Statistics

and
Data Science with R
Arrays

• Arrays in R are multi-dimensional data structures

created using the array() function.

• Arrays store elements of the same data type and

can have two or more dimensions.

• Accessing elements involves indexing based on the

dimensions of the array.

• Arrays are widely used for handling multi-

dimensional data in various scientific and
computational applications.
2D Array # Creating a 2D array
data_values <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) # Input data
my_2d_array <- array(data_values, dim =
c(3, 2)) # 3x2 array
print(my_2d_array)

# Accessing elements of an array using

indices
element <- my_2d_array[1, 1]
print(element)
 # Creating a 3D array with random values
3D Array my_array <- array(data = 1:24, dim = c(3, 4, 2))
print(my_array)

# Accessing elements of an array using

indices
element <- my_array[2, 3, 1] # Accessing the
element in the 2nd row, 3rd column, and 1st
'layer'
print(element)

# Changing the dimensions of an array

dim(my_array) <- c(4, 3, 2)
print(my_array)
 Data Frame

• Data frames in R are tabular data structures

representing rows and columns, similar to a
spreadsheet or database table.

• They are created using the data.frame() function

and allow for handling heterogeneous data.

• Accessing elements involves indexing based on

row and column positions or by column names.

• Data frames are fundamental for data

manipulation, exploration, and analysis in R and
are extensively used in data science workflows.
 # Creating a data frame with different data
Creating a Data Frame types
my_data_frame <- data.frame(
ID = 1:3,
Name = c("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"),
Age = c(25, 30, 22),
Passed = c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE)
)

print(my_data_frame)
 # Accessing elements of a data frame using
Accessing Data Frame Elements column indices
element <- my_data_frame[2, 3] # Accessing
the element in the 2nd row and 3rd column
print(element)

# Accessing a column by its name

ages <- my_data_frame$Age # Extracting the
'Age' column
print(ages)
 # Adding a new column to the data frame
Manipulating a Data Frame my_data_frame$City <- c("New York", "Los
Angeles", "Chicago")
print(my_data_frame)

# Removing a column from the data frame

my_data_frame <- my_data_frame[, -3] #
Removes the 3rd column (Age)
print(my_data_frame)
Factor

• A factor is a categorical variable used to represent

qualitative data. Factors are used to define and
store categorical data, which can be nominal or
ordinal in nature.

• They represent levels or categories within a variable

and are particularly useful in statistical modeling,
especially when dealing with categorical data in
analyses or visualizations.

• Factors are created using the factor() function or by

specifying the factor type when importing data.
Factor

Levels
• Factors have levels that define unique categories
or groups within the variable.
• Levels can be predefined or assigned explicitly
using the levels argument.

Ordered Factors
• Factors can be ordered or unordered. Ordered
factors have a specific sequence or hierarchy
among their levels (e.g., low, medium, high).
 # Creating a factor with predefined levels
Creating a Factor gender <- c("Male", "Female", "Female",
"Male", "Male")
factor_gender <- factor(gender)
print(factor_gender)

# Creating a factor with custom levels and

specifying the order
temperature <- c("Low", "Medium", "High",
"Low")
factor_temperature <- factor(temperature,
levels = c("Low", "Medium", "High"), ordered =
TRUE)
print(factor_temperature)
Viewing and Modifying factors # Viewing the levels of a factor
print(levels(factor_gender))

# Changing the levels of a factor

factor_temperature <-
factor(factor_temperature, levels = c("Low",
"Medium", "High", "Very High"))
print(factor_temperature)
 Data Import

In R, importing and exporting data is a fundamental task, as it allows you to bring data
from external sources into your R environment for analysis and export results for further
use or sharing.

1. CSV Files
Reading CSV files: You can use the read.csv() or read_csv() (from the readr package)
functions to read CSV files.
install.packages(“readr”)
library(readr)
data <- read_csv("path/to/your/file.csv")

2. Excel Files
Reading Excel files: Use the readxl package, which provides the read_excel() function.
install.packages(“readxl”)
library(readxl)
data <- read_excel("path/to/your/file.xlsx", sheet = 1)
 Data Export

1. CSV Files
Writing to CSV files: Use the write.csv() or write_csv() (from
the readr package) functions.
write.csv(data, "path/to/save/your/file.csv")
write_csv(data, "path/to/save/your/file.csv")

2. Excel Files
Writing to Excel files: Use the writexl package package.
install.packages(“writexl”)
library(writexl)
write_xlsx(data, "path/to/save/your/file.xlsx")
Built-in Datasets

To list all available datasets in R, you can use the data()

function with no arguments:

# Load the datasets package (it’s usually loaded by

default)
library(datasets)

# List all built-in datasets

data()
 Introduction to dplyr

• The dplyr package in R is a powerful tool for data

manipulation and transformation.

• It's particularly popular due to its intuitive syntax and

efficiency when working with data frames.

• The dplyr package is part of the tidyverse and provides a set

of functions to manipulate data in a data frame. Key functions
include select(), filter(), mutate(), arrange(), and
summarise().

• In dplyr, the %>% operator, known as the pipe operator, is

used to chain together multiple operations, making the code
more readable and concise.
 Data Manipulation and transformation using dplyr

# Install and load the dplyr package

install.packages("dplyr")
library(dplyr)

# Load the mtcars dataset

data("mtcars")

#View the dataset

View(mtcars)

#Show the structure of the dataset

str(mtcars)
 Data Manipulation and transformation using dplyr

#Top 6 rows of the dataset

head(mtcars)
#bottom 6 rows of the dataset
tail(mtcars)

#Show statistical summary of the dataset

summary(mtcars)

#Selecting Variables
#You can use the select() function to choose specific columns and the
rename() function to rename them.

# Select specific columns (e.g., mpg and cyl)

selected_data <- mtcars %>%
select(mpg, cyl)
View(head(selected_data))
Data Manipulation and transformation using dplyr

#Renaming Variables
#You can use the rename() function to rename them.
renamed_data <- selected_data %>%
rename(
Miles_per_Gallon = mpg,
Cylinder_Count = cyl
)

# Display the result

View(head(renamed_data))
Data Manipulation and transformation using dplyr

#Filtering Rows
The filter() function allows you to subset rows based on certain conditions.
# Filter rows where mpg is greater than 20
filtered_data <- mtcars %>%
filter(mpg > 20)

# Display the result

View(head(filtered_data))
 Data Manipulation and transformation using dplyr

#Mutating and Transforming Data

#Use the mutate() function to create new variables or modify existing ones.
# Add a new column that calculates the power-to-weight ratio
mutated_data <- mtcars %>%
mutate(
Power_to_Weight = hp / wt
)

# Display the result

View(head(mutated_data))
 Data Manipulation and transformation using dplyr

#Grouping and Summarizing Data

#The group_by() function groups data by one or more variables, and summarise()
calculates summary statistics for each group.

# Group by the number of cylinders and calculate average mpg and hp

grouped_summary <- mtcars %>%
group_by(cyl) %>%
summarise(
Avg_MPG = mean(mpg),
Avg_HP = mean(hp),
Count = n()
)

# Display the result

print(grouped_summary)
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