C HAPTER 1

Basic Concepts

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Energy conversion means converting one form of energy into another form. An electric generator
converts mechanical energy (drawn from prime mover through shaft) into electric energy. An electric
motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy (which drives mechanical load e.g. fan, lathe
etc.).
Electric generators and motors operate by virtue of induced emf. The induction of emf is based on
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Every generator and motor has a stator (which remains
stationary) and rotor (which rotates).

1.2 FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Michael Faraday demonstrated through his experiments that an emf is induced in a circuit when the
magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit changes with respect to time. In 1831, he proposed the following
law known as Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
dλ Ndφ
e= = ...(1.1)
dt dt
where
e = emf induced, volts
λ = flux linkage, weber turns
N = number of turns in the winding
φ = flux, webers
t = time, seconds.

1.3 LENZ’S LAW

Every action causes an equal and opposite reaction. The fact that this is true in electromagnetism, was
discovered by Emil Lenz. The Lenz’s law states that the induced current always develops a flux which
opposes the motion (or the change producing the induced current). This law refers to induced currents
and thus implies that it is applicable to closed circuits only. If the circuit is open, we can find the
direction of induced emf by thinking in terms of the response if it were closed.
2 Energy Conversion

The motion of a conductor in a field causes an induced emf in the conductor and energy is gener-
ated. This is possible if work is done in moving the conductor through the field. If work is to be done,
a force must oppose the motion of conductor. This opposing force is due to flux set up by induced
current. Figure 1.1a illustrates Lenz’s law. The motion of conductor causes the deflection of galvanom-
eter to the left. This indicates that direction of induced emf and current are as shown. The current causes
a flux in the clockwise direction as shown. This flux strengthens the magnetic field above the conductor
and weakens that below it. Thus a force in the downward direction acts on the conductor (Fig. 1.1b).
The motion of the conductor is opposed by the magnetic flux due to induced current.
Since induced emf opposes the change in flux, a negative sign is sometimes added in Eq. (1.1). If
it is kept in view that direction of induced emf is such as to oppose the change in flux, there is no need
of negative sign.

Motion Field Force

N
S

N S
I

Flux due to
Magnetic Poles
Motion
Flux due to Motion
current in
Conductor

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.1 Motion of a conductor in a magnetic field.

1.4 METHODS OF LINKING FLUX

The induction of emf requires a conductor, a magnetic field and linking or cutting of flux by the
conductor. The linking of magnetic field by the conductor can occur in three ways:
(1) Moving conductor and stationary permanent magnet or dc electromagnet. This configuration is
used in all dynamos, generators and motors.
(2) Moving dc electromagnet and stationary conductor. This configuration is used in large ac genera-
tors and motors.
Basic Concepts 3

(3) Stationary conductor, stationary electromagnet and variation of flux by feeding alternating cur-
rent to the magnet. This configuration is used in transformers.

1.5 MOTIONAL EMF (DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF OR SPEED EMF)

Figure 1.2 shows three conductors a, b, c moving in a magnetic field of flux density B in the directions
indicated by arrow. Conductor a is moving in a direction perpendicular to its length and perpendicular
to the flux lines. Therefore it cuts the lines of force and a motional emf is induced in it. Let the
conductor move by a distance dx in a time dt. If the length of conductor is l, the area swept by the
conductor is l dx. Then change in flux linking the coil
= dφ = B ⋅ l ⋅ dx
Since there is only one conductor
dφ B l dx
e= =
dt dt
Since dx/dt is v, i.e. velocity of conductor
e = Bl v volts ...(1.2)

a b c

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.2 Motion of a conductor in a magnetic field.

where e = emf induced, volts

B = flux density, tesla
v = velocity of conductor, metres/second
l = length of conductor, metres.
The motion of conductor b (Fig. 1.2b) is at an angle θ to the direction of the field. If the conductor
moves by a distance dx, the component of distance travelled at right angles to the field is (dx sin θ) and,
proceeding as above, the induced emf is
e = Bl v sin θ volts ...(1.3)
Equation (1.3) includes Eq. (1.2) because when θ = 90°, the two equations become identical. In Fig.
1.2 (c) the motion of conductor c is parallel to the field. Therefore, in this case, no flux is cut, θ is zero
4 Energy Conversion

