21EI32 Analog Electronic Circuits Lab Manual

Analog Electronic Circuits Lab Experiments

Sub code: 21EI32 (IPCC) Hours/Week: 2 Total Hours:24 CIE marks:20

Sl.
No. Name of the Experiments Page
No.
1. Determination of ripple factor and efficiency of full wave 15-17
rectifier using center-tapped transformer
2. Determination of ripple factor and efficiency of full wave 18-21
bridge rectifier
3. Static V-I characteristics of UJT 22-25
4. Static V-I characteristics of SCR 26-29
5. Design and testing of Common emitter BJT voltage divider 30-31
biasing circuit
6. Frequency response of single stage BJT RC coupled amplifier 32-35
7. Drain characteristics and transfer characteristics of JFET 36-38
8. Testing of Complementary symmetry class B push-pull 39-41
amplifier
9. Study of RC phase shift oscillator using BJT 42-44
10. Study of Common source JFET amplifier 45-47
11. Study of Crystal oscillator using BJT 48-49
12. Study of AC voltage controller using TRIAC and DIAC 50-51

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Instructions to students

1. Follow the laboratory regulations (do’s and don’t s)properly.

2. Understand the usage of lab equipments, meters, components & apparatus.

3. Ensure that the AC main supply is OFF before making any circuit connection.

4. Select the required type of instruments & proper ranges.

5. Ensure that the components/apparatus used for the experiments are in working
condition. Use IC Tester & multi-meter for this purpose.

6. Before making circuit connection, check the continuity of your patch chord/wires by
using multi-meter.

7. Do not touch live terminals. Make all connections tightened. Do not spread unwanted
connecting wires on the table.

8. Never exceed the permissible values of voltage, current etc., of any apparatus that you
use.

9. Get the connection checked by the staff before switching ON the supply. Do not change
connection while supply is ON.

10. If there is any smoke/burning smell, immediately switch OFF the Power & check the
circuits for proper connections.

11. Strictly follow the procedures for conduction of experiments. Use all instruments
carefully.

12. After completion of the Experiments arrange the apparatus, stools properly & remove
the power chords from the mains sockets.

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FAMILIARIZATION OF LAB EQUIPMENTS

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
1. CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO):

Fig: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The cathode ray oscilloscope is an extremely useful and common laboratory

instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a
wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a
general purpose laboratory instrument. It allows the user to see the amplitude of electrical
signals as a function of time on the screen. It is widely used for trouble shooting radio and
TV receivers as well as laboratory work involving research and design. It can also be
employed for studying the wave shape of a signal with respect to amplitude distortion and
deviation from the normal.

Block Diagram of a CRO

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A basic block diagram of a general purpose oscilloscope is shown in figure. The

instrument employs a cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the oscilloscope. It
generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to
create the image, and contains a phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually
becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks various electrical signals and voltages are
required,whichareprovidedbythepowersupplycircuitoftheoscilloscope.Lowvoltagesupply is
required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron beam and high voltage,
of the order of few thousand volts is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam.
Normal voltage supply, say a few hundred volts is required for other control circuits of the
oscilloscope.
Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun and screen to
deflect the beam according to input signal. Electron beam strikes the screen and creates a
visible spot. This spot is deflected on the screen in horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant
time dependent rate. This is accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the oscilloscope.
The signal to be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the vertical
amplifier, which raises the potential of the input signal to a level that will provide usable
deflection of the electron beam. Now electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal on
X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of
deflections so that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal
each time it sweeps.
2. MULTI-METER:

Fig: Digital Multi-meter Fig: Analog Multi-meter

A Multi-meter or a Multi-tester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an
electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A typical multi-
meter includes features such as the ability to measure AC and DC voltage, AC and DC
current, and resistance. It is called a multi-meter because it combines the functions of a
voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multi-meters may also have other functions, such as
diode and continuity tests.

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Multi-meters can be Analog Multi-meters and Digital Multi-meters (often

abbreviated DMM ). Digital multi-meters are now far more common but analog multi-meters
are still preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly varying value. A
multi-meter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or
a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as
batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
3. FUNCTION/SIGNALGENERATOR:
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types
of waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are sine- waves,
triangular waves, square waves, and saw tooth waves. The frequencies of such waveforms
may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.

Fig: Multi-Waveform Signal Generator

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or
external trigger source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described
as function generator ICs. Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies,
they are usually not suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency
signals. When those traits are required, other signal generators would be more appropriate.
Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which may be a
frequency reference) or another function generator.
Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic
equipment. For example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce
an error signal into a control loop.
4. REGULATED POWERSUPPLY
There are many types of power supplies. Most are designed to convert high voltage
AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage dc supply for energizing electronic circuits and
other electronic devices. A power supply can be divided into a series of blocks, each of them
performing a particular function.
For example a 5V dc regulated power supply:

Fig: Block diagram of a regulated power supply

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Transformer: Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier: Converts ac to dc, but output contains some amount of ac

Smoothing (Filter): Removes ac component present at the output .

Regulator: Maintains constant fixed dc voltage at the output.

