First & Second Law Analysis of a Steam

Turbine
Rut Pandya
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, 695547, India

Abstract
A First Law and Second Law thermodynamic analysis was performed on an energy storage system consisting of a
steam turbine with a focus on the turbine. A thermodynamic model was developed for the turbine and the processes
happening within the turbine were reasonably approximated and the work output of the turbine was calculated. Using
the model, effects of changes in various parameters on the final work output of the turbine were also studied. Use
cases and ways to improve the system were also discussed.

Nomenclature
P = Pressure
V = Volume
cp = Specific heat at a constant pressure
U = Internal Energy
W = Work
Q = Heat
S = Entropy
R = Gas Constant
m = Mass
y = Moisture percentage

I. Introduction
Problem statement assigned to the author:
Steam enters a turbine at 9 MPa, 600°c, and a velocity of 60 m/s, and exits at 20 kPa and 90 m/s with a 5% moisture
content. The turbine is not adequately insulated, and heat is lost from the turbine at a rate of 220 kW. The power
output of the turbine is 4.5 MW. Assume the surroundings are at a temperature of 25°C.

The aim of this course project is to study and perform a thermodynamic First Law analysis on a steam turbine,
find out (to reasonable accuracy) the processes taking place in the turbine and develop a model to predict changes in
the functioning or parameters of the system based on changes in any conditions or other parameters and also use it to
find the reversible power output of the turbine and find out changes if the turbine were perfectly insulated.

A. Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is a device that converts the energy present in steam at high pressure to mechanical work[1]. A
single steam turbine stage consists of multiple blades projecting from a rotating central hub/shaft (this arrangement is
called a rotor) inside a casing, as visible in Pic. (1) below. Stages may be separated by carefully designed stationary
blades or nozzles to control the steam flow and properties between them.

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 Pic. (1): A steam turbine with its casing removed (Courtesy of
Siemens, under CCA-SA 3.0U license)
Steam enters the turbine at a high temperature and pressure and exits at a low temperature and pressure therefore
undergoing a drop in both these properties in the turbine. The greater this drop, the more energy can potentially be
extracted from the steam. Consequently, the most efficient turbines condense the steam partially back to water during
operation before it exits. To extract every last bit of energy possible, high pressure, intermediate pressure and low
pressure turbines operating simultaneously may be used[2].
Steam turbines are more efficient than reciprocating steam engines and gas turbines and offer better reliability during
sustained high-load operation[3]. Due to the availability of water and the simplicity of converting it to steam, steam
turbines can be very versatile. Thus, they are the most widely used method of generating electricity worldwide with
about 86% of all electricity generated worldwide being via steam turbine[3]. A vast majority of steam turbines are
found in most power generation plants involving thermal energies and a large minority are used in large ships and
marine vessels. Such power plants are essentially heat engines utilizing the Rankine Cycle[4] wherein the turbine
performs the work extraction.

B. The First Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics is simply the universal law of conservation of energy expressed in the context
of thermodynamic processes. It states that the change in internal energy of any amount of substance equals the
difference of the heat provided to it and the work done by it:

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

Internal energy may contain not just energy related to temperature but also (mechanical) potential and kinetic
energies. Thus, the first law of thermodynamics is very useful in helping us analyze the energies in a system, where
they come from and where they go, and helping us keep track of conversions of energies to different forms. In this
manuscript we will perform an analysis of the given turbine using the first law and keep track of various energies
entering and exiting the turbine.

C. The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law while useful for assessing the energies present, does not shed any light on the spontaneity of the
energy transfer, their reversibility or the usefulness of the energies present to us. The Second Law covers all these and
helps us assess the real usefulness of energies present and inefficiencies from a new perspective. It is composed of
two statements:

1. Kelvin-Planck Statement:
It is impossible to create a device that converts all the heat taken from a hot reservoir to work without any other
effects.

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2. Clausius Statement
It is impossible for heat to move from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir without any external help/interference (work
input).

Both statements are equivalent and it can be proved that violating any one statement results in a violation of the
other.

