Electromagnet Induction:

Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon where an

electromotive force (emf) is generated in an electrical
conductor due to a changing magnetic field around it. This
process occurs when a conductor is placed in a varying
magnetic environment, leading to the production of voltage
across the conductor.

Lenz’s law:
Lenz's law states that the direction of an induced
electromotive force (emf) generates a current whose magnetic
field opposes the change in magnetic flux through a circuit. This
law is a manifestation of the principle of conservation of
energy, ensuring that the induced effects counteract the
changes that created them.

Faraday’s law:
 Faraday's law states that the induced EMF in a circuit is
directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the circuit. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
EMF=−dΦB/dt
where:

 EMF is the induced electromotive force,

 ΦB is the magnetic flux, which is the product of the
magnetic field strength (B) and the area (A) through which
the magnetic field lines pass (and the cosine of the angle
between the magnetic field and the normal to the
surface),
 dΦB/dt is the rate of change of the magnetic flux over
time.

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction is a fundamental

principle that describes how a changing magnetic field can
induce an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor. It is one
of the key concepts in electromagnetism and is crucial for
understanding how electric generators, transformers, and
many other electrical devices work.
Mutual Inductance:
Mutual induction is the phenomenon of production of
induced emf in one coil due to a change of current in the
neighbouring coil.

As shown in figure consider two coils P and S placed close to

each other. If the current in the coil P is varied, the magnetic
flux linked with the coil S changes which induces an emf and
hence a current in it, as is seen from the deflection in the
galvanometer. The coil P is called the primary coil and coil S,
the secondary coil, because it is the former which causes an
induced emf in the latter.

Figure. Mutual inductance

Mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual induction. At any

instant,

Magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil ∝Current in the

primary coil
i.e. ɸI or ɸ= MI

The proportionality constant M is called the mutual inductance

or coefficient of mutual induction of the two coils.

Any change in the current I sets up an induced emf in the

secondary coil which is given by E = - (dɸ)/(dt) =-M. dl /dt If
dI/dt = 1 then E = - M

The mutual inductance of two coils may be defined as the

induced emf set up in one coil when the current in the
neighbouring coil changes at the unit rate.

Unit of mutual inductance.M=e/dI

dt

჻ SI unit of m= 1V =1VsA¯¹ =1hendry(H)

1As¯¹

Mutual Inductance of two long solenoids:

As shown in figure consider two long coaxial solenoids S₁
andS₂,with S₂ wound over S₁.
 Figure.Two long coaxial solenoids of same length

Let,

l=length of each solenoid

r₁,r₂=radii of the two solenoids

A=πr₁² =areaof cross-section of inner solenoid S₁

N₁,N₂=number of turns in the two solenoids

Frist we pass a time-varying current I₂ throughS₂. The magnetic

field set up inside S₂ due to I₂ is B₂=μ₀n₂I₂,where n₂=N₂/l=the
number of turns per unit length of S₂.

Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid S₁ is

ɸ₁=B₂AN₁=μ₀n₂I₂.AN₁

჻Mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil is

M₁₂= ɸ₁ =μ₀n₂AN₁= μ₀N₁N₂A

I₂ l
 We now consider the flux linked with the outer solenoid S₂
due to the current I₁ in the inner solenoid S₁.The field B₁ due to
I₁ inside S₁ is

B₁=μ₀n₁I₁

Total flux linked with the outer solenoid S₂ is

ɸ₂= B₁AN₂ = μ₀n₁I₁.AN₂ = μ₀N₁N₂AI₁

჻Mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 is

M₂₁= ɸ₂ = μ₀N₁N₂A

I₁ l

Clearly,

M₁₂ = M₂₁ = M

჻ M = μ₀N₁N₂A = μ₀n₁n₂Al = μ₀n₁n₂πr₁²l

If a medium of relative permeability μᵣ is present within the

solenoids,then

M = μᵣ μ₀n₁n₂πr₁²l
Factor on which mutual inductance depends:
The mutual inductance of two solenoids depends on their
geometry and the magnetic permeability of the core material.