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS & DEVICES:

1. RESISTORS
A Resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR. The electrical resistance R is equals to the voltage drop
V across the resistor divided by the current I through the resistor. Resistors are used as part of
electrical networks and electronic circuits.

Potentiometer Fixed Resistor Variable Resistor

Fig: Symbols of resistor

Image of Resistor
Identification of Resistors Using Color Codes
Color 1stban 2ndband 3rdband (multiplier) 4thband (tolerance)
d
Black 0 0 ×100
Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F)
Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G)
Orange 3 3 ×103
Yellow 4 4 ×104
Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)
6
Blue 6 6 ×10 ±0.25% (C)
Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B)
Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)
White 9 9 ×109
Gold ×10-1 ±5% (J)
Silver ×10-2 ±10% (K)
None ±20% (M)

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Four Band Resistor

Fig: Different color bands

A B C D

Example: Blue (A) Grey (B) Red(C) Gold (D)

AB ×10c+/-D% = 68×102+/-5%
6800+/- 5% (Value of the resistor is 6.8K and tolerance is 5%)
For verification, use the multi-meter and measure resistance directly.

2. CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store an electrical
charge between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the
capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but
opposite polarity, building upon each plate.
The unit of Capacitance is farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).

Fig: Types of capacitors

Fixed Capacitors are of two types: electrolytic and non-electrolytic
1. Electrolytic capacitor: Electrolytic capacitors are a type of capacitor that is
polarized (Has polarity so must be connected in correct way otherwise it will
explode). Used when large quantities of charge have to be stored.
Ex: Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, Tantalum electrolytic
2. Non-Electrolytic capacitor: Non-Electrolytic capacitors are a type of capacitor
that is not polarized (No polarity, can connect them either way round but they
hold small quantities of charge)
Ex: ceramic capacitors

Electrolytic NonElectrolytic

Symbols of capacitor
Variable Capacitors: Variable capacitors are the one which can be adjusted by tuning
controls. They are used in communication equipment, radios, televisions.

Symbol of variable capacitor

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3. INDUCTOR:
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loop or coil. The inductance is
directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius
of the coil and on the type of material around which the coil is wound.
The standard unit of inductance is the Henry (H).
By using Color code method or LCR meter we can find the unknown value of
inductance.

Value of inductor using color code (Results in  Henry)

Fig: Color code bands for inductor

Ex: Blue (A).Grey (B).Red(C). Gold (D)

AB10c+/-D% = 68102+/-5%

4. DIODES:
A diode is a two-terminal electronic device that allows electric current to flow in one
direction while blocking current in the opposite direction. It is an active component.
It is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the cathode.
Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium.
The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode,
although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are widely used throughout all
areas of the electronics industry from electronics design through to production and repair.
The semiconductor diode is very versatile, and there are very many variants and different
types of diode that enable all the variety of different applications to be met.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the forward biased condition) and to block it in the opposite direction (the reverse
biased condition). Thus, the diode can be used in the design of rectifier/power supply circuits.

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Fig: Diode and its symbol. Fig: Square shaped semiconductor crystal

Fig: Different types of diodes and its symbols

5. TRANSISTORS:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals

and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with three terminals for
connection to an external circuit.
The concept of ‘transferring’ a current from a low resistance to a high resistance circuit is one
version of ‘transfer of resistance’ and has given the name transistor-TRANSfer- resISTOR.

A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with three layers

and three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one
pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much larger than the controlling
(input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the
fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone,
computer and other electronic systems. Some transistors are packaged individually but most
are found in integrated circuits.

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Types of Transistors

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

BJT is a Semiconductor device which are made up of 3 regions, the base, the
collector, and the emitter. Bipolar junction transistors are of two main types, namely NPN
and PNP.

The n-p-n junction transistor consists of two n -type semiconductors (called the emitter and
collector) separated by a thin layer of p -type semiconductor (called the base). The p-n-
p junction transistor, consisting of a thin layer of n -type semiconductor lying between
two p –type semiconductors.
Fig: Symbols of NPN and PNP transistors

2. Junction Field-Effect Transistor(JFET)

Field Effect Transistors are transistors which are made up of 3 regions, a gate, a
source, and a drain.. The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that relies on an
electric field to control the conductivity of a 'channel' of one type of charge carrier in a
semiconductor material. FETs are sometimes called unipolar transistors to contrast their
single-carrier-type operation with the dual-carrier-type operation of bipolar junction
transistor (BJT).

Fig: Symbol of Junction Field Effect Transistor

3. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
The Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a device
used to amplify or switch electronic signals. It is by far the most common field-effect
transistor in both digital and analog circuits. The MOSFET is composed of a channel of
n-type or p-type semiconductor material.

Fig: Symbols of n-channel MOSFET

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TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first circuit (the
primary) creates a changing magnetic field. This changing magnetic field induces a changing
voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). This effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary
winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load connected
in the secondary circuit.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is a fraction of the
primary voltage (VP) and is given by the ratio of the number of secondary turns (Ns) to the
number of primary turns (Np)

Basic principle:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce
a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil
of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing
the current in the primary coil changes the magnitude of the applied magnetic field. The
changing magnetic flux extends to the secondary coil where a voltage is induced across its
ends.