and induced emf is also zero. Dynamically induced emf is also known as speed emf or motional emf
or rotational emf.
Equation (1.2) can also be written in a more general vectorial form:
The force F on a particle of charge Q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field B is
F=Q v×Bb g N ...(1.4)
Dividing F by Q we get the force per unit charge, i.e. electric field E, as
F
E= =v×B volts/m ...(1.5)
Q
The electric field E is in a direction normal to the plane containing v and B. If the charged particle
is one of the many electrons in a conductor moving across the magnetic field, the emf e between the end

z zb
points of conductor is line integral of electric field E, or
e = E ⋅ dl = g
v × B ⋅ dl ...(1.6)

where e = emf induced, volts

E = electric field, volts/m
dl = elemental length of conductor, m
v = velocity of conductor, metres/second
B = flux density, tesla.
Equation (1.6) is the same as Eq. (1.3), but written in a more general form. If v, B and dl are
mutually perpendicular, Eq. (1.6) reduces to Eq. (1.2).

1.6 STATICALLY INDUCED EMF (OR TRANSFORMER EMF)

Statically induced emf (also known as transformer emf) is induced by variation of flux. It may be (a)
mutually induced or (b) self induced.
A mutually induced emf is set up in a coil whenever the flux produced by a neighbouring coil
changes. However, if a single coil carries alternating current, its flux will follow the changes in the
current. This change in flux will induce an emf known as self-induced emf in the coil, the word ‘self’
signifying that it is induced due to a change in its own current. The magnitude of statically induced emf
may be found by the use of Eq. (1.1). It is also known as transformer emf, since it is induced in the
windings of a transformer.
Equation (1.1) can also be put in a more general form. The total flux linkages λ of a coil is equal

zz
to the integral of the normal component of flux density B over the surface bounded by the coil, or
λ= B ⋅ ds ...(1.7)

The surface over which the integration is carried out is the surface bounded by the periphery of the
coil. Thus, induced emf

e=
dλ d
=
dt dt zz B ⋅ ds

or e=
d
dt z
B ⋅ ds
s
...(1.8)
Basic Concepts 5

When the coil is stationary or fixed

e= z
s
∂B
∂t
⋅ ds ...(1.9)

where e = emf induced, volts

B = flux density, tesla
ds = element of area, m2
t = time, seconds.

1.7 GENERAL CASE OF INDUCTION

Equation (1.6) gives the speed emf, while Eq. (1.9) gives the transformer emf. When flux is changing
with time and relative motion between coil (or conductor) and flux also exists, both these emfs are
induced and the total induced emf e is

e= zb g
v × B ⋅ dl − z
s
∂B
∂t
⋅ ds ...(1.10)

The first term in Eq. (1.10) is the speed emf and line integral is taken around the coil or conductor.
The second term is the transformer emf and the surface integral is taken over the entire surface bounded
by the coil. In a particular case, either or both of these emfs may be present. The negative sign in Eq.
(1.10) in due to Lenz’s law.
Example 1.1 A wire 75 cm long moves at right angles to its length at 60 m/s in a uniform field of flux
density 1.3 T. Find the emf induced when the motion is (a) perpendicular to the field, (b) parallel to the
field and (c) inclined at 60° to the direction of field.
Solution
e = B l v sin θ
(a) e = (1.3) (0.75) (60) (1) = 58.5 V
(b) Since motion is parallel to the field, no cutting of flux takes place and e = 0.
(c) e = (1.3) (0.75) (60) (sin 60°) = 50.66 V.
Example 1.2 A conductor 40 cm long lies along x-axis. A magnetic field of flux density 0.04 T is directed
along y-axis. What should be the direction of motion of the conductor, if maximum emf is to be induced
in it? Velocity = 4 sin 103 t, m/s.
Solution
The motion should be perpendicular to the length of conductor as well as perpendicular to the field.
Therefore the motion should be along z-axis for induced emf to be maximum.

b gb g e
e = B l v = 0.04 0.4 4 sin 10 3 t j
or e = 0.064 sin 10 3 t volts.

Example 1.3 An aeroplane having a wing span of 52 m is flying horizontally at 800 km/hr. If the vertical
component of earth’s magnetic field is 38 × 10−6 T, find the emf generated between the wing tips.
6 Energy Conversion

Solution
B = 38 × 10 −6 T, θ = 90° , l = 52 m

v = 800 km hr = 222.2 m/s

e j b gb
e = B l v sin θ = 38 × 10 −6 52 222.2 1 = 0.44 volts.gb g
Example 1.4 A rectangular loop of width l and length x is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field
B = B0 cos ωt. The motion of loop is perpendicular to field and is along the length. Find the emf
induced.
Solution
Because of motion of loop, a speed emf will be induced. Since flux is changing with time, a statically
induced emf will also be induced.
The speed emf er is
er = v l B0 cos ωt
The statically induced emf et is

et = − z
s
∂B
∂t
⋅ ds = ωx l B0 sin ωt

Total emf = er + et
= vB0 l cos ωt + ωx lB0 sin ωt

b g b g
0.5
2
= B0 l v 2 + ωx sin ωt + δ

where b g
δ = tan −1 v ωx .

