Programming in C

CHAPTER - 4
FUNCTIONS
 INTRODUCTION
• C enables its programmers to break up a program into segments commonly known as functions, each of
which can be written more or less independently of the others.
• Every function in the program is supposed to perform a well defined task. Therefore, the program code
of one function is completely insulated from that of other functions.
• Every function has a name which acts as an interface to the outside world in terms of how information is
transferred to it and how results generated by the function are transmitted back from it.
• In the fig, main() calls another function, func1() to perform a well defined task.
• main() is known as the calling function and func1() is known as the called function.
• When the compiler encounters a function call, instead of executing the next statement in the calling
function, the control jumps to the statements that are a part of the called function.
• After the called function is executed, the control is returned back to the calling program.

main()
{ func1()
………….. {
………….. Statement Block;
func1(); }
…………
………..
return 0;
}
 INTRODUCTION CONTD….
• It is not necessary that the main() can call only one function, it can call as many functions as it
wants and as many times as it wants. For example, a function call placed within a for loop,
while loop or do-while loop may call the same function multiple times until the condition holds
true.
• It is not that only the main() can call another functions. Any function can call any other
function. In the fig. one function calls another, and the other function in turn calls some other
function.

main() func1() func2() func3()

{ { { {
………….. ………..
………….. ………… ……….. ………..
func1(); func2();
………… ……….. ………… …………
……….. ……….
return 0; return; func3(); ………..
} } ……….
……….. return;
………. }
return;
}
 WHY DO WE NEED FUNCTIONS?
• Dividing the program into separate well defined functions facilitates each function to be written and
tested separately. This simplifies the process of getting the total program to work.
• Understanding, coding and testing multiple separate functions are far easier than doing the same for
one huge function.
• If a big program has to be developed without the use of any function (except main()), then there will be
countless lines in the main() .
• All the libraries in C contain a set of functions that the programmers are free to use in their programs.
These functions have been prewritten and pre-tested, so the programmers use them without worrying
about their code details. This speeds up program development.
 TERMINOLOGY OF FUNCTIONS
• A function, f that uses another function g, is known as the calling function and g is known as the called
function.
• The inputs that the function takes are known as arguments
• When a called function returns some result back to the calling function, it is said to return that result.
• The calling function may or may not pass parameters to the called function. If the called function accepts
arguments, the calling function will pass parameters, else not.
• Main() is the function that is called by the operating system and therefore, it is supposed to return the
result of its processing to the operating system.
 FUNCTION DECLARATION
• Function declaration is a declaration statement that identifies a function with its name, a list of
arguments that it accepts and the type of data it returns.
• The general format for declaring a function that accepts some arguments and returns some value as
result can be given as:
return_data_type function_name(data_type variable1, data_type variable2,..);
• No function can be declared within the body of another function.
Example, float avg ( int a, int b);
FUNCTION DEFINITION
• Function definition consists of a function header that identifies the function, followed by the body of the
function containing the executable code for that function
• When a function defined, space is allocated for that function in the memory.
• The syntax of a function definition can be given as:
return_data_type function_name(data_type variable1, data_type variable2,..)
{
………….
statements
………….
return( variable);
}
• The no. and the order of arguments in the function header must be same as that given in function
declaration statement.
 FUNCTION CALL
• The function call statement invokes the function.
• When a function is invoked the compiler jumps to the called function to execute the statements that are
a part of that function.
• Once the called function is executed, the program control passes back to the calling function.
• Function call statement has the following syntax.
function_name(variable1, variable2, …);
Points to remember while calling the function:
• Function name and the number and type of arguments in the function call must be same as that given in
the function declaration and function header of the function definition
• Names (and not the types) of variables in function declaration, function call and header of function
definition may vary
• Arguments may be passed in the form of expressions to the called function. In such a case, arguments
are first evaluated and converted to the type of formal parameter and then the body of the function gets
executed.
• If the return type of the function is not void, then the value returned by the called function may be
assigned to some variable as given below.
variable_name = function_name(variable1, variable2, …);
 PROGRAM THAT USES FUNCTION
#include<stdio.h>
int sum(int a, int b); // FUNCTION DECLARATION
int main()
{
int num1, num2, total = 0;
printf(“\n Enter the first number : “);
scanf(“%d”, &num1);
printf(“\n Enter the second number : “);
scanf(“%d”, &num2);
total = sum(num1, num2); // FUNCTION CALL
printf(“\n Total = %d”, total);
return 0;
}
// FUNCTION DEFNITION
int sum ( int a, int b) // FUNCTION HEADER
{ // FUNCTION BODY
return (a + b);
}
 RETURN STATEMENT
• The return statement is used to terminate the execution of a function and return control to the calling
function. When the return statement is encountered, the program execution resumes in the calling
function at the point immediately following the function call.
• Programming Tip: It is an error to use a return statement in a function that has void as its return type.
• A return statement may or may not return a value to the calling function. The syntax of return statement
can be given as
return <expression> ;
• Here expression is placed in between angular brackets because specifying an expression is optional. The
value of expression, if present, is returned to the calling function. However, in case expression is omitted,
the return value of the function is undefined.
• Programmer may or may not place the expression within parentheses.
• By default, the return type of a function is int.
• For functions that has no return statement, the control automatically returns to the calling function after

