QURTUBA UNIVERSITY DIK

IKRAM ULLAH AFRIDI [20242]

EVOLUTION
KOMAL GUL JAVAID

Date
December 26, 2024
1.Evolution;
Evolution is the process by which living organisms gradually change over time. This happens due to genetic
differences that affect traits and are influenced by natural selection, where advantageous traits become more
common in a population. Here's a simple explanation of the types of evolution with examples:
1. Microevolution: This refers to small changes within a species. These changes can affect things like
color, size, or other features and usually happen over short periods. Microevolution doesn’t create new
species but shows how a species adapts to its environment.
Example: Imagine a population of insects. If some insects are resistant to a particular pesticide, they survive
while the others do not. Over time, most insects in that population could be resistant to the pesticide, showing
microevolution at work.
2. Macroevolution: This involves larger evolutionary changes that take place over long periods and can
lead to the creation of new species. It looks at broader patterns of change.
Example: Consider the evolution of whales. Whales evolved from land-dwelling mammals over millions of
years. The transition from walking on land to living in the ocean, with changes such as developing flippers and
streamlined bodies, is an example of macroevolution.
3. Mega evolution: Although this term isn’t commonly used in scientific literature, it is sometimes used to
describe very large-scale evolutionary changes that occur over extremely long timeframes, often
resulting in the emergence of entirely new forms of life.
Example: The transition from simple, single-celled organisms to complex, multicellular organisms like plants
and animals can be considered a form of mega evolution. This massive leap in complexity laid the groundwork
for the diversity of life we see today.

2. Role of different scientist in Evolution;

The study of evolution has been built on the work of many scientists throughout different eras. Each contributed
key ideas and evidence that have shaped our understanding of how life changes over time. Here’s a simple
rundown of some influential scientists and their contributions:
Stephen Jay Gould (Developmental Biology)
Role: Stephen Jay Gould was a prominent paleontologist and evolutionary biologist who contributed
significantly to the field of developmental biology through his theory of punctuated equilibrium.
Contributions:
• Punctuated Equilibrium: Gould proposed, along with Niles Eldredge, the concept of punctuated
equilibrium. This theory suggests that evolution is marked by long periods of stability (equilibrium)
punctuated by short bursts of rapid change. This idea contrasts with the traditional view of gradual,
continuous evolution.
• Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Evo-Devo): Gould’s work fostered interest in the relationship
between an organism's evolutionary history and its development. He emphasized how changes in
developmental processes could lead to evolutionary changes.
Richard Dawkins (Selfish Gene Theory)
Role: Richard Dawkins is a biologist and author best known for popularizing the gene-centered view of
evolution through his book "The Selfish Gene."
Contributions:
• Selfish Gene Theory: Dawkins proposed that evolution operates through the survival of genes, which
can be thought of as selfish entities seeking to replicate themselves. This idea suggests that behaviors
and traits that enhance a gene's survival are naturally selected.
• Gene-Centric Viewpoint: His work shifted focus from individuals or groups to genes as the primary
unit of selection in evolution, influencing how we understand natural selection and genetic inheritance.
Georges Cuvier (Fossils Recognition)
Role: Georges Cuvier was a pioneering French naturalist and paleontologist known for establishing extinction
as a scientific fact.
Contributions:
• Fossil Recognition and Extinction: Cuvier demonstrated through detailed studies of fossils that many
species had gone extinct, which was a radical idea at the time.
• Catastrophism: He proposed that Earth's geologic and biological history was shaped by sudden, short-
lived, and violent events (catastrophes), which led to mass extinctions.
• Comparative Anatomy: Cuvier's work in this field helped establish that organisms could be classified
based on structural similarities, providing a framework for understanding evolutionary relationships.
Louis Pasteur (Father of Microbiology)
Role: Louis Pasteur was a French microbiologist who made groundbreaking contributions to science, medicine,
and industry, earning the title "Father of Microbiology."
Contributions:
• Germ Theory of Disease: Pasteur’s research proved that microorganisms are responsible for
fermentation and disease, shifting scientific thought away from spontaneous generation to understanding
the contagious nature of diseases.
• Pasteurization: He developed pasteurization, a process that kills microorganisms in food and drinks,
which has significant impacts on food safety.
• Vaccination: Pasteur created vaccines for diseases like rabies, laying the foundation for modern
immunology.
Francesco Redi (Father of Parasitology)
Role: Francesco Redi was an Italian physician who is celebrated as the "Father of Parasitology" due to his
foundational work in the study of parasites.
Contributions:
• Disproving Spontaneous Generation: Redi’s experiments demonstrated that maggots on decaying
meat came from fly eggs, not spontaneous generation, supporting the idea that living organisms arise
from other living organisms.
• Parasitology: Redi was among the first to systematically study and document the life cycles of various
parasites, establishing a scientific basis for understanding parasitic infections.
3. Theory of Special Creation;
The Theory of Special Creation is an idea that explains the origin of life on Earth. It is based on the belief that
life was created by a supernatural power or divine being, rather than arising through natural processes. While
this theory is largely a religious or philosophical idea, it intersects with scientific concepts like biogenesis,
abiogenesis, and protobiogenesis, which explore how life could have originated.