(i)Number of turns. Larger the number of turns in the two

solenoids, larger will be their mutual inductance.

Μ∝ Ν₁ Ν₂

(ii) Common cross-sectional area. Larger the common cross-

sectional area of two solenoids, larger will be their mutual
inductance.

(iii) Relative separation. Larger the distance between two

solenoids, smaller will be the value of M.

(iv) Relative orientation of the two coils. M is maximum when

the primary coil completely envelopes the secondary coil. M is
minimum when the two coils are perpendicular to each other,
as shown in Figure.

Figure. (a)M is maximum when primary envelopes the secondary, (b)M is

minimum when primary is perpendicular to secondary.
v) Permeability of the core material. If the two coils are wound
over an iron core of relative permeability μᵣ, their mutual
inductance increases μᵣ times.

Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device for converting an
alternating current at low voltage into that at high voltage or
vice versa. If it increases the input voltage, it is called step-up
transformer and if it decreases the input voltage, it is called
step-down transformer.

Principle.

It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., when a

changing current is passed through one of the two inductively
coupled coils, an induced emf is set up in the other coil.

Construction.

A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated

copper wire having different number of turns and wound on
the same soft iron core. The coil P to which electric energy is
supplied is called the primary and the coil from which energy is
drawn or output is obtained is called the secondary. To prevent
energy losses due to eddy currents, a laminated core is used
 Figure.(a)Step-up and(b)Step-down transformer

Two types of winding arrangements in transformers:

(i)Core type. In the core type transformers, the primary and
secondary coils are wound on separate limbs of the core so that
the core is largely surrounded by the coils as shown in Figure.

(ii) Shell type. In the shell type transformers, the primary and
secondary coils are wound one over another on the same limb
of the iron core as shown in Figure.

Figure.(a)Core type and (b)Shelltype transformer

Working. As the alternating current flows through the primary,
it generates an alternating magnetic flux in the core which also
passes through the secondary. This changing flux sets up an
induced emf in the secondary, also a self-induced emf in the
primary. If there is no leakage of magnetic flux, then flux linked
with each turn of the primary will be equal to that linked with
each turn of the secondary.

Theory. Consider the situation when no load is connected to

the secondary, i.e., its terminals are open. Let Np and Ns be the
number of turns in the primary and secondary respectively.

Then,

Induced emf in the primary coil, Ep = - Np dɸ/dt

Induced emf in the secondary coil, Es= - Ns dɸ/dt

where is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the primary
or secondary at any instant.

Thus Es / Ep= Ns / Np

Let Vp be the emf applied to the primary. By Lenz's law, self-

induced emf Ep opposes Vp in the primary coil.
჻ Resultant emf in the primary = Vp -Ep

This emf sends current Ip, through the primary coil of resistance
R.
 ჻ Vp – Ep = RIp

But R is very small, so the term RIp , can be neglected.

Then V p = Ep

When the secondary is an open circuit or the current taken

from it is small,

Es = Vs

where Vs, is the voltage across the secondary.

჻ Vs = Output voltage = Ns

Vp Input voltage Np

The ratio Ns / Np, of the number of turns in the the secondary

to that in the primary, is called the turns ratio of the
transformer. It is also called transformation ratio.

In a step-up transformer, Ns > Np, i.e., the turns ratio is greater

than 1 and therefore Vs > Vp, The output voltage is greater than
the input voltage.

In a step-down transformer, Ns < Np ,i.e., the turns ratio is less

than 1 and therefore Vs < Vp . The output voltage is less than
the input voltage.
Assumption used in the above derivation:
i) The primary resistance and current are small.

(ii) The flux leakage from the core is small, so the same flux is
linked with primary and secondary windings.

(iii) The secondary resistance and current are small.

Currents in primary and secondary:

Assuming the transformer to be ideal one so that there are
no energy losses, then

Input power = Output power

Or VpIp = Vs Is

Where Ip and Is, are the currents in the primary and secondary,
respectively.