Example 1.5 A circular coil of 200 turns with a mean diameter of 30 cm is rotated about a vertical axis
in the earth’s field at 32 revolutions per second. Find the instantaneous value of induced emf in the
coil, when its plane is (a) parallel, (b) perpendicular and (c) inclined at 30° to the magnetic meridian
(H = 14.3 AT/m).
Solution
When a coil rotates in a magnetic field, the instantaneous value of induced emf is
e = N ωφ sin θ
where N = number of turns
ω = angular speed, rad/sec
φ = flux, Wb
θ = angle between field and direction of rotation
(a) When plane of the coil is parallel to the field, the rotation will be perpendicular to the field, i.e.
θ = 90°
φ = B × area = µ 0 H × area
Basic Concepts 7

e j b gb gb g
= 4 π × 10 −7 14.3 π 0.15
2

= 12.7 × 10 −7 Wb

b g
ω = 32 2 π rad sec

e = b200gb32 gb2 πg e12.7 × 10 j = 0.051 V

−7

(b) θ = 0 and e = 0
(c) θ = 60°
e = 0.051 sin 60 = 0.0044 V.

Example 1.6 The total flux at the end of a long bar magnet is 200 × 10−6 Wb. The end of the magnet
1
is withdrawn through a 1200 turn coil in second. Find the generated emf.
150
Solution

ge j
200 × 10 −6
e=N
dφ
dt
= 1200 b1 150
= 36 V.

Example 1.7 An iron core is circular in shape. The cross-sectional area is 5 cm2 and length of magnetic
path is 15 cm. It has two coils A and B. Coil A has 100 turns and coil B has 500 turns. The current in
coil A is changed from zero to 10 A in 0.1 sec. Find the emf induced in Coil B. The relative permeability
of core material is 300.
Solution
MMF = 10 × 100 = 1000 AT
MMF 1000
H= = = 6666.67 AT m
length 0.15

B = µ 0 µ r H = 4 π × 10 −7 × 300 × 6666.67
= 2.513 T
φ = B × A = 2.513 × 5 × 10 −4 = 12.565 × 10 −4 Wb
Therefore, induced emf

FG dφ IJ = b500g FG 12.565 × 10 IJ = 6.2825 V.

−4
e=N
H dt K H 0.1 K
1.8 COEFFICIENT OF INDUCTANCE
(a) Self-Inductance
The change in current through a coil causes a change in flux. This change in flux induces an emf in the
coil. This self induced emf can be written as
8 Energy Conversion

di
e=L ...(1.11)
dt
where e = emf induced, volts
di
= rate of change of current, A/s
dt
L = coefficient of self inductance, H.
L, the coefficient of self inductance or simply inductance has the units of henry (symbol H). The
inductance of a coil is 1 H if an emf of one volt is induced in it when the current through it changes at
the rate of 1 A/sec. By Lenz’s law, this emf is in a direction so as to oppose the external emf, which is
driving current through the coil.
From Eqs. (1.1) and (1.11)
di dφ
e=L =N
dt dt

dφ
or L=N ...(1.12)
di
If rate of change of flux is constant, then
dφ φ
=
di i

Nφ
and L=
i

MMF Ni
Since φ= =
Reluctance l µa

LM Ni OP
Therefore L=NN
al µaf Q = N µa 2
...(1.13)
i l

(b) Mutual Inductance

When the flux of one coil links another coil, a mutually induced emf appears across the second coil. By
Lenz’s law, this is also a counter emf. The mutually induced emf can be written as
di
e=M ...(1.14)
dt
where e is the emf induced in the second coil, di/dt is the rate of change of current in the first coil and
M is the coefficient of self-inductance or simply mutual inductance (units henry). The mutual induct-
ance between two coils is 1 H if a current changing at the rate of 1 A/s in one coil induces an emf of
1 volt in the second coil.
Basic Concepts 9