Fig: An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core

A simplified transformer design circuit is shown in the figure. A current passing through the primary coil
creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
permeability, such as iron; this ensures that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current
are within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.

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Fig: The ideal transformer as a circuit element

BREAD BOARD:
A Breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit
design. The breadboard has many holes into which circuit components like resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors and IC’s can be placed. A typical breadboard is shown below:

Fig: Breadboard
The breadboard has strips of metal which run underneath the board & connect the
holes on the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the
top & bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally while the remaining holes are
connected vertically.

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Fig: Internal connections of Breadboard

To use the breadboard, the legs of the components are placed in the holes. Each set of holes
connected by a metal strip underneath forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two
Components are connected. Connections between different components are formed by putting
their legs in a common node.
The long top & bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply & ground
connections. The rest of the circuit is built by placing components & connecting them
together with the single strand wires (connecting wires). IC’s are placed in the middle of the
board so that half of the legs are on one side of the middle line and half on the other.

INPUT SOURCES & SYMBOLS:

Fig: Input Sources & Symbols

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REQUIRED EQUIPMENTS & TOOLS:

i. CRO-20Mhz/30Mhz
ii. Breadboard
iii. Function generator:1Mhz-3Mhz range
iv. Digital Multi-meter
v. Fixed dc power supply: DC+/-12V& +/-5V
vi. Variable Regulated DC power supply in built 0-30V
vii. LCR meter
viii. IC tester
ix. Connecting wires

TOOLS: Nose pliers, wire stripper, cutter.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are electronic components and devices?
2. What are Passive Components?
3. What are Active Components?
4. What is a Resistor?
5. How do you find the value of a Resistor using the color code?
6. What is Capacitor ? List the types of capacitor
7. What is an Inductor ?
8. What is a Diode?
9. List the types of diodes.
10. What is forward bias & reverse bias of diode?
11. Explain the forward and reverse characteristics of Si & Ge diode.
12. Explain the characteristics of p-n junction diode and zener diode.
13. Define breakdown voltage w.r.t. zener diode
14. What is a transistor?
15. What are the different types of transistors?
16. Differentiate between NPN & PNP transistors.
17. Explain the working principle of NPN & PNP transistor.
18. What is biasing?
19. Explain different biasing techniques.
20. What is p-n junction?
21. What are the different regions of transistor operation?
22. Explain different types of transistor configuration/connection
23. Define DC load line
24. Define Q point.
25. What is a transformer and explain its types?
26. What is CRO?
27. What are its applications?
28. Define Ohm’s law and Kirchoff’s law
29. Differentiate between AC & DC signals
30. Find the value of the resistors given using color code
31. What is a power supply?
32. What is AC power supply?
33. What is a DC power supply?
34.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM: To Find the ripple factor and efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier(with center-tapped transformer)
with out and with capacitor filter

COMPONENTS / EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Name of component/equipment Specification Qty
Bread board and connecting wires 1 set
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20MHz/30MHz 1
Diodes BY127 2
Capacitors 100µF 1
Transformer 9V- 0 -9V /or 12V-0-12V 1
Decade Resistance Box (DRB) Variable in 10 steps 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: Full Wave rectifier without Filter

THEORY:
The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half cycles of the
input ac supply. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used. In
the positive half cycle, the diode D1 will be forward biased and hence will conduct, diode D2
will act as open circuit. In the negative half cycle, the diode D2 will be forward biased and
hence will conduct, diode D1 will be reversed biased & it act as open circuit. Thus the full
wave rectifier circuit essentially consists of two half wave rectifier circuits working
independently of each other but feeding a common load. The output load current is
unidirectional pulsating dc (with some amount of ac component known as ripple). The
pulsations in the output can be removed by using filter capacitor.

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Fig: Full wave rectifier with Filter:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Set load resistance RL=1KΩ on the DRB
3. Apply single phase ac input of 230V,50Hz through a step down transformer
4. Measure and note down the peak or maximum voltage Vm of ac input across the
transformer secondary on the CRO
5. Measure and note down the dc voltage Vdc and rms value of ac ripple voltage Vac across
the output load RLusing multi-meter (select appropriate dc/ac mode on multi-meter)
6. Repeat the readings for different values of load resistance (Vary DRB from 1KΩ in steps
and tabulate the readings)
7. Calculate the Ripple factor, and % Efficiency using the formulae given.
8. Connect the capacitor filter across the load & again for different load RL, calculate the ripple factor.