II. Literature Review

There is no lack of literature regarding steam turbines. Most recent literature focuses on more accurate and complex
modeling of turbines and advanced analyses from second and first law perspectives accounting losses at nearly every
level, even fluid viscous losses. We have referred to a few sources covering the basics of steam turbines.
• [1], [2] and [3] are referenced in the introduction and cover good basic data regarding the overall use and
importance of steam turbines. They provide good statistics and introductory data as well.
• [4] Yunus Çengel, M. Boles, Thermodynamics – an Engineering approach is referenced for the concept of
control volumes and the concept for the derivations of all the equations in the paper. All values for the
properties of steam are taken from the property table given in the book.
• [5-9] cover where losses occur as well as methods that can be applied to increase the efficiency of the
turbine, as well as the impact of the methods wherever quantifiable. They also cover other aspects like
maintenance and material behavior of turbines.
• [10] Discusses the concept of exergy and entropy in a general thermodynamic sense.

III. First Law Analysis

A. Mass expression and energy expression based on the First Law

Let us take a control volume[4]. Let there be some number of inlets through which a working fluid flows in, and
let there be some number of exits through which the working fluid exits. Then the net rate of mass accumulation in
the control volume equals the difference of the sums of rates of mass ingress and exit plus the rate of mass generation
inside the control volume:

𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
= ∑ ṁ𝑖 − ∑ ṁ𝑒 + ṁ𝑔𝑒𝑛 (1)
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Eq. (1) is the mass balance equation for our control volume. Let us now look at the energies involved with the
control volume. The incoming fluid possesses some internal energy and kinetic energy due to its flow. It also possesses
some gravitational potential energy. Additionally, the action of the fluid flowing also performs some work on the
control volume called flow work which equals the product of pressure and volume. Then we factor in the incoming
and lost/outgoing heat and work performed by/extracted from the control volume. Let the specific properties be
denoted by lowercase letters of their respective non-specific properties and the energy content of the control volume
be denoted by 𝐸𝑐𝑣 , then (𝜈 = specific volume, V = velocity here):

𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣 𝑉𝑖2
= −𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 𝑊̇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 𝑢𝑖 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 𝑔𝑧𝑖 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝜈𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑒2
− (∑ ṁ𝑒 𝑢𝑒 + ∑ ṁ𝑒 + ∑ ṁ𝑒 𝑔𝑧𝑒 + ∑ ṁ𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝜈𝑒 )
2
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡

We know that specific enthalpy ℎ = (𝑢 + 𝑝𝜈)[4], then the equation above shortens to:

𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣 𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2

= −𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 𝑊̇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 ℎ𝑖 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 𝑔𝑧𝑖 − (∑ ṁ𝑒 ℎ𝑒 + ∑ ṁ𝑒 + ∑ ṁ𝑒 𝑔𝑧𝑒 ) (2)
𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡

We have thus prepared an energy balance Eq. (2) that we will modify in the next section to suit a steady-flow
system.

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3. Applying the energy balance to a steady-flow system
A steady-state or steady-flow system is one in which the thermodynamic properties at any point in the system are
constant throughout time, mass of the system remains the same and no energy accumulates or depletes from the
system[4]. Thus, we can set the rates in the mass and energy balances to zero. We assume that no mass is generated
within our control volume, to maintain relevancy to a turbine. Thus, applying the above conditions to Eq. (1) and (2)
respectively, we get:

𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
= 0 ∴ ∑ ṁ𝑖 = ∑ ṁ𝑒 (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣 𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2

= 0 ∴ ∑ ṁ𝑖 ℎ𝑖 + ∑ ṁ𝑖 + ∑ 𝑔𝑖 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ + ∑ ṁ𝑒 ℎ𝑒 + ∑ ṁ𝑒 + ∑ 𝑔ṁ𝑒 𝑧𝑒 (4)
𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Thus, we have obtained an energy balance equation (Eq. (4)) that we can use to perform a first law analysis on any
steady flow system and a mass flow equation (Eq. (3)) to aid.