the last statement of the called function is executed.

 PASSING PARAMETERS TO THE FUNCTION

• There are two ways in which arguments or parameters can be passed to the called function.
• Call by value in which values of the variables are passed by the calling function to the called function.
• Call by reference in which address of the variables are passed by the calling function to the called
function.

Passing parameters to function

Call by value Call by reference

 CALL BY VALUE
• In the Call by Value method, the called function creates new variables to store the value of the
arguments passed to it. Therefore, the called function uses a copy of the actual arguments to perform its
intended task.
• If the called function is supposed to modify the value of the parameters passed to it, then the change
will be reflected only in the called function. In the calling function no change will be made to the value of
the variables.
• #include<stdio.h>
• void add( int n);
• int main()
• {
• int num = 2;
• printf("\n The value of num before calling the function = %d", num);
• add(num);
• printf("\n The value of num after calling the function = %d", num);
• return 0;
• }
• void add(int n)
• {
• n = n * 10;
• printf("\n The value of num in the called function = %d", n);
• }
• The output of this program is:
• The value of num before calling the function = 2
• The value of num in the called function = 20
• The value of num after calling the function = 2
 CALL BY REFERENCE
• When the calling function passes arguments to the called function using call by value method, the only
way to return the modified value of the argument to the caller is explicitly using the return statement.
The better option when a function can modify the value of the argument is to pass arguments using call
by reference technique.
• In call by reference, we declare the function parameters as references rather than normal variables.
When this is done any changes made by the function to the arguments it received are visible by the
calling program.
• To indicate that an argument is passed using call by reference, an ampersand sign (&) is placed after the
type in the parameter list. This way, changes made to that parameter in the called function body will
then be reflected in its value in the calling program.
PROGRAM ILLUSTRATING CALL BY REFERENCE TECHNIQUE
• #include<stdio.h>
• void add( int *n);
• int main()
• {
• int num = 2;
• printf("\n The value of num before calling the function = %d", num);
• add(&num);
• printf("\n The value of num after calling the function = %d", num);
• return 0;
• }
• void add( int *n)
• {
• *n = *n + 10;
• printf("\n The value of num in the called function = %d", n);
• }
• The output of this program is:
• The value of num before calling the function = 2
• The value of num in the called function = 12
• The value of num after calling the function = 12
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)

• The math.h header defines various mathematical functions and

one macro. All the functions available in this library take double
as an argument and return double as the result.
• round():
This function returns the nearest integer value of the
float/double/long double argument passed to this function. If
decimal value is from “.1 to .5”, it returns integer value less than
the argument. If decimal value is from “.6 to .9”, it returns the
integer value greater than the argument.
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)

Example round():
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
float i=5.4, j=5.6;
printf("round of %f is %f\n", i, round(i));
printf("round of %f is %f\n", j, round(j));
return 0;
}
Output:
Round of 5.4 is 5.000
Round of 5.6 is 6.000
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)
ceil():
This function returns nearest integer value which is greater than or
equal to the argument passed to this function.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
float i=5.4, j=5.6;
printf("ceil of %f is %f\n", i, ceil(i));
printf("ceil of %f is %f\n", j, ceil(j));
return 0;
}
Output:
ceil of 5.400000 is 6.000000
ceil of 5.600000 is 6.000000
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)
log():
This function is used to calculates natural logarithm.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float k=50;
printf("RESULT:%f", log(k));
return 0;
}
Output:
RESULT: 3.912
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)
sqrt():
This function is used to find square root of the argument passed to
this function.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float k=49;
printf("RESULT:%f", sqrt(k));
return 0;

}
Output:
RESULT: 7
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)
trunc():
This function truncates the decimal value from floating point value
and returns integer value.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float k=5.67898;
printf("RESULT:%f", trunc(k));
return 0;

}
Output:
RESULT: 5
 Build-in Functions (math Functions)
pow():
This is used to find the power of the given number.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float a=2, b=3;
printf("RESULT:%f", pow(a,b));
return 0;
}