FORMULAE USED:
1) Ripple Factor γ (without filter) = Vac / Vdc (Ideally 0.48)
2) Vrms= Vm/√2

3) Pdc = Vdc 2/RL

4) Pac= V rms2/ (Rf+RL)

5) % η = (Pdc / Pac) X100 (Ideally 81.2%)
6) Ripple Factor (with filter) γtheo= 1/ 4√3 f C RL
7) Vripple = Vr/4√2
8) Ripple Factor (with filter) γ prac= Vripple/Vdc (Reduced)

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Rf = Ω

Ripple
RL Vm V dc Vac P dc P ac
Factor %η
Ω Volts Volts Volts Watts Watts
γ

1K

2K

3K

Fig: Input & output waveforms

RESULT:
Parameter FWR
Ripple Factor γ
Efficiency % η
Ripple Factor (with filter) γ

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2
FULLWAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
AIM: To Find the ripple factor and efficiency of Full Wave bridge rectifier without and with capacitor filter

COMPONENTS / EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Name of component/equipment Specification Qty

Bread board and connecting wires 1 set
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20/30Mhz 1
Diodes BY127 4
Capacitors 100µF 1
Transformer 9V- 0 -9V / 12V-0-12V 1
Decade Resistance Box (DRB) Variable in 10 steps 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: Full wave Bridge rectifier without Filter

THEORY:
The bridge rectifier circuit is essentially a full-wave rectifier circuit, using four
diodes forming the four arms of an electrical bridge. To one diagonal of the bridge, the ac
voltage is applied through a transformer and the rectified dc voltage is taken from the other
diagonal of the bridge.
In the positive cycle of the ac input voltage, diodes D1 & D2 will be forward biased
while D3 & D4 will be reversed biased .The two diodes D1 & D2 conduct in series with the
load. In the next half cycle, when polarity of ac voltage reverses hence diodes D3 & D4 are
forward biased and diodes D1 & D2 will be reversed biased. Now diodes D3 & D4 will
conduct in series with the load. It is seen that in both cycles of the ac the load current is
flowing in the same direction, hence we get a full wave rectified output (Thus bidirectional ac
voltage is converted into unidirectional dc voltage)

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Fig: Full wave Bridge rectifier with Filter

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Set load resistance RL=1KΩ on the DRB
3. Apply single phase ac input of 230V,50Hz through a step down transformer
4. Measure and note down the peak or maximum voltage Vm of ac input across the
transformer secondary on the CRO
5. Measure and note down the dc voltage Vdc and rms value of ac voltage Vac across the
output load RL using multi-meter (select appropriate dc/ac mode on multi-meter)
6. Repeat the readings for different values of load resistance (Vary DRB from 1KΩ in steps
and tabulate the readings)
7. Calculate the Ripple factor and % Efficiency using the formulae given.
8. Connect the capacitor filter across the load & again for different load RL, calculate the ripple factor.

FORMULAE USED:
1) V rms= Vm/√2
2) Ripple Factor γ (without filter) = Vac / Vdc (Ideally 0.48)

3) Pdc= Vdc 2/RL

2
4) P ac=V rms / (Rf+RL)

5) % η = (P dc / P ac) X100 (Ideally 81.2%)

6) Ripple Factor (with filter) γ theo= 1/ 4√3 fCRL

7) Vripple = Vr/4√2
8) Ripple Factor (with filter) γ prac= Vripple/Vdc (Reduced)

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TABULAR COLUMN
Rf = Ω
Ripple
RL Vm V dc Vac P dc P ac
Factor %η
Ω Volts Volts Volts Watts Watts
γ

1K

2K

3K

Fig: Input & output waveforms

RESULT:
FWBR
Ripple Factor γ
Efficiency % η
Ripple Factor (filter) γ

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is Rectification? Why it is necessary?
2. What is a Rectifier? How many types of rectifiers are there?
3. Explain the working of HWR, FWR, BR with neat circuit diagram and waveforms.
4. For HWR, FWR, BR Write the expressions of
i. Average / dc load current & load voltage
ii. RMS load current & load voltage
iii. %regulation
iv. Efficiency
v. Ripple factor
vi. Peak inverse voltage
vii. Peak load / diode current
5. What are the values of ripple factor and efficiency of HWR and FWR?
6. Define %regulation &PIV?
7. What is a ripple factor?
8. Define Line and Load regulation?
9. Define efficiency? Write the theoretical efficiencies of half wave and Full wave
rectifier .
10. What do you mean by Average value, rms value, and peak value?
11. What is a Filter? Why it is required?
12. What are the different types of Filters?
13. Give a comparative study of all rectifier circuits.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3
STATIC V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT
AIM: To plot the V-I characteristics of a Uni-junction transistor and to determine its intrinsic
stand-off ratio, peak point & valley point voltages/currents

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
2N2646 Silicon UJT, 1K ohm resistor, Ammeter-1, Voltmeter-1, Variable DC power sources-2 ,
Breadboard, Single Strand Wires,

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. Circuit to determine V-I characteristics of UJT

THEORY:
A Uni-junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only
one junction. It has three terminals, an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is
formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at
its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2,
when the emitter is open circuit is called inter base resistance. The original UJT, is a simple
device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material
has been diffused somewhere along its length.
The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a
potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven
approximately above the cut-in voltage of p-n junction (diode), current will begin to flow
from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the
additional current (actual charges in the base region) causes (conductivity modulation) which
reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2
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terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased,
and so even more current is injected. Hence there exists a negative resistance at the emitter
terminal.
This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits. When the
emitter voltage reaches Vp, the current starts to increase and the emitter voltage starts to
decrease. This is represented by negative slope of the characteristics which is referred to as
the negative resistance region. Beyond the valley point ,VEB proportional to IE.