4. Applying the steady-flow energy balance equation to steam turbines

We can see that Eq. (4) contains an enthalpy term, velocity term and gravitational potential energy term. In most
turbines the fluid undergoes on average no elevation change. Even if there is a considerable elevation change, the
gravitational potential energy term is still numerically insignificant in comparison to the rest of the terms therefore we
can neglect the term. Hence Eq. (4) reduces to:

𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2
𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑊̇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ∑ ṁ𝑖 (ℎ𝑖 + ) − ∑ ṁ𝑒 (ℎ𝑒 + ) (5)
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

In an ideal steam turbine, the process undergone by steam is isentropic (𝑄̇ = 0). However, no steam turbine is
truly isentropic and isentropic efficiencies of most turbines range from 20% to 90%[7] (isentropic efficiency is the
actual work output divided by the isentropic work output). Generally, the velocity term is also numerically
insignificant for most cases, although we will keep it for now as it may not be negligible for a small number of cases.

B. Analysis of various turbine configurations

1. Simple steam turbine with one inlet and one outlet (single flow)

Fig. (1): Diagram of a simple steam turbine

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 Considering a simple with one inlet and one outlet (ṁ𝑖 = ṁ𝑒 ), Eq. (5) simplifies to:

𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2
𝑊̇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 + − ) (6)
2 2

If we apply this equation to the turbine in the problem given in Introduction and plug in all given values and values
from a property table[4], we can find the mass flow rate that was not mentioned (y = moisture content fraction):

ℎ𝑒 = (1 − 𝑦)ℎ𝑓𝑔 + ℎ𝑓 = 2491.025 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

602 902
4500 + 220 = 𝑚̇ (3634.1 − 2491.025 + − ) 𝑘𝑊 ∴ 𝑚̇ = 4.137 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
2000 2000

Using the mass flow rate value and Eq. (6), we can now calculate the power output of the same turbine if it was
completely insulated:
𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2
𝑊̇𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 + − ) = 4720 𝑘𝑊
2 2

We can see that we get additional power equal to the heat loss we omitted.

2. Two single flow turbines with and without a reheater:

Fig. (2): Two connected turbines with reheating

Often two or more turbines for different steam conditions are used to achieve maximum extraction of all the energy
present in the steam, often named after the relative pressure of the steam that enters. Steam goes through the higher
pressure turbines first and through the lower pressure turbines near the end. A reheater may be employed between the
stages that heats up the steam again for more efficient extraction of energy in the following turbine stage.
In case no reheater is used, the equation used for the analysis remains the same that is Eq. (6). If a reheater is used,
however, the equations for both turbines can be combined taking net extracted work and lost heat resulting in:

𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑖′2 𝑉𝑒′2

𝑊̇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑖′ − ℎ𝑒′ + − + − ) (7)
2 2 2 2

Where ℎ𝑖′ and ℎ𝑒′ are enthalpies of the steam at the inlet of the second turbine (after reheating) and at the final exit
of the second turbine respectively and 𝑉𝑖′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑒′ are the velocities of steam entering and exiting the second turbine
respectively. If we are neglecting the velocity terms then we may also rewrite the above equation in terms of power
delivered by the reheater, in which case the power term will simply merge with the heat term and subtract from it, if
the outlet steam enthalpy is kept the same.

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3. Two single flow turbines with extraction

Fig. (3): Two single flow turbines with extraction and reheating
Two turbines may have some steam extracted from in between them for purposes like industrial use or feedwater
heating. In such cases, the mass flow rate for the turbine after the extraction will be lower. Let the mass flow rate of
extracted steam be 𝑚̇𝑥 and the exit velocity of the first turbine will equal the ingress velocity of the second and the
same will be the case with enthalpy, then:

𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒′2 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑒′2

𝑊̇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒′ + − ) − 𝑚̇𝑥 (ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑒′ + − ) (8)
2 2 2 2

In case reheating is also present, additional reheating enthalpy multiplied with the reduced mass flow rate can simply
be added to the right side of the above equation i.e. subtracted from the heat loss term 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 .