1. Biogenesis

• Meaning: The principle of biogenesis states that living organisms can only come from other living
organisms.

• Key Idea: Life begets life. For example, a bird hatches from an egg, and a plant grows from a seed.

• Evidence:

o Louis Pasteur’s experiments: He showed that microorganisms only grow in sterilized nutrient
solutions if exposed to existing microbes, proving that life doesn’t arise spontaneously under
current Earth conditions.

• Implication: Biogenesis explains how life continues but does not address how the first living organisms
originated.

2. Abiogenesis

• Meaning: Abiogenesis suggests that life could have originated from non-living matter, given the right
conditions.

• Key Idea: In the early Earth’s environment, simple organic molecules combined and evolved into
complex structures, eventually forming the first living organisms.

• Support:

o Miller-Urey Experiment (1953):

▪ Scientists simulated early Earth’s conditions (water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and
electricity) in a laboratory.

▪ They successfully produced amino acids, which are building blocks of life.

o This experiment showed that simple organic compounds could form under primitive Earth-like
conditions.
 • Implication: Abiogenesis explains how life might have emerged from chemical processes billions of
years ago.

3. Protobiogenesis

• Meaning: Protobiogenesis refers to the transition stage where non-living molecules formed simple life-
like structures that eventually evolved into the first true cells.

• Key Idea: Before fully living cells emerged, simpler structures called protocells (early life-like
structures) might have formed.

• Process:

1. Formation of Organic Molecules: Basic chemicals combined into amino acids, sugars, and
nucleotides.

2. Formation of Macromolecules: Amino acids linked to form proteins, and nucleotides formed
RNA or DNA.

3. Self-Organization: Molecules formed lipid membranes, creating isolated "bubbles" (protocells)

that could carry out basic life-like functions such as growth and division.

4. Replication: Early molecules like RNA might have replicated themselves, leading to evolution.

• Evidence:

o Lipid World Hypothesis: Suggests that lipids (fats) naturally form membranes that could have
enclosed organic molecules, leading to protocells.

o RNA world hypothesis: RNA may have been the first molecule capable of storing information
and catalyzing reactions.

Special Life originated fully formed and did

Life was created by a divine or supernatural power.
Creation not evolve.

Life continues through reproduction

Biogenesis Life arises only from existing life.
of organisms.

Life originated from non-living matter under early Life emerged through chemical
Abiogenesis
Earth conditions. processes.
 Transition phase where non-living molecules formed First protocells paved the way for
Protobiogenesis
primitive life-like systems. living cells.

4. Theory of Spontaneous Genetics;

The Theory of Spontaneous Genetics is a concept that combines ideas from genetics and the possibility of
sudden, natural changes in organisms. It suggests that certain genetic traits or variations can appear
spontaneously, without being inherited directly from parents. This theory is closely related to the understanding
of mutations and their role in creating new genetic features in organisms.

Key Concepts of the Theory

1. Spontaneous Genetic Changes:

o The idea is that genetic variations can occur suddenly in the DNA of an organism.

o These changes are not planned or caused by external inheritance but happen due to natural
processes, like errors during DNA replication or environmental influences.

2. Mutations:

o Spontaneous genetics heavily relies on the concept of mutations, which are changes in the DNA
sequence.

o Mutations can happen in any gene and may result in:

▪ Beneficial effects: New traits that help the organism survive (e.g., antibiotic resistance in
bacteria).

▪ Harmful effects: Traits that reduce the organism's chances of survival (e.g., genetic
disorders).

▪ Neutral effects: No significant impact on the organism.

