Stef Groot Nibbelink Learning goals Excretory system Topic You can describe and explain: Anatomy • The parts of the excretory system like kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra • The basic build of the kidneys: medulla, cortex and pelvis. • Functional kidney units such as: nephrons, renal tubules, Bowmans capsule, loops Physiology • The 6 main functions of the kidneys • The filtering process in the kidneys: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion • The differences in composition of blood, and final urine • The role of ADH and aldosterone in kidney functioning • The functions of the bladder What is the function of the excretory system?
• Eliminate waste products from the blood stream
Maintain homeostasis Prevent damage to the body
Many organs involved in elimination…
We focus here on urinary system Overview urinary system
Aorta Renal vein Kidney Renal artery Vena cava
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra The kidney has 6 main functions 1. Ion balance - Especially Na+ and K+ 2. Osmotic balance - Determine volume of urine produced 3. Blood pressure - Controls blood volume and ECF volume (extra cellular fluid) 4. pH balance - Retains or excretes H+ or HCO3 5. Excretion - of nitrogenous wastes & other hydrophillic toxins 6. Hormone production Kidney anatomy Typical mammalian kidney is bean shaped with 2 layers: • Renal cortex • Renal medulla With the pelvis inside Nephron: the functional unit of the kidney Nephrons are composed of 2 elements: • Glomerulus: twisted ball of capillaries (small blood vessels), delivers fluid to the tubule • Renal tubule: composed of a single layer of cells What does a nephron look like? Blood enters the kidney from the renal artery,which branches into smaller vessels towards the glomerulus.
After the filtered blood leaves the
glomerulus,it passes into an outgoing blood vessel.
Bowman’s capsule: mouth of the
tubule, cuplike expansion surrounding the glomerulus. Filtration in the glomerulus
• Blood enters the glomerulus from a
branch of the renal artery • This blood is under high pressure • The capillary walls are one cell thick • They are pierced with openings (biological filter) • The plasma filters though the membrane under pressure • Proteins do not pass What does a nephron look like? Fluid in lumen moves through successive specialized regions of the tubule: • Proximal Convoluted Tubule • Loop of Henle • Distal Convoluted Tubule
Blood then drains into venous
system: carrying away recovered solutes and water from the fluid that surrounds the tubule. Blood vessels From primary to final urine
As fluid passes into the lumen of the tubule, a filtrate is formed =
primary urine
As fluid passes through the tubule, about 99% of the volume is
recovered.
Remodeling of primary urine occurs as it passes through successive
regions of tubule and results in the production of final urine Urine formation regulation
Hormones and neurotransmitters ensure urine composition and release
are matched to the physiological needs of the animal Reabsorption
• Reabsorption = Recovery of substances from the lumen of
the tubule (urine blood) • Most molecules are reabsorbed through a combination of facilitated diffusion and active transport. Secretion
• Secretion = transferring solutes from the blood into the
tubule lumen. • Uses transporters found in the cells that line the lumen • Most important secretory products are K+, NH4+, and H+ What happens where? Filtration: - Glomerulus
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin:
• main hormone responsible for the recovery of water. • High ADH levels increase reabsorption of water by the collecting duct.
• Aldosterone • Regulates sodium and potassium balance • Stimulates Na+ reabsorption and enhances K+ excretion Bladder
• Urine leaves kidney and enters
urinary bladder via ureters for storage. • Exits via urethra: sphincters of smooth muscle control flow. • Opening and closing of sphincter influenced by voluntary and involuntary controls. Questions? Metabolism Learning goals Metabolism
Topic You can describe and explain:
Anatomy • The basic build-up of the cell, see cell biology Physiology • Key characteristics of energy from ecosystem to cell perspective. • Metabolism and the main purpose • The main nutrients and their function in metabolic processes. • Cellular (aerobic) respiration, the 4 stages and outcome (ATP) • Role of enzymes in the metabolic processes Energy – The big picture Ecosystems need energy: • Producers (plants) • Consumers (animals) • Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) Energy cannot be created or destroyed One ultimate energy source One-way flow of energy Energy lost as heat during every transaction Expressed in kilojoules (kJ) or kilocalories (kcal). 1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kJ.
