LIGHT

Light is one of a number of known forms of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave
motion. This form of energy travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles per second or 300,000 kilometer
per second in air, but they differ in wavelength and frequency. Wavelength is the distance from the
crest (highest point) to the wave to the next succeeding crest while the Frequency is the number of
waves passing in a given point in one second. The product of the two is the speed of travel.

Wavelength is measured by the angstrom unit or in terms of milli-microns (English System of Measure)
or Nanometer (Metric System of Measure) which is equivalent to one over one millionth of a millimeter.

Four Photographic rays in Modern Photography

 X-rays – radiation having a wavelength between .01 to 30 nm. They are produced by passing an
electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.

 Ultra-violet rays – radiation having a wave length of 30 to 400 nm. It is used to photograph
fingerprints on multi- colored background, documents that are altered chemically, or over
writings, and detection of secrete writings.

 Visible light – rays having a wave length of 400 to 700 nm.

R – 700 nm

O – 620 nm

Y – 580 nm

G - 530 nm

B - 475 nm

I - 450 nm

V - 400 nm

4. Infra-red rays – radiation having a wave length of 700 to 1000nm. It is used in taking photographs of
obliterated writings, burnt or dirty documents, or blackout photography.
Behavior of Lights

Light is constantly in movement and when light comes in contact with a surface, it may be absorbed,
reflected, transmitted, and refracted. The type of light which is reflected from a surface determines our
perception of that surface's color.

1. Absorption

Absorption occurs when light comes in contact with a substance and is engulfed. When light waves
strike an absorptive substance, their energy is transferred into heat. Thus, you can tell when a
substance has absorbed light because it heats up.

2. Reflection

Reflection occurs when light bounces off a shiny surface. The angle of reflection is equal to angle of
incidence. This is the Law of Reflection.

Reflections should be even more familiar to you. You probably use a mirror every day to see your
reflection. You may have also noticed pools of water reflecting the sky or a metal reflecting ball
mirroring the surrounding garden.

3. Transmission

Transmission occurs when light passes through a substance unchanged, as shown. Light is transmitted
through substances (such as glass) which we think of as transparent.

4. Refraction

Refraction occurs when the light ray changes mediums. Light traveling through air and then
going through water is an example of a light ray changing medium. The speed of the light ray changes
when it enters a different medium. In most cases the direction of the light also changes.

When white light passes through a prism, the different colors of light which make up the white light are
bent at different angles. So they come out separately and are visible as a rainbow of colors. Although
the term might be less familiar to you, you deal with refraction on a regular basis.
Rainbows are the result of refracted light, as are the smaller rainbows which come out of prisms.

Refraction is also responsible for the way the handle of the spoon seems to be broken into two pieces in
the image.
Reproduction of Color

Color is product of light. A phenomenon resulting to a visual perception that enables one to
differentiate object.

The media and methods used to reproduce color include color paintings, printing presses, color film,
color monitors, color printers, etc are base on two basic process called additive and Subtractive color
mixture.

Additive Color Mixture

The additive color system involves light emitted directly from a source, before an object reflects the
light. The additive reproduction process mixes various amounts of red, green and blue light to produce
other colors. Combining one of these additive primary colors with another produces the secondary
colors cyan, magenta, yellow.

To illustrate additive color, If we get three projectors with beams of lights projecting individually blue,
green and red and have the three beams overlap over the other, we will note that the portion where the
blue and green lights merges over the other, it will produce a cyan color; green and red lights a yellow
color; and red and blue a magenta color. At the center where the blue, green and red lights were
combined in proper ratio, we see white light. In this aspect, cyan, yellow and magenta are known as the
three secondary colors of light. For practical purpose, white is the presence of all colors.

Television and computer monitors create color using the primary colors of light. Each pixel on a monitor
screen starts out as black. When the red, green and blue phosphors of a pixel are illuminated
simultaneously, that pixel becomes white. This phenomenon is called additive color.

Subtractive color Mixture

Subtractive color involves colorants and reflected light. It uses cyan, magenta and yellow pigments or
dyes to subtract portions of white light illuminating an object to produce other colors. When combined
in equal amounts, pure subtractive primary colors produce the appearance of black.