TABULAR COLUMN:
VBB = 8 V VBB = 10V
VE (V) IE (mA) VE (V) IE (mA)

PROCEDURE:
1. Make circuit connections as shown in the figure
2. Set the dc supply voltage VBB to a constant value (say 8 or 10 volt)
3. Vary the input dc supply voltage VEE from zero in steps of 1volt, and note down the corresponding
readings of voltmeter and ammeter
4. Note that, when VE increases and reaches peak voltage VP, the UJT turns ON and VE now starts
decreasing and current I E starts increasing
5. Repeat the experiment for different value of V BB
6. Determine intrinsic stand-off-ratio η using Vp& VBB
7. A graph showing the variation in emitter current with emitter voltage is drawn
8. From the characteristics curve, the peak-point voltage, peak current, valley-point voltage and valley- point
current are noted.
The intrinsic stand-off-ratio is given by:
We have,

Peak Voltage VP = η VBB + VD

Therefore η =(Vp-VD)/ VBB

The resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB is called the intrinsic stand-off ratio and is given the Greek symbol: η (eta).
Typical standard values of η range from 0.5 to 0.8 for most common UJT’s.

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Fig. Ideal V-I Characteristics of UJT 2N2646

RESULT: V-I characteristics of a Uni-junction transistor is obtained.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a UJT?
2. What is the difference between UJT and BJT?
3. What are the applications of UJT?
4. Define intrinsic-stand-off ratio
5. Why does negative resistance region appears in UJT?

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1. Why UJT is called as negative resistance device? When the negative resistance exists in
UJT characteristics.

In UJT characteristics the emitter voltage decreases with increase in IE that region is
called resistive resistance region , because Vα I (V = IR) by ohms law. But here VE α
1/IE.

2. What are Peak point and valley point for an UJT? Write formula for Peak voltage.

Peak point: The voltage reaches its peak value VP.The emitter current at this point is
minimum.

Valley point: The valley point where the resistance changes from negative to positive. The
emitter current Ie is minimum at this valley point and it is called valley current IV, where the
resistance is positive.

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EXPERIMENT NO.4
STATIC V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

Aim: Conduct experiment to plot the static V-I characteristics of SCR & determine holding & latching currents.

Components required: VRPS 0-300V, VRPS 0-30V, Multimeters, Resistors 1K 10W, 1K ½W, SCR -TYN 604.

Circuit diagram:

FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS:

SCR Lead Identification:

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Tabular Column:

Keep Ig= ___________mA (constant)

Sl No. VAK(Volts) IA mA

Procedure:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Adjust the gate supply voltage to set a suitable value of gate current Ig (constant).
3. Keeping gate current constant, vary the anode to cathode voltage in steps & note down the corresponding
voltmeter reading VAk & ammeter reading IA and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph of anode voltage VAK & anode current IA.
5. Indicate VBFO, IH & IL on the V-I Characteristics
6. Repeat the experiment for different constant value of gate current Ig.

To determine holding current ‘IH’

The holding current is the minimum value of anode current which will hold the SCR in conduction
state, below which the device turns OFF. To determine holding current, drive the SCR in to the fully ON
state (saturation state). Now reduce the anode current from its maximum value by reducing the applied anode to
cathode voltage. Find the minimum current through the SCR to keep it in ON state, the minimum anode current
just above ON state is noted down which is the holding current IH.

To determine latching current ‘IL’

The latching current is the minimum value of anode current which will latch the SCR into conduction state
when the gate current is removed. To find latching current, drive the SCR to the full ON state (saturation). Now
switch off the gate current. The SCR continues to be in ON state. Now reduce the anode current by reducing
anode to cathode voltage. The minimum value of anode current just before SCR turns OFF is noted down which
the latching current IL.

When SCR is in ON state, anode current IA>IH and

When SCR is in OFF state, anode current IA< IH

The holding current IH > IL

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REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS:

Circuit diagram:

Tabular Column:

Sl.No. VR(Volts) IR µA

Procedure:

1. Remove the gate supply current.

2. Apply a reverse voltage to the SCR.
3. Increase the voltage in steps and note down the reverse voltage & reverse current in the respective meters.
4. Plot reverse voltage versus reverse current.
5. Indicate reverse breakdown voltage on the characteristic.

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V-I Characteristics of SCR

⬧ Ig1 & Ig2- gate currents (constant)

⬧ IH-Holding Current
⬧ VH-Holding Voltage (0.7V for Si)
⬧ IL- Latching Current
⬧ VBO-Forward break over voltage
⬧ VBR-Reverse break down voltage
⬧ IR-Reverse Current, μA.