C. Additional parameters and considerations

1. Blade and stage design
Two types of turbine ‘blades’ exist; blades and nozzles. Both may be stationary or rotating. Both appear similar
however blades are more bucket-shaped. When steam passes through blades, they move entirely due to the impulse

Pic. (2): Differences between blades and nozzles and impulse vs reaction (courtesy
of Wikimedia commons user Emoscopes, used under CCA-SA 3.0U license)

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imparted on them by the steam, and the steam slows down and loses kinetic energy but does not lose any pressure.
When steam goes through nozzles, it experiences a pressure drop and increase in velocity. Nozzles move due to both
the impulse and the reaction of the accelerated steam passing through them. A turbine with alternating rows of fixed
nozzles and rotating blades is called an impulse turbine, while a reaction turbine is made of alternating fixed and
rotating nozzles.
Turbine blades are arranged in multiple stages in series, called compounding. It greatly improves efficiency at low
speeds[9]. Some turbines have two sides with steam input in the middle and outflow from both ends. This cancels out
the axial load on the shaft while the blades are set up to rotate in one manner on the shaft on both ends.

2. Operation and maintenance

Because of the high pressures used in a steam turbine, turbines and their casings have a high thermal inertia. Steam
turbines must be warmed up and cooled down slowly to minimize the uneven expansion and contraction among
different parts. During warmup, bypass steam from the boiler is passed throughout all lines and the turbine while the
turbine rotors and slowly rotated to ensure proper even warmup, a time consuming procedure. The warm-up procedure
for large turbines can take upwards of ten hours[7].
The turbine rotors must be nearly perfectly balanced or they can vibrate themselves apart at operational speeds
resulting in catastrophic failure. High quality steam must be used to minimize corrosion of the turbine blades and
prevent damage from moisture carry-over to other components like bearings.
Turbines, especially smaller units, may leak steam around the seals and blade rows. If an end is at a pressure lower
than atmospheric, air can also leak into the system. These leaks result in efficiency decreases as well as the air leaked
in needs to be removed to prevent changes in steam chemistry and subsequent accelerated corrosion of the turbine
blades.
Maintenance requirements of modern steam turbines are low and inexpensive and their operational life generally
exceeds 50 years[7].

IV. Second Law Analysis

A. Entropy and exergy - introduction

𝛿𝑄
Clausius discovered from his results and his inequality that the quantity was a state quantity and useful in
𝑇
judging the amount of irreversibility involved with any process and he called it the entropy and denoted it with 𝑆. He
obtained the law of increase of entropy, which states that the total entropy of the universe must either increase or
remain constant but never decrease for any process. Entropy can also be understood as a measure of randomness
involved, as visible in the Boltzmann-Planck equation 𝑆 = 𝑘𝐵 ln 𝑊, where 𝑊 (Wahrscheinlichkeit) is a mathematical
probabilistic measure of the possible states of a gas and 𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant.

The Exergy (denoted by X) of a system is the maximum useful work that can be extracted from it with respect to
an ambient environment. It considers the fact that once the system is at equilibrium with its surroundings (in a ‘dead
state’), no more work can be extracted from it, however much energy it may still possess. Unlike energy, exergy is
not conserved and always destroyed during any real process and entropy is produced as a byproduct of it[10]. Since
the total entropy generated is always non-negative, so is the exergy destroyed, as

𝑋𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇𝑜 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 (9)

Where 𝑇𝑜 is the ambient temperature[10]. Throughout our analysis, we will assume ambient conditions to be 𝑇𝑜 =
298 𝐾 (as given) and atmospheric pressure.

The equation for exergy of a system and the exergy balance equation are provided in Thermodynamics: An
Engineering Approach [4], which are stated respectively. They are derived using the Tds relations.