To illustrate subtractive process, the light beams of the three projectors will be covered each with cyan
filter, yellow filter, and magenta filter and have the beams of light projected one over the other. The
cyan filter will transmit blue and green light but absorbs red from white light. A yellow filter will transmit
green and red light but absorbs blue from white light. Similarly, a magenta filter will transmit red and
blue light but absorbs green from white light. At the center where the three beams of light are merged
together will produce black. For practical purpose, black is the absence of all colors or the absence of
light.
If an object reflects all the white light back to the viewer, it appears white. If an object absorbs
(subtracts) all the light illuminating it, no light is reflected back to the viewer and it appears black. It is
the subtractive process that allows everyday objects around us to show color.

The range of colors which can be produced by subtractive mixture of three dyes is quite larges and
makes it possible the modern process of color photography which depends on the subtractive principle.

SOURCES OF LIGHTS

 Natural Light Source – Those coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly
bodies, lightning, fire, etc., but only one characteristic is considered – the kind of shadow casted
by an object in open space.

 Bright Sunlight – a lighting condition where objects in an open space cast a deep and uniform or
distinct shadow.

 Hazy sunlight – object in open space casts a transparent shadow.

 Dull Sunlight – objects in open space cast no shadow.

 Cloudy Bright – objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly
visible.

 Cloudy Dull – objects in open space cast no shadow and visibly of distant objects are already
limited.

B. Artificial Light Source

1. Continuous Radiation – Incandescent Lamps, Fluorescent lamps, photoflood lamps, etc.,

2. Short duration – Chemical flash (flash bulb) or Electronic flash.

SENSITIZED MATERIALS

FILMS

film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate) coated with an emulsion
containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine
the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film. When the emulsion is sufficiently exposed to light (or
other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays), it forms a latent (invisible) image. Chemical
processes can then be applied to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film developing.
A black and white film is basically made up of emulsion, gray or anti-halation backing and support base.

 Emulsion – consist of crystals of light-sensitive compounds (silver nitrate) evenly distributed

throughout the plastic base material.

 Gray or Anti-Halation Backing – This layer is place between the emulsion and the plastic base of
a film to prevent whatever light that passes through the emulsion and reflected by the base
back to the emulsion which forms a “halo”.

 Base - Generally film base are made of plastic material. They serve as a support of the emulsion.

Characteristic of B&W films

1. Emulsion Speed (Sensitivity of film to light) – The following are indicators;

 ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value.

 DIN ( Deutche Industru Normen) rating which is expressed in logarithmic value

 ISO (International Standard Organization) rating which is expressed in the combined arithmetical
and logarithmic value.

The following are different emulsion speed rating

ASA 12 DIN 12º ISO 12/12

ASA 25 DIN 15º ISO 25/15

ASA 50 DIN 18º ISO 50/18

ASA 100 DIN 21º ISO 100/21

ASA 200 DIN 24º ISO 200/24

ASA 400 DIN 27º ISO 400/27

ASA 800 DIN 30º ISO 800/30

ASA 1600 DIN 33º ISO 1600/33

2. Spectral sensitivity (color or wavelength)

The following are classification of films as according to its spectral sensitivity;

 Blue sensitive Film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.

 Orthochromatic Film – sensitive to UV rays, to Blue and green but not sensitive to red.
  Panchromatic Film – Sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green and red or all colors.

 Infra-red Film – sensitive to UV rays, Blue, green, red and infrared rays.

3. Granularity or Graininess

This refers to the size of metallic silver grains that are formed after development of an
exposed film. Generally, the size of metallic silver grain are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film
and the typed of developing solution that is used in processing. The rule is: the lower the emulsion
speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain and conversely, the higher the emulsions speed rating of
the film, the bigger are the grains. Likewise, a film developer will produce a finer grain than a paper
developer when used for film processing.

Types of Color Films

 Negative or Non-reversal Film

The suffix “color” is given to negative or non-reversal film. This film yields either a negative or a positive
image depending on how it is used. Examples: Kodacolor, fujicolor, Agfacolor, etc.,

 Reversal Film

In photography, reversal film is a type of photographic film that produces a positive image on a
transparent base. The suffix “chrome” is applied to reversal material. This film when processed
produced a positive image or transparency of projection viewing. Examples: Kodachrome, Ektachrome,
Fujechrome, Agfachrome, etc.

Photographic Papers (B & W)

Basically composed of a light sensitive coating (Emulsion) on a paper base of support. The emulsion
suspended on a gelatin is generally made of silver halide salts. To withstand the rigors of soaking in
chemical solutions and water during processing and washing, as well as the variety of degree in humidity
and temperature, the base is made of wood pulp.

