflective way
• It encourages one to see each issue from as many
perspectives as possible.
 Importance of Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is an important element of all
professional fields and academic disciplines .
• Students at the tertiary level of learning are
encouraged to use logic and critical thinking to:
✓Broaden their understanding
✓Interpret information
✓Make justified conclusions
✓Can analyze, evaluate, explain, and restructure ones
thinking.
 Facts and Opinion
• Academic writing requires the writer to distinguish
between facts and opinion.
Facts refer to:
✓What is true
✓What has happened
✓Observed, verified and proven – research

Opinions are:
✓Statements of a person’s perceptions, feelings or
beliefs.
✓Simple value judgements.
 Logic
• Copi et al. (2016) define logic as the procedures and
principles of reasoning concerned with making the
distinction between correct and incorrect reasoning.
• Logic facilitates the writer’s/student’s ability to:
✓Procure correct information
✓Evaluate resources/claims/arguments to arrive at
truth
✓Identify inconsistencies in argument and logical
fallacies.
✓Construct arguments validated by rational
inferences.
 Reasoning
• Reasoning is the process of making reliable
judgments.
• A person who has accurate information and sound
concepts can begin to reason.
• Logic cannot be used when it is based on faulty
judgments.
• Logical reasoning requires no explanation or proof
beyond itself.
 Types
• Inductive reasoning is the formulation of a
conclusion based on observations.
• Often considered as unreliable because its only
based on observation.
• Deductive reasoning is the formulation of
conclusions based on previously known facts and
considered as reliable.
• Causal reasoning creates a link between entities
without a common origin (cause and effect
reasoning (Wolfe and Barbey, 2015).
 Examples of Reasoning Fallacies
• False cause occurs:
✓When there is a wrong assumption about the cause
of an event because of a noticed relationship
between an act and the event.
✓However, coincidence is different from cause.
✓Example: many students who achieved 6 points in
Grade 12 study medicine. You will study medicine
if you make 6 points.
✓Bwalya comes to church just as the bell rings every
Sunday. Bwalya’s arrival at church causes the bell
to ring.
• False analogy
✓Indicates that similarity in one aspect portends
similarity in other aspects
• False authority (expert fallacy):
✓A fallacy or persuasive technique which assumes
that the opinions of a recognized expert in a particular
area extends to another area.
✓Includes using an alleged authority as evidence in
an argument where the evidence is irrelevant to the
current argument.
✓Example: a lecturer in anatomy accepting to care
for patients, though not trained as a medical doctor.
• Bandwagon fallacy depends on popular opinions.
• Ad Hominem – may invalidate an argument by
attacking the writer’s motive or person.
• Hasty Generalization reaches a conclusion without
sufficient logically justifiable evidence and often
proceeds from the particular to the general.
• Example: a student concludes that smoking is a safe
habit because her grandfather smoked and lived to
be ninety-four years.
• Appeal to tradition is a logical fallacy arising from
dependence on the status quo, on things as they
have always been.
• Example: one must study medicine because the
parents and grandparents studied medicine
 Report Writing
• Report:
• Is an investigation into a given topic, which
produces information and ideas
• Sometimes, produces a solution to a problem.
• Concentrates on a single subject or topic area
• Includes graphs and tables
• May either be typed, written or spoken.
• Recommendations from reports enable management
or a body to make informed decisions.
 Report: Purposes
• Keep management informed
• Provides a written record of an investigation
• Provides a basis for decision making
• Makes recommendations
 Report: Types
• Information Reports: provide information
• e.g. business reports
• Process Reports: describe a process e.g. lab reports
• Investigative Reports: investigate to find a
solution
 Structure of Long Reports
1 Cover Page – bold concise title
2.0 Title Page
2.1 Author
2.1.2 Receiver
2.1.3 Date submitted
2.3 Acknowledgement
2.3.1 An acknowledgement of those who contributed
to the report.
2.4 Table of Contents
2.4.1 Chapter titles/ Sub-topics
2.4.2 Page numbers listed
2.5. Procedures
• All the methods used to collate the data needed for
the report.
2.6. Introduction
• Provides necessary background information or a
summary of the important facts in the body.
2.7. Body
2.7.1 Findings
• Presented under headings, sub- headings,
illustrations and graphics included.
• 2.7.2 Conclusions
• Clear, unexaggerated, statements in numbered
paragraphs, summarizing the information in the
body of the report.
2.8. Recommendations
• Clearly numbered, justified opinions of the writer or
group of writers reflecting:
✓What is to be done
✓Who is to do it
✓How to do it
2.9. References
• Alphabetical list of sources of information
2.10. Glossary
• Alphabetically arranged technical terms with
definitions.
2.11. Appendix
• Any additional information or attachments e.g.
Questionnaires, etc.
 Writing the Report
Some useful Tips
• Make the findings objective – report the fact, not
how you feel.
• Make it readable - use headings and appropriate
spacing
• Vary the sentence length –
✓Short sentences help to emphasize a point
✓Longer sentences are used to develop an argument.
✓Use shorter paragraphs for clarity
• Ensure correctness
• Use numbering for easy reference.
• Visual attractiveness –
✓Use a variety if illustrations e.g., diagrams,
illustrations, graphs, tables, pie charts etc.
 Qualities of a Good Report
The qualities of a good report are:
• Accuracy of information
• Clarity: clarity in a report -
✓Pays attention to the overall form
✓Choice of words
✓Sentence and paragraph construction.
• Coherence – refers to
✓The logical and continuous relationship of the part to
one another.
• Written in ‘Indirect Speech’ unless an informal one.
• Reports are usually confidential.
• Conciseness – get to the point
✓Write only what is relevant
✓Be courteous in your approach and language.
• Objectivity –
✓Do not let personal feelings sway your judgment.
• Completeness –
✓Check the aim of the report.
✓Make sure you have covered all the aspects of it.
• Consistency – be consistent in-
✓Viewpoint
✓Information
✓ Style of presentation.
 Structure of a Schematic Report
1.0. To:
From:
Date:
Subject:

1.1 Terms of Reference

• The instruction on which the report has been written.
Includes:
✓ Who asked for the report.
✓ What it investigates.
✓ When it was requested.
✓ (Possibly) a call for recommendations.
• Example – general wording:
• 1.1 Terms of Reference
This report was requested
by…………………………It investigated (very often
some problem area).
This report was requested on……………………. To
be submitted by…………………………
1.2 Procedures
• The methods (procedures) by which the
investigation was conducted usually stated in
passive voice:
Interviews (face to face, telephone, etc.).
Personal observation (of the situation).
Research (of documents, records, reports, etc.).
Questionnaires
General wording:
✓Interviews were conducted with ….
✓Questionnaires were distributed to ….
✓The author(s) gathered information through ….
1.3 Findings – the body of your report.
• The facts discovered in the investigation.
• They include:
✓What you ‘find’ from interviewing people.
✓What you ‘observe’ from personal visit.
✓What you ‘discover’ during ‘research’.
✓What ‘insight’ you get from the answers of the
sample group/s.
• Visual illustration in the form of graphs, tables, pie
charts must be included here.
1.4 Conclusions- include
✓Your interpretation of the facts/findings.
✓Logical conclusions.
✓Informed opinions.
✓Thoughtful assessments/judgments
Note:
• Findings are facts (by nature they cannot be argued).
• Conclusions are interpretation (by nature they could
be argued).
1.5 Recommendations:
• Your suggestions for correcting the problem.
• These are things to do – ACTIONS.
• Make them appropriately specific.
• Number and itemize them separately
General wording:
• After interviewing, observing and conducting the
investigation, it is recommended that ….
OR
• After thorough research and conducting
investigations, we recommend that …
1.6 Your signature/s
 Statistical Analysis: Interpretive
Reading and Writing
• Pictures are effective means of learning.
• Pictures are easily understood and remembered.
• Statistical data, presented pictorially or graphically,
give readers a quick impression of overall trends
and relationships between figures.
Using Symbols and Colors
• Symbols are usually used to warn or restrict.
• An important element in communicating through
symbols is the use of colors.
E.g., green- safety and escape
red - stop and fire
• Photographs:
• Are most clear and convincing of all visuals because
they seem so real and true.
• ‘A picture speaks a thousand words.’

• Drawings and Diagrams

• Drawings focus on important details while diagrams
support the drawings or photographs.
• Well-drawn and well-labelled diagrams are often
essential for complete understanding.
 Tables
• Tables condense a great deal of information in a
brief form to act as:
✓A quick reference
✓Be easily understood.
Ed. Level Survivor Percent- Offender Percent-
age age
Nil 12 15.6 10 17.9
Primary 17 22.1 8 14.3
Secondary 25 32.5 17 30.4
Tertiary 5 6.5 14 25.0
Not avail. 18 23.4 7 12.5
 Graphs and Bar Charts
• A graph immediately:
✓ Shows high and low points
✓Shows changes occurring.
✓Enables comparisons to be easily made.
• Single or multiple bars can be used, and the
information can be plotted vertically or horizontally.
• Bar charts include scales, which may be used in the
same way as graph scales are used.
 Pie Charts
• A table showing the figures and percentages used in
preparing the pie chart often accompanies it.
• Sectors of a pie chart are normally arranged in a
clockwise direction.
• Shading or coloring enhance the appearance of the
pie chart and highlights the contrast.
 Conclusions
• Critical thinking enables one to be able to make
concise decisions based on facts more than opinions.
• It exposes one’s thinking to many possibilities
leading to a justified conclusion.
• Academic writing requires critical thinking as an
individual collects, organizes and uses evidence to
support one’s thesis/idea.
• Editing and proofreading skills are important in
academic and professional fields.
 References
Campbell, K.K. and Huxman, S.S. 2017. The Rhetorical Act:
Thinking, Speaking and Writing Critically. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Copi, I.M, Cohen, C. and McMahon, K. 2016. Introduction to
logic.14th ed. London & New York: Routledge.
Edith Cowan University. 2021. Academic skills essentials: essays.
Available https://ecu.au.libguides.com/academic-skills-
essentials/essays [Accessed 21 July 2021].
Paul, R and Elder, L. 2020. The miniature guide to critical thinking
concepts and tools. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Stiff, J. B. and Mongeau, P.A. 2016. Persuasive communication.
2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press.
Woolf, P. and Barbey, A. K. 2015. Causal reasoning with forces.
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9(1), 1-20.