3. Origin of New Traits:

o The theory explains how completely new traits can appear in a population, providing raw
material for evolution.

o For example:

▪ A plant might suddenly develop a mutation that makes it resistant to drought.

 ▪ An animal might gain a mutation that improves its vision or camouflage.

How Does Spontaneous Genetics Happen?

1. Errors in DNA Replication:

o When cells divide, their DNA is copied. Sometimes, errors occur during this process, leading to
random changes in the DNA sequence.

2. Environmental Factors:

o Certain environmental factors like radiation, UV light, or chemicals can damage DNA, causing
changes that are passed to offspring if they occur in reproductive cells.

3. Gene Rearrangements:

o Sometimes, parts of DNA can be shuffled or duplicated, creating new combinations of genes that
result in spontaneous traits.

4. Epigenetics:

o In addition to changes in DNA sequence, changes in how genes are expressed (turned on or off)
can happen spontaneously due to environmental triggers.

Importance of the Theory of Spontaneous Genetics

1. Explains Genetic Diversity:

o Spontaneous changes are a source of genetic variation, which is essential for evolution and
adaptation.

o Without spontaneous genetics, populations might struggle to adapt to changing environments.

2. Role in Evolution:

o New mutations introduce traits that can be passed on if they help the organism survive and
reproduce.

o Over generations, these traits can spread in a population, driving evolution.

3. Understanding Diseases:
 o Spontaneous genetic changes can also explain the sudden appearance of genetic diseases or
disorders in families with no prior history of the condition.

4. Applications in Biotechnology:

o Studying spontaneous genetic changes helps scientists understand how to manipulate genes for
beneficial purposes, like developing disease-resistant crops or curing genetic disorders.

Examples of Spontaneous Genetics in Action

1. Bacterial Resistance:

o Some bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics due to spontaneous mutations, making them
harder to treat.

2. Peppered Moths:

o During the Industrial Revolution, some moths in England developed darker coloration due to
mutations, helping them blend into soot-covered trees.

3. Human Traits:

o Spontaneous mutations can lead to unique traits, such as unusual eye colors or genetic conditions
like albinism.

5. Nebular Hypothesis;
The Nebular Hypothesis is a simple explanation for how our solar system was formed. It suggests that
everything started from a big cloud of gas and dust in space, called a nebula. This cloud began to collapse due to
gravity and started spinning, forming a flattened disk. Most of the material in the center became the Sun. The
rest of the material in the disk clumped together to create the planets, moons, and other objects in our solar
system. This idea helps us understand the way the solar system is organized.

6. Catastrophy;
"Catastrophe" generally refers to a sudden and significant event that causes great damage or suffering. It can
happen in various contexts, such as natural disasters, personal tragedies, or large-scale accidents.

1. Natural Disasters: These are catastrophic events caused by natural forces. Examples include
earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. They can lead to widespread
destruction of property, loss of life, and changes to the environment.
 2. Personal Catastrophes: On a personal level, a catastrophe might be a sudden job loss, a serious illness,
or the death of a loved one. These events can turn a person’s world upside down and require significant
emotional and practical adjustments.

3. Large-Scale Accidents or Disasters: These might include industrial accidents, like chemical spills or
explosions, and transportation disasters, like plane crashes or train derailments. Such events can have
severe implications for communities and environments.

4. Global or Societal Catastrophes: On a larger scale, catastrophes might include economic collapses,
wars, pandemics, or significant social or environmental upheavals. These can alter the course of history
and redefine societies.

Regardless of the type, catastrophes often require immediate response efforts, such as rescue operations and
humanitarian aid, and longer-term recovery efforts to rebuild and recover from the losses.

7. Prebiotic concept;
The prebiotic concept involves the idea of consuming specific types of dietary fibers that are not digestible by
humans. These fibers travel intact through your digestive system to your colon, where they become food for the
good bacteria living there. This process encourages the growth and activity of beneficial gut bacteria,
contributing to better gut health and overall well-being.

Here's a step-by-step breakdown of how prebiotics work:

1. Identifying Prebiotics: Prebiotics are found in certain plant-based foods. They include ingredients like
inulin, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), and galactooligosaccharides (GOS). Foods that are high in
prebiotics include garlic, onions, leeks, asparagus, bananas, whole grains, and chicory root.

2. Consumption: When you eat prebiotic-rich foods, these fibers pass through the upper part of your
gastrointestinal tract without being digested or absorbed. This is because human enzymes can't break
them down.