𝑥 = ℎ − ℎ𝑜 + 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠 − 𝑠𝑜 ) (10)

𝑋𝑖𝑛 − 𝑋𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑋𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 = ∆𝑋𝑐𝑣 = 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 if 𝑋𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 = 0 (11)

Additionally, we will also require the expressions of exergy transferred via heat and mass transfer to account for
these interactions. Since we want the maximum work from the heat transfer process, we will take it to be the work

7
output of the heat transfer occurring through a reversible heat engine operating between our system and atmospheric
conditions. Therefore, using the concept of Carnot efficiency where Q is the heat transferred,

𝑇
𝑋ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄 (1 − ) (12)
𝑇𝑜

For the exergy transfer via mass flow, we can use the general expression for specific exergy, Eq. (10). Exergy
transferred through work is simply the work itself as exergy is only a calculation of work in perfect conditions and
likewise for all mechanical energies like kinetic and potential. Using the above established equations, we will perform
entropy and exergy analyses for various configurations in the following section.

B. Entropy and exergy analysis

1. Simple single-flow turbine
Substituting Eq.(10) in Eq. (11) and accounting for kinetic and heat transfer exergy change, we obtain the
expression for the change of specific exergy occurring in the turbine control volume.

𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑒2 𝑇𝑜
∆𝑋̇𝑐𝑣 = 𝑚̇ (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑜 ) − (ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠𝑒 − 𝑠𝑜 )) + ) − 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1 − )
2 𝑇
Simplifying, we get
𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑒2 𝑇𝑜
∆𝑋̇ = 𝑚̇ (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 − 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒 ) + ) − 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1 − ) (14)
2 𝑇

This equation provides the specific exergy change for our turbine and therefore the maximum (reversible) work that
can be extracted from it. Applying this equation to the turbine in the problem posed to the author assuming the surface
temperature of the turbine at which the heat is lost to be 500 ℃, we get

602 − 902 298

∆𝑋̇ = 4.137 × (3634.1 − 2491.025 − 298 × (6.9605 − 7.5534) + ) − 220 × (1 − )
2000 773

∆𝑋̇ = 5315.348 𝑘𝑊

This is the exergy change and is the maximum work that can be extracted from this turbine if all processes are
reversible and no entropy is generated. To find the rate of exergy destruction, we subtract the actual work from the
exergy change:
∆𝑋̇𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 = 5315.348 − 4500 = 815.348 𝑘𝑊

Using Eq. (9) we can also find the rate of entropy generation

𝑋̇𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑
̇
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = = 2.736 𝑘𝑊/𝐾
𝑇𝑜

2. Two single flow turbines with and without reheating

In case two turbines are used e.g. one for high pressure and one for low pressure, we can simply combine the exergy
changes across the two individual turbines. In case reheating is present, an additional heat exergy term is added to Eq.
(14), assuming 𝑇𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 is the (relatively constant) temperature at which reheat is received to obtain the following
equation:

𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑖′2 𝑉𝑒′2

∆𝑋̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑖′ − ℎ𝑒′ − 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑠𝑖′ − 𝑠𝑒′ ) + − + − )
2 2 2 2
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
− 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1 − ) + 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 (1 − ) (15)
𝑇 𝑇𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

Where all symbols have their meanings as previously stated if not specified.

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3. Two single flow turbines with/without reheating and extraction
Two turbines may also have extraction for feedwater heating or other uses like in industrial processes. In that case,
we can once again add two instances of Eq. (14) for each turbine considering the modified mass flow rate from
extraction. After simplification, we get the following

𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒′2 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑒′2

∆𝑋̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒′ − 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒′ ) + − ) − 𝑚̇𝑥 (ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑒′ 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠𝑒 − 𝑠𝑒′ ) + − )
2 2 2 2
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
− 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1 − ) + 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 (1 − ) (16)
𝑇 𝑇𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

The above equation also accommodates reheating.

V. Results & Discussion

We derived an equation to track all the bulk energies flowing in and out of the steam turbine, Eq. (5). Using this
equation and the exergy equation Eq. (14) we can derive more results for various initial and final conditions. In the
following section, the results of a parametric study and methods to improve performance and efficiency are discussed.