Conclusion:

The static VI characteristics of SCR are obtained and IH, IL, VBFO & IR are found out.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Design and testing of BJT voltage divider biasing circuit

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EXPERIMENT 6

Frequency response of single stage BJT RC coupled amplifier

AIM: To determine the voltage gain and plot the frequency response of BJT common
emitter RC coupled amplifier and find the bandwidth

COMPONENTS / APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Required material Specification Qty
Bread board 1
CRO 20/ 30MHz 1
Power supply DC 0-30V 1
Function generator 0-1Mhz 1
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistors 2.2K (DRB), 10K, 470, 100 1
Capacitors 4.7µF, 470µF, 10µF - 2 1

Fig: BJT common emitter amplifier using voltage divider bias without feedback
IC
DESIGN:
Let VCC= 12V, β = 100, ICQ=10mA and ICQ
VCE = VCC/2 = 6V

VCE VC

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To find RE
VRE= 10% VCC
VRE= 12/10 = 1.2V

IERE = 1.2 V  ICRE = 1.2 V

RE = 1.2 / IERE = 120, Choose RE = 100.

To find R1 & R2

IB = IC /  = 10 x 10-3 / 100 = 100 A

Assume that 10 IB is flowing through resistor R1, 9 IB is flowing through R2 and IB is going to
the base of the transistor.

R1 x 10 IB + R2 x 9 IB = VCC

10R1 + 9R2 = VCC / IB = 12 V / 0.1 mA =120K−−−−−

Voltage across R2 = VBE (sat) + IERE
9 x IB x R2 = 0.7 + 1. 2
R2 = 1. 9 / 0. 9 x 10- 3

R2 = 2.1K−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

Substituting  in 

We get R1 = 10.11 K
Hence choose R1 = 10 K and R2 = 2.2 K

To find RC:

VCC = ICRC + VCE + IERE

RC =(Vcc– VCE - ICRE)/IC

RC = 12 – 6 – 1.2
10 x 10-3
=480

Choose RC=470

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are done as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the dc biasing voltage VCC as 12 V and ac input signal as 20 mVp-p
3. By varying the frequency in the signal generator, the corresponding peak to peak voltage
of the output waveform is noted in the tabular column.
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4. Calculate the gain corresponding to different values of frequencies.

5. Calculate gain in decibels, Gain dB = 20 log10(Vo/Vi).
6. Plot the graph of gain v/s. frequency and find bandwidth.

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN: Vi=Constant (say 20mv)

f Vo
Av=Vo/Vi Gain in dB= 20 log10 (Vo/Vi)
( in Hz) Volts

CALCULATIONS:

Lower Cut-off Frequency fL=

Upper Cut-off Frequency fU=
Bandwidth, BW = fU –fL

RESULT:
The RC Coupled Amplifier using BJT was designed and studied.

Gain =
Bandwidth =

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define voltage gain and power gain
2. What is Band width and Frequency response?
3. What is RC coupling?
4. Define Input impedance and Output impedance
5. What is BJT?
6. Mention the application of BJT amplifier.
7. Define amplifier? What are different types of amplifiers?
8. Why do you prefer to express gain in dB? What is the significance of the
coupling capacitor and emitter by-pass capacitor?

9. What are the applications of RC coupled amplifier?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 7
FET CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To plot the Drain and Transfer characteristic for the given FET and to find the Drain
Resistance and Trans-conductance.

COMPONENTS/APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Required material Specification Qty

Bread board 1
FET BFW10 1
Power supply DC 30V Dual 1
DC Ammeter 0-100mA 1
DC Voltmeter 0-30 V 2
Resistors 1K 2
Connecting wires Single strand

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
2. For drain characteristics, Keep the gate voltage VGS at some constant value (say VGS=0V, -1V)
3. Vary drain voltage VDS in steps of 1V, note down the corresponding drain current ID
4. Plot the graph of drain current ID v/s drain voltage VDS
5. Repeat the above steps for different values of voltage VGS
6. For transfer characteristics, Keep the drain voltage VDS at some constant value
7. Vary the voltage VGS in steps of 1V, note down the corresponding drain current ID
8. Plot the graph of drain current ID v/s gate to source voltage VGS
9. Repeat the above steps for different values of voltage VDS

Drain Characteristics:
VGS=0V VGS= -1V VGS = -2V
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

Transfer Characteristics:
VDS=4V VDS= 6V VDS = 8V
VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)

Transfer characteristics Drain characteristics

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Formulae used:

1. Drain resistance rd=ΔVDS/ΔID at constant VGS

2. Transconductance gm=ΔID/ΔVGS at constant VDS

3. Amplification factor 𝝁 = 𝒈𝒎 × 𝒓𝒅

RESULT:

The characteristics of JFET are verified and the parameters of FET are determined.

1. Drain resistance rd=

2. Transconductance gm=

3. Amplification factor 𝝁 =

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8
CLASS B PUSH PULL POWER AMPLIFIER
AIM: Wiring and testing of complementary symmetry class B push pull power amplifier and
determine the efficiency.