჻ I p = V s = Ns

Is Vp Np

Thus a step-up transformer steps up the voltage, but steps

down the current exactly in the same ratio. Similarly, a step-
down transformer steps down the voltage but steps up the
current exactly in the same ratio.
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as

η = Power output × 100%

Power input

The efficiency of real transformers is fairly high (90-99%)

though not 100%.

Energy losses in transformers:

The main causes for energy loss in transformers are as
follows:

(i) Copper loss. Some energy is lost due to heating of copper

wires used in the primary and secondary windings. This power
loss (= I²R) can be minimised by using thick copper wires of low
resistance.

(ii) Eddy current loss. The alternating magnetic flux induces

eddy currents in the iron core which leads to some energy loss
in the form of heat. This loss can be reduced by using laminated
iron core.

(iii) Hysteresis loss. The alternating current carries the iron core
through cycles of magnetisation and demagnetisation. Work is
done in each of these cycles and is lost as heat. This is called
hysteresis loss and can be minimised by using core material
having narrow hysteresis loop.

(iv) Flux leakage. The magnetic flux produced by the primary

may not fully pass through the secondary. Some of the flux may
leak into air. This loss can be minimised by winding the primary
and secondary coils over one another.

(v) Humming loss. As the transformer works, its core lengthens

and shortens during each cycle of the alternating voltage due to
a phenomenon called magnetostriction. This gives rise to a
humming sound. So some of the electrical energy is lost in the
form of humming sound.

Some uses of transformers:

(i) Small transformers are used in radio receivers, telephones,
loud speakers, etc.

(ii) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerators, air-conditioners,

computers, etc.

(iii) In stabilised power supplies.

(iv) A step-down transformer is used for obtaining large current

for electric welding.

(v) A step-down transformer is used in induction furnace for

melting metals.
(vi) A step-up transformer is used for the production of X-rays.

(vii) In the transmission of electric energy from the generating

stations to the consumers.

Disadvantages of transmitting the electrical power

at low voltage:
(i) Large lengths of transmission cables have appreciable
resistance. Hence a large amount of energy (I2Rt) will be lost as
heat during transmission.

(ii) Large voltage drop (IR) occurs along the line wire. Hence the
voltage at the receiving station will be much smaller than that
at the generating station.

iii) To carry large currents and to keep the resistance of

transmission wires low, thick wires have to be used. The cost of
installing thick wires will be extremely high.

Use of transformers in long distance power

transmission:
The long distance power transmission at low voltage and
high current is neither efficient nor economical. If I is the
current in the cable, and R its resistance, the power wasted in
the cable is I² R. The power loss can be reduced by reducing I or
R. The power supplied by the generator is given by P = VI,
where V is the voltage across its terminals. Since I = P/V, for a
given amount of power P, the power loss is less if I is less or V is
high.

In actual practice, as shown in Figure, a typical power

station generates 1000 kW at 6600 volts. This voltage is first
stepped up to 132000 volts before transmission. Transmission
lines from different power stations in a region deliver power to
a common regional pool, called the grid. From the grid, the
power is fed to the cities at 33000 V, the stepping down is done
outside the city. Then again at a sub-station, the supply is
stepped down to 6600 V. For domestic purposes, the voltage is
again stepped down to 220 V.

Figure.Schematic diagram of a distribution system.

Advantages of a.c. over d.c :
(i) The generation of a.c. is more economical than d.c.

(ii) The alternating voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped

down by using a transformer.

(iii) The alternating currents can be reduced by using a choke

coil without any significant wastage of energy.

(iv) The alternating currents can be transmitted to distant

places without any significant line loss.

(v) Also a.c. can be easily converted into d.c. by using rectifiers.

(vi) A.C. machines are simple and robust and do not require
much attention during their use.

Disadvantages of a.c. over d.c.:

(i) Peak value of a.c. is high (I0 = √2Ims). It is dangerous to work
with a.c.

(ii) In phenomena like electroplating, electro-refining,

electrotyping, etc; a.c. cannot be used.
(iii) A.C. is transmitted more from the surface of conductor than
from inside. This is called skin effect. Therefore, several fine
insulated wires (and not a single thick wire) are required for the
transmission of a.c.

Some Applications of transformer