A. Parametric Study: Efficiency as a function of mass flow rate and heat lost in a simple turbine
One look at Eqs. (6) and (14) tells us that the power output and availability (∆𝑋̇) is directly proportional to the rate
of mass flow. It should increase with increasing mass flow if we consider the effects of velocity to be numerically
negligible and inlet and outlet specific enthalpies to stay roughly the same as in most cases. But the heat and heat
exergy lost from the turbine does not increase considerably because the surface temperature of the turbine stays nearly
the same. Thus, it is no surprise that turbines work more efficiently at higher speeds with higher mass flow rates. Fig.
(4) Showcases both second and first law efficiencies as a function of mass flow rate, where while calculating heat loss
is assumed constant and parameters are as provided to the author in the problem statement in introduction.

Fig. (4): Isentropic efficiency & first law efficiency respectively as a function of mass flow rate for given
turbine
For the given turbine we can see that under our assumptions, when mass flow rate is varied from 3 kg/s to 7 kg/s
the isentropic efficiency increases very marginally from 83.89% to 85.46%. These are realistic values, as generally
even the most optimized steam turbines in power plants only have second law efficiencies of around 90%. The benefit
is quite marginal, however, and increasing the flowrate may not always be desirable as the increase in power may not
be required at the turbine shaft connected to the generator.
First law efficiency is generally defined as work output divided by heat or energy given. We know that work
extracted is directly proportional to heat given minus heat lost and wasted, therefore if lost heat remains constant while
the other terms increase, the first law efficiency increases. This change is also reflected in the second graph in Fig.
(4). The first law efficiency values are reasonable and realistic.

B. Reheating and its effects on efficiency and performance:

Let us consider two connected turbines. The final turbine then has a practical limit as to how much energy it can
extract from the exiting steam. The steam cannot be condensed to qualities lower than 90% as it could cause

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accelerated erosion of the turbine blades and a reduction in service life. However, we can reheat the steam between
the two turbines to increase its quality and temperature. This would allow the final turbine to also extract more energy
from the steam if we reduce it to the same state it was being reduced to previously. The temperature entering the initial

Fig. (5): T-s diagram of the normal Rankine cycle with a single turbine (left) and a reheat Rankine cycle with
a high-pressure and low-pressure turbine (right). (courtesy of Prof. Deepu M., Indian Institute of Space Science
and Technology, used with permission)
turbine has a limit of roughly due to material constraints of around 450-500 ℃[7]. One might think that the energy
for reheating would come from the boiler thus in the end not having any effect other than increasing piping heat losses.
However, we can use flue gases from the boiler[14] for reheating and thus use some energy that would have otherwise
gone to waste and improve thermal efficiencies and reduce exergy losses. The figure below shows the T-s diagram of
the normal Rankine cycle in a steam turbine powerplant on the left and one with reheating on the right.
We can observe that on the diagram to the right, after expansion in the high pressure turbine the steam is reheated
back to a higher temperature resulting more area under the cycle graph and thus more exergy availability allowing for
higher work extraction.

C. Feedwater heating
In the Rankine cycle used in steam turbine power plants, the water fed to the boiler creating the steam can be heated
before entering the boiler using either extracted steam if the turbine used has extraction or flue gases from the boiler
itself. Such a cycle is called the Regenerative Rankine cycle.

Fig. (6): T-s diagram of regenerative Rankine cycle (courtesy of Prof. Deepu M.,
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, used with permission)
In Fig. (6), the steam extraction is done at state 6 and the extracted steam is used to heat the feedwater. Feedwater
heating reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation by bringing it closer to a constant pressure process
as visible in processes 1-2-3-4 in Fig. (6) above, and therefore improves the thermal and exergetic efficiency of the
boiler and thus the entire cycle[8]. In case of extraction, the mass fraction of steam extracted out of the total flow is
called the extraction fraction[8]. This extracted steam would otherwise be used to create work in the turbine thus

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extraction produces a loss in power, hence the extraction fraction must be carefully optimized for increased thermal
efficiency. More methods to improve efficiency and performance of steam turbines are discussed in the next section.