Output:
RESULT: 8.000
 Build-in Functions (string Functions)
Function Description
strlen() calculates the length of string
strcat() Appends one string at the end of another
strncat() Appends first n characters of a string at the end of another
strcpy() Copies a string into another
strncpy() Copies first n characters of one string into another
strcmp() Compares two strings
strncmp() Compares first n characters of two strings
strchr() Finds the first occurrence of a given character in a string
strrchr() Finds the last occurrence of a given character in a string
strstr() Finds the first occurrence of a given string in another string
strlwr() Converts string to lowercase
strupr() Converts string to uppercase
strrev() Reverses the given string
 Build-in Functions (string Functions)
Example:
Refer examples for strlen(), strcpy(), strcat() and strcmp() from unit 2.
strchr():
1. Pass the given string in the strchr() function and mention the character we need
to point.
2. The function return the first occurrence of a given character in a string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
const char str[] = "C Programming";
const char ch = ‘m';
char *ret;
ret = strchr(str, ch);
printf("Index Location:%d", ret-str); OUTPUT:
return(0); Index Location: 8
}
 Build-in Functions (string Functions)
strrchr():
1.The function returns the last location of character in the string
EXAMPLE:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
const char str[] = "C Programming";
const char ch = ‘m';
char *ret;
ret = strchr(str, ch); OUTPUT:
printf("Index Location:%d", ret-str); Index Location: 9
return(0);
}
 Build-in Functions (string Functions)
strlwr():
1.The function converts the given string into lowercase.
EXAMPLE:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = “C PROGRAMMING";
// converting the given string into lowercase.
printf("%s\n",strlwr (str));
return 0;
}
OUTPUT:
c programming
 Build-in Functions (string Functions)
strupr():
1.The function converts the given string into uppercase.
EXAMPLE:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = “c programming";
// converting the given string into lowercase.
printf("%s\n",strupr (str));
return 0;
}
OUTPUT:
C PROGRAMMING
 Build-in Functions (string Functions)
strrev():
1.The function converts the given string into uppercase.
EXAMPLE:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = “c programming";
// converting the given string into lowercase.
printf("%s\n",strrev(str));
return 0;
}
 VARIABLES SCOPE
• In C, all constants and variables have a defined scope.
• By scope we mean the accessibility and visibility of the variables at different points in the program.
• A variable or a constant in C has four types of scope: block, function, file and program scope.

Variable Scope

Block scope Function scope File scope Program scope

 BLOCK SCOPE
• A statement block is a group of statements enclosed within an opening and closing curly brackets ({ }). If a variable is
declared within a statement block then, as soon as the control exits that block, the variable will cease to exist. Such a
variable also known as a local variable is said to have a block scope.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 10. i;
printf("\n The value of x outside the while loop is %d", x);
while (i<3)
{ int x = i;
printf("\n The value of x inside the while loop is %d", x);
i++;
}
printf("\n The value of x outside the while loop is %d", x);
return 0;
}
Output:
The value of x outside the while loop is 10
The value of x inside the while loop is 0
The value of x inside the while loop is 1
The value of x inside the while loop is 2
The value of x outside the while loop is 10
 FUNCTION SCOPE
• Function scope is applicable only with goto label names. That is the programmer can not have the same
label name inside a function.

PROGRAM SCOPE
• If you want that functions should be able to access some variables which are not passed to
them as arguments, then declare those variables outside any function blocks. Such
variables are commonly known as global variables. Hence, global variables are those
variables that can be accessed from any point in the program.
#include<stdio.h>
int x = 10;
void print();
int main()
{ printf("\n The value of x in the main() = %d", x);
int x = 2;
printf("\n The value of local variable x in the main() = %d", x);
print();
}
void print()
{ printf("\n The value of x in the print() = %d", x);
}
 FILE SCOPE

• When a global variable is accessible until the end of the file, the variable is said to have file
scope.
• To allow a variable to have file scope, declare that variable with the static keyword before
specifying its data type, like this:
static int x = 10;
• A global static variable can be used any where from the file in which it is declared but it is not
accessible by any other files.