COMPONENTS / EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Name Specification Qty
Bread board & connecting wires 1 set
Dual Regulated DC Power (0-30) Volts 2
Supply
Transistors SL100 (NPN) & SK100 (PNP) 1 each
DC Ammeter 0-100mA 1
Resistor DRB, 10KΩ, 470Ω(2) 1
CRO 20/30Mhz 1
Function Generator 1Mhz/3Mhz 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: Complementary Symmetry Class B Push-Pull Power Amplifier

THEORY:
Power amplifier is a large signal amplifier, which is capable of providing large
amount of power (typically a few watts to tens of watts) to the load such as loud speaker. A
Power amplifier is usually used in the last stage of multi-stage amplifier system. The signal
level present in the power amplifier is large and the excursion of the operating point extends
beyond the linear range of an amplifier active device characteristics. The Power amplifiers
are classified as Class-A, B, AB, C & D amplifiers.

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In Class-B power amplifier the output current flows for only one half cycle (for 180 0)
of the input signal, since the Q-point lies at the cut-off of the load line. i.e., in class-B power
amplifier transistors are biased at cut-off. When the DC bias voltage is zero the input voltage
signal must exceed the barrier voltage before a transistor conducts and it causes a distortion
in the output signal called as Cross-over distortion. This distortion is eliminated in class-AB
operation.
The conversion efficiency of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of the AC output
power delivered to the load to the DC input power drawn from the dc supply. The maximum
theoretical conversion efficiency of class-B power amplifier is 78.5%.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supplies and set them to 6V.
3. Apply the sinusoidal input signal frequency of 1 KHz and observe the output with
cross- over distortion.
4. Note down the peak-to-peak amplitude of output waveform which is taken as V0.
5. Note down the collector current IC from ammeter.
6. Calculate the dc input power,ac output power and the conversion efficiency using
formulae.

FORMULAE USED:
Conversion Efficiency is given by

𝐴𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Conversion Efficiency %η = × 100%
𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝑎𝑐
%η = × 100%
𝑃𝑑𝑐

EXPECTED I/O WAVEFORMS

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Vcc1 = Vcc2 =Vcc= 6V

P𝒂𝒄
RL( Vop-p IC 𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 × 𝑰𝑪 𝐏𝐚𝐜= %𝛈= ×𝟏00
Ω) (V) (mA) (W) 𝐑𝐋 𝑷d𝒄
(W)
100
200
300
400
500
600

RESULT:
The working of complementary symmetry class B push pull power amplifier is studied and its
efficiency is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is Power Amplifier?

2. How the power amplifiers are classified?
3. Why the name Push Pull amplifier?
4. What do you mean by Class B Push Pull amplifier?
5. Mention the advantages of Class B over Class A amplifier.
6. Define Cross Over Distortion.
7. What are the effects of Cross Over Distortion?
8. Define class A power amplifier?
9. Give the reason why class A power amplifier is called as directly coupled power
amplifier?
10. What is the efficiency of class A power amplifier?
11. In class-A power amplifier, when the maximum power dissipation takes place in the
transistor?
12. List out the different types of distortions?
13. Define Harmonic distortion?
14. What are Class B, Class C and Class AB amplifiers and which type is used for what
application?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 9

COMMON SOURCE JFET AMPLIFIER

AIM: Conducting experiment to plot the frequency response of Common Source JFET
amplifier and to determine its bandwidth.

COMPONENTS / EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Name Specification Qty
Bread board & connecting wires 1 set
Dual Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30) Volts 1
JFET BFW10 1
Resistors 3.3KΩ, 2MΩ & 1KΩ 1each
Capacitors 10μF (2), 47μF 3
CRO 20/30Mhz 1
Function Generator 1Mhz/3Mhz 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:
Field effect transistor is basically a voltage controlled device. The output current of
the device is controlled by the input voltage. FET has an excellent voltage gain and high
input impedance because of high input impedance, the ac equivalent model is simpler than
that of BJT Amplifier.
The circuit given is a FET common source amplifier using self-bias configuration.
This circuit requires only one dc supply to establish the desired operating point. The dc
voltage across RS will serve as the biasing voltage between gate & source terminals.
Cs is the bypass capacitor. For ac operation it creates a short circuit across RS, thus
preventing ac negative feedback through RS. Without Cs, the negative feedback through RS
reduces the voltage gain.
DESIGN:
Given specifications:

IDSS = 12.5mA, Vp= -4.4V, gm = 3.2ms, VGS=-2.5V, AV=10

AV = - gm RD
RD = -AV / gm = -10 / 3.2m = 3.12 KΩ = 3.3KΩ
Let Rg = 2MΩ
VGS = 2.5V
ID = IDSS[1- VGS / VD]
ID = 12.5m[1-2.5 / -4.4] = 2.3mA
IS = ID = 2.3mA
VGS = IS RS
RS = VGS / Is = 2.5 / 2.3m = 1.08KΩ = 1KΩ

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are done as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the drain supply voltage VDD as 24V and input signal as 20mV.
3. By varying the frequency in the signal generator, the corresponding peak to peak
voltage of the output waveform is noted in the tabular column.
4. Calculate the gain corresponding to different values of frequencies.
5. Calculate gain in decibels, Gain dB = 20log 10(Vo/Vi).
6. Plot the graph of gain vs. frequency and find bandwidth

Frequency Response of JFET amplifier

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TABULAR COLUMN: Vi (Constant)

f Vo Av=Vo/Vi Gain in dB= 20 log10 (Vo/Vi)
( in Hz) Volts

CALCULATIONS:
Lower Cut-off Frequency fL=

Upper Cut-off Frequency fH=

Bandwidth, BW = fH–fL= ---------------------------

RESULT:

The frequency response of common source JFET Amplifier was designed and tested

Gain =
Bandwidth =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is FET Biasing?

