CHAPTER 2

Operational
Amplifiers

Introduction 53 2.6 DC Imperfections 88

2.1 The Ideal Op Amp 54 2.7 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and
Bandwidth on Circuit Performance 97
2.2 The Inverting Configuration 58
2.8 Large-Signal Operation of
2.3 The Noninverting Configuration 67 Op Amps 102
2.4 Difference Amplifiers 71 Summary 107
2.5 Integrators and Differentiators 80 Problems 108
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN

1. The terminal characteristics of the ideal op amp.

2. How to analyze circuits containing op amps, resistors, and capacitors.

3. How to use op amps to design amplifiers having precise characteristics.

4. How to design more sophisticated op-amp circuits, including summing

amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, integrators, and differentiators.

5. Important nonideal characteristics of op amps and how these limit the

performance of basic op-amp circuits.

Introduction

53
54 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

2.1 The Ideal Op Amp

2.1.1 The Op-Amp Terminals

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2
 2.1 The Ideal Op Amp 55

EXERCISE

2.1

Ans.

2.1.2 Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

v −
v v −v
v v −v
v

v −v

v
v
−
+

v −v v =v =
56 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

Figure 2.3

Table 2.1 Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

58 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

2.3
v v v = = Ω µ=

Ans. v = µ v −v =

Figure E2.3

2.2 The Inverting Configuration

v
 2.2 The Inverting Configuration 59

Figure 2.5

2.2.1 The Closed-Loop Gain

v
≡
v

v
v
v –v = =

v v =v
v v

v = v =

v –v v – v
= = =

v = v –
v
= –

v
= –
v
60 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

Figure 2.6

⁄ = vI
v °
 2.2 The Inverting Configuration 65

EXERCISES

D2.4 −
Ω
Ans. = Ω Ω
2.5

Ans. = =− Ω = v −

Figure E2.5

2.6 v v
v ⁄v ⁄ ⁄
Ans. − − − − −

v v

Figure E2.6

2.2.4 An Important Application—The Weighted Summer

v v v
66 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

v v v
= , = , , =

Figure 2.10

= + +…+

v = – = –

v = –⎛ v + v +…+ v⎞
⎝ ⎠

v v v

v = v ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ +v ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ –v ⎛ ⎞ –v ⎛ ⎞
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
 2.3 The Noninverting Configuration 67

v v
v

Figure 2.11

EXERCISES

D2.7 v v v
v =− v + v

Ans. = Ω = Ω = Ω
D2.8

v = v +v – v

Ans. = Ω = Ω = Ω = Ω = Ω
= Ω

2.3 The Noninverting Configuration

2.3.1 The Closed-Loop Gain

(v ⁄ v )

v
v = = = ∞

v
v ⁄

v ⎞
v = v +⎛
⎝ ⎠
68 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

Figure 2.12

v
v
v v v
v

v
v

Figure 2.13

v
= +
v

v = v ⎛ ⎞
⎝ + ⎠

v ⎛ ⎞ = v
⎝ + ⎠

v v v
v
v

v v v
v
v
 2.3 The Noninverting Configuration 69

2.3.2 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

v +( ⁄ )
≡ = (2.11)
v +( ⁄ )
+

– ⁄
+ ⁄
=∞

> +

+( ⁄ )
Percent gain error = – × (2.12)
+ +( ⁄ )

2.3.3 Input and Output Resistance

v −v

2.3.4 The Voltage Follower

= =∞

v =v =∞ =
70 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

v v v

v v
v

Figure 2.14

v = v =v

EXERCISES

2.9
Ans. v = v + v

Figure E2.9

2.10 Ω
v v v v v
Ans. v = v + v − v
D2.11
µ
Ans. = = Ω
2.12
= Ω = Ω ε
( + ⁄ ) =
v =
Ans. ε = − − − v −v =
 2.4 Difference Amplifiers 71

2.13 v v
v ⁄v ⁄ ⁄
Ans. ∞ ∞

v v

Figure E2.13

2.14
Ω Ω

Ans.

2.4 Difference Amplifiers

v
v
v

v = v + v

=
72 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

v v v

v v v
v v v

v v
Figure 2.15

v v v

2.4.1 A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

( + ⁄ )
(– ⁄ )


( + ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )

⎛ + ⎞ =
+ ⎝ ⎠

=
+ +

=
 2.4 Difference Amplifiers 73

vI

vI

Figure 2.16

v v v

v 
v 
v v

v = – v

v v

v v

v = v ⎛ + ⎞ = v
+ ⎝ ⎠

v v
v

v = (v – v ) = v

=
80 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

EXERCISE

2.17 +
= Ω = Ω
= = Ω
Ans. v = − ω v = + ω v = − ω v
= + ω v = − ω v = + ω v = v+ = +
ω v = ω

2.5 Integrators and Differentiators

2.5.1 The Inverting Configuration with General Impedances

( ) ( )
= −
( ) ( )
ω
ω
ω

Figure 2.22
82 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

Example 2.4 continued

ω

ω =

(– ⁄ )

⁄ =
Ω = Ω = Ω =

π× × =
× ×
=

/ = =
− °
°
− °
+ °

2.5.2 The Inverting Integrator

v v
v( )⁄

=
∫ ( ) v ∫ ( )
=

v ( ) = + ∫ ( )

v = −v

v ( ) = – ∫ v( ) –
 2.5 Integrators and Differentiators 83

v v

v
v

Figure 2.24

= ( )= ⁄

( )
= –
( )
= ω
( ω)
= –
( ω) ω

=
ω
84 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

φ = + °

ω
/ /

⁄ =

ω =

ω=

+ −

ω=

( ) ⁄
= –
( ) +

v Figure 2.25
v
 2.5 Integrators and Differentiators 87

2.5.3 The Op-Amp Differentiator

v( )

v( )
( v ⁄ )
v ( )
v( )
v ( ) = –

( )= ⁄ ( )=
( )
= –
( )
= ω
( ω)
= –ω
( ω)

v
i
v
v
v
v

Figure 2.27
88 Chapter 2 Operational Amplifiers

=ω

φ = – °

ω
+ +
⁄ = ω = ⁄

v( )

EXERCISES

2.18

Ans.
D2.19 Ω
−

Ans. = Ω, = µ ω = ⁄ = φ=+ ° ω=
⁄ = φ = + °; 1000
D2.20 −
µ

Ans. = µ = Ω ω = ⁄ = φ=− ° ω=
⁄ = φ = − °; 10 Ω

2.6 DC Imperfections