3. Journey to the Colon: The prebiotics continue their journey to the colon (large intestine), where a large
population of beneficial bacteria resides.

4. Feeding the Good Bacteria: Once in the colon, prebiotics act as a food source for beneficial bacteria
like Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli. These bacteria ferment the prebiotic fibers and use them for energy,
leading to their growth and increased activity.
 5. Improving Gut Health: As the good bacteria flourish, they can crowd out harmful bacteria, maintain
the integrity of the gut lining, and produce short-chain fatty acids that nourish colon cells. This leads to a
healthier gut environment.

6. Enhancing Overall Health: A balanced gut microbiome can improve digestion, boost the immune
system, reduce inflammation, and even positively affect mood and mental health. It can also aid in better
nutrient absorption, which can enhance overall health.

By including prebiotic-rich foods in your diet, you’re essentially nurturing your internal microbial garden,
helping it function optimally and supporting your overall health in a natural way.

8. Chemosynthetic Theory;
The chemosynthetic theory, also known as the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis, is a scientific explanation for how
life might have originated on Earth. It suggests that life began in the early oceans from a series of chemical
reactions that gradually formed simple life forms. Here's the theory explained in simple terms:

1. Primitive Earth Conditions: Billions of years ago, Earth had a very different atmosphere than it does
today. It was rich in gases like methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor, but there was little to no
oxygen. The planet was also experiencing frequent lightning storms, volcanic eruptions, and ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.

2. Formation of Simple Organic Molecules: These harsh conditions likely led to the formation of simple
organic molecules, such as amino acids and nucleotides. This happened through chemical reactions
driven by energy sources like lightning and ultraviolet light.

3. Building More Complex Molecules: Over time, these simple molecules began to combine into more
complex ones. For example, amino acids could link together to form proteins, while nucleotides could
form nucleic acids, like RNA or DNA.

4. Creating a 'Primordial Soup': The accumulation of these molecules in the early oceans created what is
often referred to as a "primordial soup." This soup was rich in organic compounds floating in the water.

5. Formation of Simple Life Forms: Eventually, some of these complex molecules organized themselves
into structures capable of self-replication and metabolism—a key characteristic of life. For instance,
some theories suggest that RNA molecules, which can both store information and catalyze chemical
reactions, might have been the first self-replicating entities.
 6. Emergence of Cell-like Structures: Over time, these molecular systems could have evolved into the
first simple cell-like structures, capable of carrying out basic life processes. These structures might have
had membranes that allowed them to maintain a distinct internal environment.

7. Evolution into More Complex Life: As these primitive life forms continued to evolve and adapt to
their environment, they eventually led to the diverse and complex life forms we see today.

The chemosynthetic theory provides a plausible explanation for how life could have started from non-living
chemical substances under the conditions present on early Earth. While it remains a theory and not definitively
proven, experiments like the famous Miller-Urey experiment have shown that it is possible to create simple
organic molecules under simulated early Earth conditions, supporting the feasibility of this theory.

9. Endosymbiont Theory;
The Endosymbiont Theory explains how complex cells (like those in plants, animals, and humans) evolved
from simpler cells (like bacteria). It says that some tiny bacteria were "swallowed" by larger cells a long time
ago, and instead of being digested, they started living together and helping each other. Over millions of years,
these tiny bacteria became a part of the larger cells as special parts called organelles, such as mitochondria and
chloroplasts.

How It Happened:

1. Long Ago:

o Billions of years ago, there were only simple cells called prokaryotes (like bacteria). Some
could make energy from oxygen, and others could do photosynthesis.

2. Swallowing Bacteria:

o A bigger cell swallowed a smaller energy-making bacterium. Instead of breaking it down, the
two started working together:

▪ The bacterium gave energy to the big cell.

▪ The big cell gave protection and food to the bacterium.

3. Mitochondria Formed:

o Over time, this energy-making bacterium turned into the mitochondria, the part of the cell that
makes energy.

4. Chloroplasts Formed:
 o Later, some cells swallowed bacteria that could do photosynthesis. These bacteria became
chloroplasts, the part of plant cells that makes food using sunlight.

5. Complex Cells Evolved:

o With mitochondria and chloroplasts, these cells became the first eukaryotic cells (complex cells
with organelles and a nucleus).

Proof of the Theory:

1. Own DNA:

o Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, separate from the cell, like bacteria.