When photographic paper is exposed to light it captures a latent image that is then developed
to form a visible image. The light-sensitive layer of the paper is called the emulsion. The print image is
traditionally produced by interposing a photographic negative between the light source and the paper,
either by direct contact with a large negative (forming a contact print) or by projecting the shadow of
the negative onto the paper (producing an enlargement).
Characteristic of Photographic paper

 Emulsion Speed

 Chloride paper – has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.

 Bromide paper – has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or enlarging.

 Chloro-bromide paper - is multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and enlarging.

 Exposure and Development Latitude

Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal exposure of development
without appreciable of print quality.

 Exposure Latitude

Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all
times.

 Development Latitude

Papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in
development has good latitude. However, for best quality the developing time should be as near as
those prescribed by manufacturer.

 Contrast grade or range is indicated by Numbers. #1 #2 #3 #4 #5

 Physical Characteristic - Weight (single, double); Surface (glossy, semi-matte, matte) Color
(White, Cream).

CAMERA

Camera – is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and diaphragm to
control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder
to show the photographer what the image is.

HOW DO CAMERAS WORK?

A basic camera works a lot like your eyes. A camera does the same thing, but it has a shutter
instead of eyelids. When you take a photograph, the shutter quickly opens and shuts. While the shutter
is open, the camera “sees” an image, much like your eyes. The camera captures this picture.

The principles of photography derived from science and the images on the film or paper made
by the rays or light through the camera are dependent on the same general laws which produce image
upon the retina through the lens of the eye.
 In many aspects, the eye is like a camera. The eye is of organic evolution, while the camera is of
technological evolution

ANATOMY OF CAMERA

When you take photograph, the film is exposed to light. The quality of photograph depends on how
much light reaches the film and how long the film is exposed to light. Two major part of the camera
controls the exposure, aperture size and shutter speed. The size of the aperture controls the amount of
light reaches the film. As you increase the size of the aperture, you increase the amount of light that can
reach the film. It also determines the photographs’ depth of field, that is how many object at varying
distances remain in focus. Smaller aperture size produces greater depth of field, more object remain in
focus.

Shutter speed also control exposure, a slow shutter speed allows more lights that can reach to
film. Shutter speed also control moving object. Fast moving object appear blurred if it is taken by slow
shutter speed.

The exposure is control by a combination of shutter speed and aperture size to produce final
image.

Parts of the Camera and Functions;

1. Box or light tight box – suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure which would prevent light
from exposing the sensitized materials inside the camera.

2. Lens – the function of the lens is to focus the light coming from subject. It is chiefly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure.

3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for a pre-determined
intervals of time, which light is again blocked off from the film.

4. Holder of sensitized materials – located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to hold firmly
the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred
image of the subject.

5. Viewfinder – it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent of the covering
of the lens.

Classification of Camera according to the size of film used;

 Large format camera

These cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4x5, 5x7, and 8x10.

 Medium format Camera

Some of these camera are folding type with bellows and some are rigid-body with film size of 120, 220,
70 mm. The double lens reflex camera falls under this category.

 Small format Cameras

Thos with film size 126, 110, 35mm, 16mm, and 8 mm.

Classification of Camera according to its design and function

 View Camera

 System Camera

Its rigid body design accepts a wide variety of lenses, viewers, film backs, and accessories (hundred of
them) can be attached or integrated to adapt to scientific, technical, architectural, astronomical,
underwater, and many other kinds of photography. Ex. Single Lens Reflex Camera

 Digital Cameras

 Those with fixed Memory

 Those with removable Memory

Digital photography

It uses an array of electronic photodetectors within digital camera to capture the image focused
by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured image is then digitized and
stored as a computer file ready for digital processing, viewing, digital publishing or printing.

Until the advent of such technology, photographs were made by exposing light sensitive
photographic film, and used chemical photographic processing to develop and stabilize the image. By
contrast, digital photographs can be displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and archived
using digital and computer techniques, without chemical processing.

Digital photography is one of several forms of digital imaging. Digital images can be made by
scanning other photographic images. A digital image is a numeric representation (normally binary) of a
two-dimensional image.

The quality of a digital image is a composite of various factors, many of which are similar to
those of film cameras. Pixel count (typically listed in megapixels, millions of pixels) is only one of the
major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit.

Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same
number of pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one.

The number of pixels for a given maximum resolution is the product of horizontal pixels and
vertical pixels. This would mean, a camera with 1.92 MP is consisted of 1,920,000 pixels.
Formula:

n =wxh

n = The number of pixels

w = horizontal pixels

h = vertical pixels

for an image of 1.92 megapixel

w = 1600 pixels

h = 1200 pixels

n = 1600 x 1200

n = 1,920,000 MP

Sensors and storage

Image sensors read the intensity of light, and digital memory devices store the digital image
information as RGB color space or as raw data.

