Graph Theory

History of Graph Theory

Graph theory originated in the 18th century when the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) solved the famous
Königsberg bridge problem. The city of Königsberg had seven bridges connecting its land areas, and the question was whether
it was possible to cross all the bridges exactly once.Euler proved it was impossible, laying the foundation for graph theory.
His work led to the concepts of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections), essential components of modern graph theory.

Graph Theory Terms and Concepts

To understand Euler’s solution, we need to define a few basic terms in graph theory:
• Vertex (Node): A point representing a specific location or object in a graph. In the Königsberg bridge problem,
each land area is represented by a vertex.
• Edge: A line connecting two vertices in a graph, representing a path or link between them. In the Königsberg problem,
each bridge is an edge.
• Degree of a Vertex: The number of edges connected to a vertex. A vertex’s degree is odd if it is connected to an
odd number of edges, and even if connected to an even number of edges.
• Eulerian Path: A path that visits every edge of a graph exactly once. An Eulerian path does not necessarily return
to the starting vertex.
• Eulerian Circuit: A path that visits every edge of a graph exactly once and returns to the starting vertex.

The Königsberg Bridge Problem

In graph theory terms, the land areas are represented by vertices, and each bridge by an edge. Euler showed that if more
than two vertices have an odd number of edges, it is impossible to have a path that uses each edge exactly once. This insight
marked the beginning of graph theory and introduced concepts that evolved into Eulerian paths and Eulerian circuits.

Is it possible to walk through the city, crossing each of its seven bridges exactly once?
The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler solved this problem in 1736, proving that it was impossible. His solution laid
the groundwork for graph theory.

Euler’s Solution
Euler proved that:
• A graph has an Eulerian circuit if and only if every vertex has an even degree.
• A graph has an Eulerian path (but not an Eulerian circuit) if exactly two vertices have an odd degree.
In the Königsberg graph:
• Vertex A has degree 3 (odd).
• Vertex B has degree 5 (odd).
• Vertex C has degree 3 (odd).
• Vertex D has degree 3 (odd).
Since all four vertices have an odd degree, the graph does not have an Eulerian path or an Eulerian circuit. This result
implies it is impossible to cross each bridge exactly once and return to the starting point.

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Solving a Crime Problem Using Graph Theory
Consider the following scenario:
- There are three persons: A, B, and C. - One of them is a thief. - One of them is telling the truth.
Their statements are as follows:

• A says, ”I am not the thief.”

• B says, ”A is the thief.”
• C says, ”I am not the thief.”

The question is: How can we determine who the thief is using graph theory?

Modeling the Problem

A C

Accusation Diagram

In this logical setup, we have three individuals: A, B, and C. Each of them makes statements about who they believe to be
the thief. The accusations can be represented by colored lines in a graph structure, as follows:

• A claims, ”I am not the thief,” which implies that A is accusing both B and C. These accusations are represented by
blue lines connecting A to B and A to C.

• B directly accuses A of being the thief. This accusation is represented by a green line connecting B to A.
• C states that he is not the thief, implying that C is accusing both A and B. These accusations are represented by red
lines connecting C to A and C to B.

This graph structure visually illustrates the relationships between their statements and accusations.

Analysing Sub-Graphs
B B

A C
A C A C

To determine the thief among A, B, and C, we analyze each possible scenario based on their statements and the rule that
only one person tells the truth.

• If A is the thief: Then B and C are telling the truth, as both accuse A. This contradicts the rule that only one
person is telling the truth.
• If B is the thief: Then A and C are telling the truth, as both accuse B, leading again to a contradiction with the
single truth-teller rule.
• If C is the thief: Then only A tells the truth (by accusing C), while B and C lie. This satisfies the rule that only
one person tells the truth.

Thus, we conclude that C is the thief, as it is the only logically consistent scenario.

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Applications of Graph Theory
1. Computer Networks
Graph theory plays a vital role in designing and managing computer networks. In this context, a network is modeled as a
graph where computers or routers are represented as vertices, and the communication links between them as edges.
For example, routing algorithms like Dijkstra’s Algorithm use graph theory to find the shortest path between nodes in
a network. This ensures that data sent across a network travels the most efficient route. A practical application of this is
seen in internet protocols, where data packets are routed through multiple networks before reaching their destination. Graph
theory also helps in network flow analysis, congestion detection, and network resilience in the case of failures.

2. Social Networks
Graph theory is at the heart of social network analysis. In social networks like Facebook, Twitter, or LinkedIn, individuals
are represented as vertices, and relationships (such as friendships, followings, or interactions) are represented as edges.
A specific example of graph theory in social networks is the identification of communities or clusters of users who are more
connected to each other than to other users. Community detection algorithms, based on graph partitioning, allow platforms
to recommend friends or suggest groups. Additionally, graph theory is used to study information spread and influence within
a network, such as viral marketing or the spread of trends.

3. Transportation and Logistics

Graph theory is widely used in optimizing transportation systems and logistics. In transportation, cities, airports, and stations
can be modeled as vertices, and the connections between them—such as roads, railways, or flight paths—are represented as
edges.
For instance, the problem of finding the shortest path between two cities in a road network is a typical application of
graph theory. The famous Dijkstra’s algorithm is often used to find the shortest route. In logistics, delivery routes can be
optimized using graph theory to minimize fuel costs and delivery time, such as in the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP),
where the goal is to find the most efficient route for a delivery person who must visit several locations.

4. Biology and Genetics

Graph theory is a powerful tool in the biological sciences, especially in genomics and systems biology. For example, protein-
protein interaction (PPI) networks can be represented as graphs where each protein is a vertex, and an edge between two
vertices indicates that those proteins interact in some way.
One prominent example is the analysis of the human interactome, where researchers use graph-based algorithms to study
how proteins work together to carry out essential biological processes. Another application in biology is gene regulatory
networks, where genes are modeled as nodes, and edges represent interactions or regulatory relationships between genes. By
studying these networks, scientists can better understand complex diseases like cancer or genetic disorders.

5. Internet Search Engines

Graph theory underpins the functioning of search engines like Google. The World Wide Web itself is a giant directed graph
where each web page is a vertex, and hyperlinks between pages are directed edges.
Google’s PageRank algorithm, a well-known application of graph theory, ranks web pages based on their link structure.
In simple terms, web pages that have many incoming links from other pages (i.e., high-degree vertices) are considered more
authoritative. PageRank helps search engines to provide more relevant search results by evaluating the importance of web
pages through their connectivity within the graph of the internet.

Conclusion
Graph theory is a powerful and versatile tool that is applied in a wide range of real-life domains. Its applications span
from optimizing transportation networks and analyzing social media interactions to powering internet search engines and
enhancing biological research. As technology continues to evolve, graph theory will remain a cornerstone in solving complex
problems across diverse fields, making it an indispensable tool in the modern world.