2. Divide Like Bacteria:

o These organelles multiply on their own inside the cell, just like bacteria divide.

3. Similar to Bacteria:

o The structure and function of mitochondria and chloroplasts are very similar to bacteria.

4. Double Membranes:

o Both have two membranes, which supports the idea that they were swallowed by another cell.

Why It’s Important:

• It explains how life became more complex.

• It shows how working together (symbiosis) can lead to big changes in evolution.

• It helps us understand how our cells work and where their parts came from.

In short, the Endosymbiont Theory shows how teamwork between cells and bacteria helped create the
complex life we see today!

10. Molecular Evidence;

Molecular Evidence refers to the use of molecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins to show how different
organisms are related and how life has evolved over time. By studying these molecules, scientists can trace the
similarities and differences between species, revealing connections and common ancestors.
Key Points About Molecular Evidence:

1. DNA Similarities:

o All living things use DNA as their genetic material, which is strong evidence that all life shares a
common origin.

o Closely related species have more similar DNA. For example:

▪ Humans and chimpanzees share about 98-99% of their DNA.

▪ Humans and mice share about 85% of their DNA.

2. Proteins:

o Proteins are made based on instructions in DNA, so similar DNA leads to similar proteins.

o For example, hemoglobin (a protein in red blood cells) is almost the same in humans and other
mammals, showing they are related.

3. Genes:

o Some genes are found in all living things because they are essential for life. These "universal
genes" show that all organisms evolved from a common ancestor.

4. Mutations as Clues:

o Changes in DNA, called mutations, happen over time. By comparing these mutations, scientists
can figure out when species split apart and started evolving separately.

5. Molecular Clocks:

o Scientists use the rate of DNA mutations to estimate how long ago two species shared a common
ancestor. This is like using DNA as a "clock" to track evolution.

Examples of Molecular Evidence:

1. Humans and Primates:

o The DNA of humans is very similar to that of chimpanzees, gorillas, and other primates, showing
we share a common ancestor.

2. Hox Genes:

o These are genes that control body plans (like where arms or legs grow) and are found in many
animals, from insects to humans, proving a shared evolutionary link.
 3. Cytochrome c:

o This is a protein involved in energy production, and its structure is very similar across different
species, showing they are related.

Why Molecular Evidence is Important:

• Proves Evolution: It provides strong scientific proof of how species are connected and have evolved
over time.

• Helps Classify Life: It helps scientists group organisms based on how closely they are related.

• Explains Common Traits: It shows why different species might share similar features (like humans and
whales having similar bones in their limbs).

In short, molecular evidence is like a genetic "family tree" that reveals the relationships between all living
things, proving the story of evolution written in our DNA.

11. Jurassic Time scale;

The Jurassic Period is a part of Earth’s history that happened a long time ago, between 201 million and 145
million years ago. It lasted about 56 million years and is famous as the time when dinosaurs ruled the land,
giant reptiles swam in the oceans, and the first birds appeared.

Divisions of the Jurassic Period

The Jurassic is divided into three parts:

1. Early Jurassic (201–174 million years ago):

o Dinosaurs started to become the dominant animals on land.

o Oceans were full of reptiles like ichthyosaurs (looked like dolphins) and plesiosaurs.

o The supercontinent Pangaea began to split apart into smaller landmasses.

o The climate was warm, and there were no ice caps.

2. Middle Jurassic (174–163 million years ago):

o Big dinosaurs like Brachiosaurus and Diplodocus roamed the land.

o The first birds, like Archaeopteryx, evolved from small feathered dinosaurs.

o Coral reefs grew in the oceans, and ammonites (spiral-shelled animals) thrived.

o The Earth remained warm and covered in forests.

 3. Late Jurassic (163–145 million years ago):

o Some of the largest dinosaurs, like Stegosaurus and Allosaurus, lived during this time.

o Plant life was dominated by conifers, cycads, and ferns.

o The Atlantic Ocean began to form as Pangaea continued to break apart.

o The climate stayed warm but had seasons.

What Lived During the Jurassic?

1. Dinosaurs:

o Plant-eaters: Long-necked giants like Brachiosaurus and Diplodocus.

o Meat-eaters: Fearsome predators like Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus.

2. Ocean Life:

o Huge marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs.

o Ammonites, small animals with coiled shells, were common.

3. Early Birds:

o The first bird-like animals, such as Archaeopteryx, evolved from feathered dinosaurs.