The two main types of sensors are charge-coupled devices (CCD), and complementary metal–
oxide–semiconductor CMOS or active pixel sensors.

Nearly all digital cameras use built-in and/or removable solid state flash memory. Digital
tapeless camcorders that double as a digital still cameras use flash memory, discs and internal hard
drives. Certain 20th century digital cameras such as the Sony Mavica range used floppy disks and mini-
CDs.

MAJOR PARTS OF DIGITAL CAMERA

1. Body - Made of high grade plastic or metal, this holds all the other parts together as well as provide
protection to the delicate internal parts of the camera.

2. Lens - A proper term for this part should be Lens Assembly, this consists of several layers of lenses of
varying properties providing zoom, focusing, and distortion correction. These lenses are mechanically
interconnected and adjustment is controlled electronically by the camera's body.

3. Shutter Release Button - This is the "trigger" of the camera. In most cameras, a half-press activates
and locks the auto-focus, and a full press initiates the image capturing process.
4. Mode Dial - Contains several symbols (slightly different on various camera models), this dial allows
you to select a shooting mode, automatic or manual or a choice between one of the pre-defined
settings.

5. Viewfinder - A small viewing window that shows the image that the camera's imaging sensor sees.
This can either be an optical view finder, which shows the actual image in front of the camera through a
peep hole or through mirrors, or an electronic view finder which is simply a small LCD display.

6. Aperture Ring - Found around the old manual lens of SLR camera this is used to select an aperture
opening. In modern lenses, the aperture is controlled electronically through the body.

7. Focusing Ring - This can also be found around the lens of a DSLR camera. This is turned to manually
focus the lens.

8. LCD Display - In some compact cameras this acts as the viewfinder. This is a small screen (usually 1.8"
diagonally or bigger) at the back of the camera which can be used for framing or for reviewing the
recorded pictures.

9. Flash - Built-in on the body of most compact and some DSLR cameras this can either be fixed or flip
type, it provides an instantaneous burst of bright light to illuminate a poorly lit scene.

10. Control Buttons - Usually includes a set of directional keys and a few other buttons to activate
certain functions and menus, this is used to let users interact with the camera's computer system.

11. Power Switch - Turns On or Off the camera. This may also contain a Record / Play Mode selector on
some cameras.

12. Zoom Control - Usually marked with W and T, which stands for "Wide" and "Tele" respectively, this is
used to control the camera's lenses to zoom-in or zoom-out. For DSLR cameras, the zoom is usually
controlled by a zoom ring in the lens.

13. Battery Compartment - Holds the batteries. Depending on the camera model, this varies in size and
shape.

14. Memory Card Slot - This is where expansion memory cards are inserted. The proper position of the
card are often indicated. A mechanical catch usually holds the card in place and a spring helps it eject.

15. Flash Mount (Hot-Shoe) - Standard holder with contact plates for optional Flash accessory.

16. Diopter Adjuster - Usually available in mid to high end sub-compact cameras and DSLRs located
besides the viewfinder. This varies the focal length of the lens in the viewfinder to make even people
wearing eyeglasses to see clearly through it even without the eyeglasses.

17. Tripod Mount - Here is where your standard Tripod or Monopod is attached for added stability.
Types of conventional Camera

1. Box Type – this is called instamatic and is simple to operate and least expensive of all cameras. All you
have to do is load the film, aim and snap. Everything more than five or six feet away will be in focus. This
is ideal for snapshot photography.

2. Polaroid Camera – “Instant Photography” is what you get with a Polaroid camera. Seconds after you
have snapped the shutter, a permanent black and white or color print come out.

3. 35 MM rangefinder – the viewing system of a rangefinder is a step up the ladder from the optical
viewfinder common to box camera and Polaroid.

4. Single lens Reflex Camera - The most ideal type of camera for forensic photography because it has
capability of interchangeability of lenses and a wide range of accessories can be attached to its body.

5. Twin-lens reflex camera – It has two lenses, one above the other but the bottom lens takes the
picture. These cameras sometimes create an error called parallax.

6. Ultraminiature camera- This is more popularly known as spy camera which is lightweight and
compact model and can be concealed in the palm of the hand. It used 16 mm film or smaller sized.

7. View camera – This is standard equipment for the professional studio photographer.