2. Explain the different types of biasing techniques.
3. Compare the different biasing techniques.
4. What is an Amplifier?
5. How amplifiers are classified?
6. What are the differences between BJT and FET?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10

RC-PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR USING BJT

AIM: Study of design and testing of the RC-Phase shift Oscillator using BJT for the given frequency.

COMPONENTS/APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Required material Specification Qty

Bread board 1
CRO 20/30Mhz 1
Power supply DC +/- 12V or 0-30V 1
Resistors 47K, 1.8K, 8.2K, 470, 2K,5.6K - 2 7
Capacitors 47µf-1, 0.47µf-2,1nF-1 4
Transistor BC 107 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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DESIGN:

Given VCC = 10V, IC = 2mA, β =100

VCE = VCC/2 = 5V

Assume VRE= 10% of VCC =1V

RE = VRE/(IC + IB)
IB = IC/β = 2mA/100 = 20µA
Hence
RE = 495 Choose
RE =470

Applying KVL to collector loop, VCC –ICRC – VCE – VRE= 0

RC = VCC –VCE – VRE= 2K
IC
Choose RC = 1.8K

VB = VR2 = VBE +VRE

9IBR2 = 0.6 +1
R2 = 1.6 / 9x 20µ = 8.8K.
Choose R2 = 8.2K.
R1 = (VCC –VB)/10IB = 42K.
Choose R1 = 47K.
Choose coupling capacitors, CC= 0.47µF.

RC phase shift circuit design:

Frequency of oscillation f0 = 1/( (2  R C)* ( 6 + 4 K ) )

hfe≥ 4K + 23 + 29/K
K=RC/R
Assume hfe=115
Solving for K, we get K=0.32

Therefore R=RC/K =5.625K

Choose R = 5.6K.

For f0=10KHz, K=0.32 and RC=1.8K Then C=1.05nF

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the dc voltage VCC to 12 V and check the dc conditions of the amplifier (without
feedback network)
3. Connect the RC phase shift network and observe the output sinusoidal oscillations on the
CRO
4. Measure the frequency and amplitude of generated sine wave and compare it with
theoretical frequency

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RESULT : The RC Phase Shift Oscillator Circuit is designed and studied. The frequency of
oscillations was found to be,
Theoretical frequency =
Practical frequency =
Amplitude of sine wave =

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is an Oscillator?
2. What is the condition for oscillations?
3. What is a phase shift oscillator?
4. What are the frequency determining components in a phase shift oscillator?
5. Why RC oscillators are not used for highf requencies?
6. Why phase shift oscillator uses three RC pairs?
7. What is the frequency of RC phase shift oscillator?
8. Why RC oscillators cannot generate high frequency oscillations?
9. What are the applications of RC phase shift oscillators?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 11

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR USING BJT

AIM: Study of crystal oscillator and to determine its frequency of oscillation.

COMPONENTS / APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Required material Specification Qty

Bread board 1
CRO 20/30Mhz 1
Power supply DC +/- 12V or 0-30V 1
Resistors 47K, 1.8K, 8.2K, 470 1
Capacitors 47µf-1, 0.47µf-2,22pF - 2 1
Crystal 1MHz 1
Transistor BC109/BC107 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: Crystal Oscillator

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Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The quiescent point of the amplifier is verified for the designed value.
3. Observe the output waveform on CRO.
4. Measure the frequency of oscillation and compare it with crystal frequency.

RESULT :

The Crystal Oscillator Circuit is designed and studied. The amplitude and
frequency of oscillations was determined.

Viva Questions:
1. What is Piezo electric effect?
6. Mention the characteristics of Crystal Oscillator.
7. What are the advantages of crystal oscillator?
8. What are the applications of Crystal Oscillator?
 21EI32 Analog Electronic Circuits Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
AC Voltage Controller using TRIAC & DIAC

Aim: Study of ac voltage control across load using TRIAC & DIAC

Components required: Dimmerstat, 24-0-24V step-down transformer, Voltmeter, TRIAC, DIAC,

100k pot, Resistors 1K 10W, 1K ½ W, Capacitor 0.1µF, CRO

Circuit diagram:

Tabular Column:

Sl. Tα α VL, volts VL, volts

No. m Sec degrees Practical Theoretical

Waveforms across Triac & load

 21EI32 Analog Electronic Circuits Lab Manual

Firing angle v/s load voltage

VL =

Procedure:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Apply the ac input voltage (40-50V) through dimmerstat & step-down transformer.
3. Vary the 100k pot to fire the Triac at different instants.
4. Observe & trace the waveforms across Triac & Load.
5. Tabulate the readings.
6. Plot the graph of firing angle α v/s load voltage