4. Plants:

o Forests were full of conifers (like pine trees), cycads, and ferns.

5. Early Mammals:

o Tiny, rodent-like mammals lived in the shadows of dinosaurs.

Why is the Jurassic Important?

• It was the golden age of dinosaurs, and some of the most famous species lived during this time.

• The first birds appeared, marking an important step in evolution.

• The Earth’s continents and oceans started to take shape as Pangaea broke apart.

The Jurassic Period was a time of warm climates, lush forests, and incredible animals that ruled the Earth, sea,
and sky!
12. Convergent and Divergent;
Convergent and Divergent Evolution (Easy Explanation)

These terms describe how species evolve and change over time, based on how they relate to each other or their
environment.

1. Convergent Evolution

• What it Means: Different species evolve to have similar traits because they live in similar
environments or have similar needs, even though they are not closely related.

• Key Idea: "Different species, same traits."

• Example:

o Birds, bats, and insects all have wings for flying, but they evolved these wings separately. Birds
are not related to bats or insects, but they developed similar traits because they all need to fly.

• Why it Happens: Convergent evolution happens when different species face similar challenges or
environments, leading them to evolve similar solutions.

2. Divergent Evolution

• What it Means: A single species splits into different species over time, each evolving unique traits
because they live in different environments or adapt to different needs.

• Key Idea: "One species, different traits."

• Example:

o Darwin’s finches on the Galápagos Islands: These birds all came from a common ancestor but
evolved different beak shapes based on the type of food available on their islands (e.g., seeds,
insects).

• Why it Happens: Divergent evolution happens when groups of the same species are separated
(geographically or ecologically) and adapt to their unique environments.
Comparison

Feature Convergent Evolution Divergent Evolution

Relationship Unrelated species evolve similar traits Related species evolve different traits

Reason Similar environments or needs Different environments or needs

Example Wings of bats, birds, and insects Beaks of Darwin’s finches

In Simple Words

• Convergent: Different animals solve the same problem in the same way (e.g., wings for flying).

• Divergent: One animal group changes in different ways to survive in different places (e.g., different bird
beaks for different foods).

13. Different Layer of rocks;

Rocks on Earth are found in different layers, and these layers tell the story of Earth's history. Each layer can
vary in type, composition, and age. Below is a simple explanation of the different layers of rocks, which are
part of the Earth’s crust.

1. Sedimentary Rocks (Surface Layers)

• How They Form:

o Made from particles of sand, silt, clay, and other materials that settle in water or on land over
time.

o These particles are pressed together to form solid layers.

• Features:

o Often found in layers (strata).

o Contain fossils, which help scientists understand Earth's past life.

• Examples:

o Sandstone, limestone, shale.

• Where Found:
 o Riverbeds, ocean floors, deserts.

2. Igneous Rocks (Volcanic Layers)

• How They Form:

o Made from molten rock (magma or lava) that cools and solidifies.

o Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly underground.

o Extrusive igneous rocks form when lava cools quickly on the surface.

• Features:

o Often hard and dense.

o Contain crystals (large in intrusive, small in extrusive).

• Examples:

o Granite (intrusive), basalt (extrusive), pumice.

• Where Found:

o Near volcanoes, deep underground, or as large rock formations.

3. Metamorphic Rocks (Changed Layers)

• How They Form:

o Made when existing rocks (sedimentary or igneous) are exposed to high heat, pressure, or
chemical processes deep underground.

o The original rock changes into a new type of rock.

• Features:

o Can have a layered or banded appearance (foliation).

o Very hard and durable.

• Examples:

o Marble (from limestone), slate (from shale), schist.

• Where Found:

o Mountain ranges or areas where tectonic plates collide.

Layers and Rock Cycle

• Rock Cycle:

o These three types of rocks are interconnected through the rock cycle:

▪ Sedimentary rocks can be transformed into metamorphic rocks through heat and pressure.

▪ Metamorphic rocks can melt to form igneous rocks.

▪ Igneous rocks can erode to form sedimentary rocks.

Why Do Rocks Form in Layers?

1. Sedimentary Rock Layers:

o Formed by material settling over time (e.g., sand settling in a river).

o Newer layers form on top of older layers, creating a timeline of Earth's history.

2. Volcanic Layers:

o Lava flows from eruptions can create distinct layers of igneous rock.

3. Tectonic Activity:

o Metamorphic layers form deep underground where heat and pressure change the structure of
existing rocks.