D. Additional methods to improve Rankine cycle and turbine efficiency and performance
1. Increasing the boiler pressure
Increasing the boiler pressure results in an upwards shift of the heating process in a T-s diagram, hence covering
higher area under the graph and therefore exergy availability, as evident in Fig. (7).

Fig. (7): Rankine cycle with increased boiler pressure (courtesy of Prof. Deepu M., Indian Institute of Space
Science and Technology, used with permission)
We can see that the increase in pressure (process 2’-3’) results in a smaller entropy at the end of the heating process,
resulting
ZZ in a decrease in area under the graph. However, the cycle can be optimized such that the gain in exergy
availability from the increased pressure outweighs the loss in exergy availability due to lower final entropy. One
practical limitation on this method is the material limitation of the boiler and the system as a whole to withstand higher
pressures, as they can be accompanied by more leaks and therefore higher steam losses.

2. Decreasing condenser pressure/increasing vacuum

Decreasing the condenser pressure at the exit of the turbine improves the potential for work extraction from turbine,
shifting the cooling processes of the cycle downwards on the T-s diagram therefore resulting in higher exergy
availability as evident in the following figure.

Fig. (8): Rankine cycle with decreased condenser pressure (courtesy of Prof. Deepu M., Indian Institute of
Space Science and Technology, used with permission)
This method also has practical limitations imposed by sealing, as very low pressures can cause higher
atmospheric air ingress which may change the water chemistry and be corrosive to the system and turbine.
Maintaining higher vacuum pressures also requires more pump work that subtracts from the work output of the
turbine, hence the vacuum pressure must be optimized.

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 VI. Conclusion
From our analysis we conclude that steam turbines can be improved by various means. Flue gases from the boilers
can preheat the boiler feed water, reducing heating entropy losses in the boiler. It is best to use multiple turbines for
different pressures to ensure maximum power extraction, and reheat the steam between the turbines using boiler flue
gases to ensure high quality steam at the inlet of the next turbine as well as maximum useful work extraction and
minimal turbine blade degradation. Turbines must be sealed well to minimize steam leak losses and corrosive air
ingress at low pressure ends. Turbine components must be well lubricated and the powerplant must be well insulated
where required to minimize heat losses and entropy generation causing irreversibilities.

References
[1] Mingxi Liu, Yang Shi, Fang Fang, Combined cooling, heating and power systems: A survey, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, Volume 35, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.03.054.
[2] Paul Breeze, Chapter 3 - Coal-Fired Power Plants, Power Generation Technologies (Third Edition), Newnes, 2019,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102631-1.00003-1.
[3] M.M. Islam, M. Hasanuzzaman, A.K. Pandey, N.A. Rahim, Chapter 2 - Modern energy conversion technologies, Energy for
Sustainable Development, Academic Press, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814645-3.00002-X.
[4] Yunus Çengel, M. Boles, Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach (Fifth Edition), McGraw Hill (Also referenced for
property tables & values derived from them).
[5] Wadhah H. Al-Taha, Hassan A. Osman, Performance Analysis of a Power Plant: A Case Study, Matec Web Conf. Vol. 225-
2018, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201822505023
[6] Parsons, Charles A (1911). The Steam Turbine , Cambridge University Press.
[7] "Technology Characterization: Steam Turbines" (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December 2008.
[8] Fundamentals of Steam Power Archived 2007-04-22 at the Wayback Machine by Kenneth Weston, University of Tulsa
[9] Onwuamaeze, P. I., Improving Steam Turbine Efficiency: An Appraisal (October 25, 2018), Research Journal of Mechanical
Operations, 1 (1): 24-30, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3272619
[10] Shukuya, M. (2008) 'Exergy concept and its application to the built environment,' Building and Environment, 44(7) , pp.
1550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.06.019.
Pic. (1) – Siemens Ge, Wikimedia Commons (3 December 2005), under CCA-SA 3.0U license -
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg
Pic. (2) – User Emoscopes, Wikimedia Commons (19 August 2014),
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turbines_impulse_v_reaction.svg
Fig. (5-8) – Deepu M., Aerospace Department, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram (22
November 2024), used with permission.

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