Helmand University

Engineering Faculty
Civil Department

Chapter 4
Circuit Theorems

Lecturer: Eng. Mohammad kazim karimi 10/22/2023

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Linearity Property
3. Superposition
4. Source Transformation
5. Thevenin’s Theorem
6. Norton’s Theorem
7. Maximum Power Transfer

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 1. Introduction

 The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to an evolution

from simple to complex circuits.
 To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some
theorems to simplify circuit analysis.
 Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
 In addition to circuit theorems, we discuss the concepts of superposition, circuit
linearity, and source transformation in this chapter.

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 2. Linearity Property
 Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between
cause and effect
 The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) property and
the additivity property.
 The homogeneity property requires that if the
input is multiplied by a constant, then the
output is multiplied by the same constant. For
a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the
input i to the output v:
 If the current is increased by a constant k,
then the voltage increases correspondingly by
k; that is:
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 2. Linearity Property
 The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum
of the responses to each input applied separately.

 In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.

 A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and
independent sources.

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Cont.

For the circuit in Fig, find I0 when vs = 12 V and vs = 24 V.

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Cont.

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 3. Superposition

 The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using the techniques covered
in Chapters 2 and 3.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions
due to the independent sources.

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Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig.

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 4. Source Transformation
 We have noticed that series-parallel combination and wye-delta transformation
help simplify circuits.
 Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits.
 It is therefore expedient in circuit analysis to be able to substitute a voltage source
in series with a resistor for a current source in parallel with a resistor, or vice versa.
 Either substitution is known as a source transformation.
 A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series
with a resistor R by a current source is is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

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Use source transformation to find v0 in the circuit of Fig.

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Cont.

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 5. Thevenin’s Theorem

 It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable

(usually called the load) while other elements are fixed.
 As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be connected to different
appliances constituting a variable load.
 Each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed
all over again.
 To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the
fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.

(a) original circuit. (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit.. 10/22/2023

Cont.
 Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor
RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input
or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

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Cont.

 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources.
 As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they
are controlled by circuit variables.
 We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine the resulting
current io.
 We insert a current source io at terminals a-b as shown in Fig. 4.25(b) and find
the terminal voltage vo.

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Cont.
 Thevenin’s theorem is very important in
circuit analysis. It helps simplify a circuit.
 A large circuit may be replaced by a single
independent voltage source and a single
resistor.
 This replacement technique is a powerful
tool in circuit design.
 As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit with
a variable load can be replaced by the
Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the
load.
 The equivalent network behaves the same
way externally as the original circuit. 10/22/2023
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 6. Norton’s Theorem
 Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor
RN,
 Where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals.
 RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

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 6. Norton’s Theorem
 Source transformation is often called Thevenin-Norton transformation.
 Since VTH, IN, and RTh are related according to Eq. (4.11), to determine the
Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
• The open-circuit voltage Voc across terminals a and b.

• The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.

• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all independent
sources are turned off.

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Cont. Example

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 8. Maximum Power Transfer
 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).

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