(See Biology 8th Edition Figure 1-12 and 1-13 p. 14)
Metabolism
The definition of metabolism…
• The set of chemical reactions that keeps the animal alive. • Food energy (energy transformation) • Food building blocks • Elimination of waste products • Energy is needed for… Growth, repair, maintenance Metabolism
Hundreds of thousands of chemical reactions occur
simultaneously within the cells. • Anabolism = metabolic reactions that build up and require energy (= endothermic reactions). Such as, linking glucose units to form glycogen or linking amino acid units to build proteins. • Catabolism = metabolic reactions that break down and release energy (= exothermic reactions). Such as breakdown of fat tissue or glycogen for energy supply. Cellular respiration
• Energy is derived from the breakdown of nutrients to
carbon dioxide and water cellular respiration (or oxidation) • There are 3 main sources of energy: carbohydrates, fat and protein. • The main substance oxidized within the body is glucose (a sugar): • Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy (2800kJ) Nutrients – composition of food
• Water - about 70% of the animal’s bodyweight is made up of water
• Carbohydrates - monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides • Lipid (fats and oils) – (non)-essential fatty acids • Protein – combinations of (non) essential amino acids connected with peptide bonds • Minerals – (inorganic) major minerals and trace elements • Vitamins – fat and water soluble vitamins (organic nutrients required in metabolic reactions, such as helping enzymes) Carbohydrates Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (e.g. glucose C6H12O6) 3 types of carbohydrates: • Monosaccharides → one-sugar molecules (e.g. glucose, fructose). Absorbable units. • Disaccharides → two-sugar molecules (e.g. maltose, lactose). These are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides with enzymes. • Polysaccharides → many-sugar molecules. Chains of interconnected monosaccharide molecules (e.g. starch and cellulose). Glycogen → after digestion a part of the glucose is unused and will be stored as glycogen (polysaccharide storage) in liver and muscle Carbohydrates - cellulose
• Is the major component of plant material (more than half the plant cell wall) • Can’t be hydrolyzed with enzymes by the animal • Can be broken down by symbiotic microorganisms living in the digestive tract (rumen / caecum) fermentation • End products: volatile fatty acids (acetic, propionic and butyric acid) • VFA’s can be absorbed by the animal and used for energy Fat (lipid) • Fats are a highly concentrated source of energy • Examples of fat sources: sunflower, soya and corn oil • Fats are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen • Tri-glycerides → combination of glycerol with 3 fatty acid molecules attached. • During digestion 2 fatty acid molecules split off, leaving a monoglyceride (i.e. a glycerol molecule with one fatty acid molecule attached. • The end products of fat digestion are monoglycerides and free fatty acids, which are the absorbable units of fat. • Triglycerides can be stored in the body in adipose tissue. Protein
• Main body structures, such as muscle, skin and
connective tissue are made of protein. • They play a role in defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement and structural support. • Protein is required for growth, repair of tissues and to make enzymes • Proteins are macromolecules composed of amino acids (building blocks) • Proteins are composed of various linear sequences of 20 different amino acids • Protein can be used as energy source, but this is less efficient and proteins are needed for other important functions Specific proteins: enzymes • Control and speed up specific chemical reactions in the body • Are reusable • Can work intracellular (inside the cell) or extracellular (outside the cell) • Activity is influenced by environment: • Temperature: inactivated or damaged by heat • pH: most prefer neutral pH Energy and ATP • Energy is not a substance. We need a carrier / currency. • In the body: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) • ATP can be produced from 3 main sources: • Glycogen stores in the muscle • Glucose from the blood • Fatty acids from the blood • Pathway depends on presence of oxygen (aerobic versus anaerobic energy production) ATP ATP consists of adenosine, ribose and three phosphate groups.
Energy is contained in the bonds of the phosphate groups. Release of 1 P
from ATP leaves ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a single phosphate (used for making more ATP). The 4 stages of aerobic cellular respiration 1. Glycolysis, occurs in the cytosol. 2. Pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, enters a mitochondrion, where cellular respiration continues with the formation of acetyl CoA. 3. The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle). 4. Electron transport and chemiosmosis. Most ATP is synthesized by chemiosmosis. Stage Summary Some starting Some end background materials products
1. Glycolysis Series of reactions in which glucose is degraded Glucose, ATP, NAD+, Pyruvate. ATP, (in cytosol) to pyruvate; net profit of 2 ATPs; hydrogens ADP, P, NADH atoms are transferred to carriers; can proceed anaerobically
2. Formation of acetyl Pyruvate is degraded and combined with Pyruvate, coenzyme Acetyl CoA, CO2, CoA coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA; hydrogen A, NAD+ NADH (in mitochondria) atoms are transferred to carriers, CO2 is released.
Citric acid cycle (in Series of reactions in which the acetyl portion Acetyl CoA, H2O, CO2, NADH, mitochondria) of acetyl CoA is degraded to CO2; hydrogens NAD+, FAD, ADP, P FADH2, ATP atoms are transferred to carriers; ATP is synthesized.
Electron transport and Chain of several electron transport molecules; NADH, FADH2, O2, ATP, H2O, NAD+, chemiosmosis electrons are passed along chain; released ADP, Pi FAD (in mitochondria) energy is used to form a proton gradient; ATP is synthesized as protons diffuse down the gradient; oxygen is final electron acceptor
Source: Solomon, Berg and Martin (2008) Biology 8th edition. Thomson Brooks/Cole. P 41 background background background background background background Any questions?