• Such variables are useful when the programmer writes his own header files.
 RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS

• A recursive function is a function that calls itself to solve a smaller version of its task
until a final call is made which does not require a call to itself.
• Every recursive solution has two major cases, they are
base case, in which the problem is simple enough to be solved directly without
making any further calls to the same function
recursive case, in which first the problem at hand is divided into simpler sub parts.
Second the function calls itself but with sub parts of the problem obtained in the
first step. Third, the result is obtained by combining the solutions of simpler
sub-parts.
• Therefore, recursion is defining large and complex problems in terms of a smaller
and more easily solvable problem. In recursive function, complicated problem is
defined in terms of simpler problems and the simplest problem is given explicitly.
 FINDING FACTORIAL OF A NUMBER USING RECURSION
PROBLEM SOLUTION
5! 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1!
= 5 X 4! = 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1
= 5 X 4 X 3! = 5 X 4 X 3 X 2
= 5 X 4 X 3 X 2! = 5 X 4 X 6
= 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1! = 5 X 24
= 120

Base case is when n=1, because if n = 1, the result is known to be 1

Recursive case of the factorial function will call itself but with a smaller value of n, this case can be
given as
factorial(n) = n X factorial (n-1)
#include<stdio.h>
int Fact(int)
{ if(n==1)
retrun 1;
return (n * Fact(n-1));
}
main()
{ int num;
scanf(“%d”, &num);
printf(“\n Factorial of %d = %d”, num, Fact(num));
return 0;
}
 THE FIBONACCI SERIES
• The Fibonacci series can be given as:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55……
• That is, the third term of the series is the sum of the first and
second terms. On similar grounds, fourth term is the sum of
second and third terms, so on and so forth. Now we will design a
recursive solution to find the nth term of the Fibonacci series. The
general formula to do so can be given as
 TYPES OF RECURSION
• Any recursive function can be characterized based on:
whether the function calls itself directly or indirectly (direct or indirect recursion).
whether any operation is pending at each recursive call (tail-recursive or not).
the structure of the calling pattern (linear or tree-recursive).

Recursion

Indire Line Tre

Direct Tail
ct ar e

DIRECT RECURSION

A function is said to be directly recursive if it explicitly calls itself. For example, consider the function
given below.
int Func( int n)
{
if(n==0)
retrun n;
return (Func(n-1));
}
INDIRECT RECURSION
A function is said to be indirectly recursive if it contains a call to another function which ultimately calls
it. Look at the functions given below. These two functions are indirectly recursive as they both call each
other.

int Func1(int n) int Func2(int x)

{ {
if(n==0) return Func1(x-1);
return n; }
return Func2(n);
}

TAIL RECURSION
• A recursive function is said to be tail recursive if no operations are pending to be performed when
the recursive function returns to its caller.
• That is, when the called function returns, the returned value is immediately returned from the callin
function.
• Tail recursive functions are highly desirable because they are much more efficient to use as in the
case, the amount of information that has to be stored on the system stack is independent of the
number of recursive calls.
int Fact(n) int Fact1(int n, int res)
{ {
return Fact1(n, 1); if (n==1)
} return res;
return Fact1(n-1, n*res);
}
 LINEAR AND TREE RECURSION
• Recursive functions can also be characterized depending on the way in which the recursion grows- in a
linear fashion or forming a tree structure.
• In simple words, a recursive function is said to be linearly recursive when no pending operation involves
another recursive call to the function. For example, the factorial function is linearly recursive as the
pending operation involves only multiplication to be performed and does not involve another call to
Fact.
• On the contrary, a recursive function is said to be tree recursive (or non-linearly recursive) if the pending
operation makes another recursive call to the function. For example, the Fibonacci function Fib in which
the pending operations recursively calls the Fib function.

int Fibonacci(int num)

{
if(num <= 2)
return 1;
return ( Fibonacci (num - 1) + Fibonacci(num – 2));
}
 PROS AND CONS OF RECURSION
• Pros: Recursive solutions often tend to be shorter and simpler than non-recursive ones.
• Code is clearer and easier to use
• Recursion represents like the original formula to solve a problem.
• Follows a divide and conquer technique to solve problems
• In some (limited) instances, recursion may be more efficient
• Cons: For some programmers and readers, recursion is a difficult concept.
• Recursion is implemented using system stack. If the stack space on the system is limited, recursion to a
deeper level will be difficult to implement.
• Aborting a recursive process in midstream is slow and sometimes nasty.
• Using a recursive function takes more memory and time to execute as compared to its non-recursive
counter part.
• It is difficult to find bugs, particularly when using global variables
 TOWER OF HANOI
• Tower of Hanoi is one of the main applications of a recursion. It says, "if you can solve n-1 cases, then
you can easily solve the nth case?"

A B C
A B C

If there is only one ring, then simply move the ring from source to the destination

A B C
A B C A B C

If there are two rings, then first move ring 1 to the spare pole
and then move ring 2 from source to the destination. Finally
move ring 1 from the source to the destination
A B C
 • Consider the working with three rings.

A B C
A B C
A B C

A B C A B C
A B C

A B C A B C