Example 1.8 The current in a coil decreases from 20 A to 5 A in 0.1 sec. If the self-inductance of coil
is 3 H, find the induced emf.
Solution
di 20 − 5 FG IJ
e=L
dt
=3
0.1 H
= 450 V.
K
Example 1.9 A flux of 5 × 10−4 Wb is created by a current of 10 A flowing through a 150 turn coil. Find
the inductance of the coil corresponding to a complete reversal of current in 0.2 sec. Also find the
induced emf.
Solution

L=N
dφ
= 150
LM
5 × 10 −4 × 2
= 75 × 10 −4 H
OP
di 10 × 2 MN PQ
di
= 75 × 10 −4
10 × 2 LM OP
e=L
dt 0.2 N
= 0.75 V.
Q
Example 1.10 An air cored coil is required to be 3.5 cm long and to have an average cross-sectional
area of 3 cm2. The coil should have an inductance of 700 µH. Find the number of turns needed.
Solution
N 2µrµ0a
L=
l

L b Lgblg OP
N=M
0.5
L 700 × 10 × 3.5 × 10 OP
=M
−6 −2
0.5

or
MN µ µ a PQ
r 0 MN1 × 4π × 10 × 3 × 10 PQ−7 −4

= 255 turns.

Example 1.11 Two identical 1000 turns coils X and Y lie in parallel planes such that 60% of flux
produced by one coil links the other. A current of 5 A in coil X produces in it a flux of 0.05 m Wb. If
current in X changes from +10 A to −10 A in 0.02 sec, find the emf induced in coil Y, self-inductance
of each coil and mutual inductance.
Solution

L=N
φ
= 1000
LM
0.05 × 10 −3
= 0.01 H
OP
i 5 MN PQ
Since the coils are similar, self-inductance of each coil is 0.01 H
k = coefficient of coupling = 0.6

b
M =k L×L g 0.5
= 0.006 H
10 Energy Conversion

di
emf induced in coil Y = M
dt

20
= 0.006 × = 6 V.
0.02

1.9 FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Figure 1.3 (a) shows a conductor lying in a magnetic field of flux density B. The conductor is carrying
a current (entering the page). This current sets up a flux in clockwise direction. The external field is in
a downward direction. As seen in Fig. 1.3 (a) the field of the conductor assists the external field on the
right hand side of the conductor and opposes it on the left hand side. This produces a force on the
conductor towards left. If the direction of current is reversed (Fig. 1.3 (b)), the flux due to this current
assumes counter-clockwise direction and the force on the conductor is towards right. In both cases, the
force is in a direction perpendicular to both the conductor and the field and is maximum if the conductor
is at right angles to the field. The magnitude of this force is
F = B I l newtons ...(1.15)
where B is flux density in tesla, I is current is amperes and l is the length of conductor in metres.
If the conductor is inclined at an angle θ to the magnetic field, the force is
F = B I l sin θ newtons ...(1.16)

Magnetic
Magnetic Field
Field

Force Force

Flux due to Flux due to

current in current in
Conductor Conductor

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3 Force on a conductor in a magnetic field (a) current into the page, (b) current out of the page.
Basic Concepts 11

1.10 TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Figure 1.4 shows a coil carrying I and lying in a magnetic field of flux density B. From the discussion
in Sec. 1.9, it is seen that an upward force is exerted on the right hand conductor and a downward force
on the left hand conductor. Equation (1.15) gives the force on each conductor and the total force is
I

Force

N r S

Force
Flux

Fig. 1.4 Torque on a coil in a magnetic field.

F = 2 B I l newtons
If the coil has N turns, the total force is
F = 2 N B I l newtons
The torque is acting at a radius of r metres and is given by
Torque = 2 N B I lr newtons - metres ...(1.17)
The configuration of Fig. 1.4 is the basic moving part in an electrical measuring instrument. An electric
motor also works on this principle.
Example 1.12 A 50 cm long conductor is carrying 5 A current and is situated at right angles to a field
having a flux density of 1.1 T. Find the force on the conductor.
Solution
F = B I l newtons

b gb gb g
= 11
. 5 0.5 = 2.75 N.

Example 1.13 A 300-turn coil having an axial length of 8 cm and radius 2 cm is pivoted in a magnetic
field of flux density 1.1 T. Find the torque on the coil if I = 2A.
Solution
Torque = 2 N B I l r N-m

b gb gb g e je
. 2 8 × 10 −2 2 × 10 −2
= 2 300 11 j
= 2.112 N-m.
12 Energy Conversion

1.11 FLEMING’S RIGHT-HAND RULE

The direction (polarity) of dynamically induced emf can be determined by the following rule, known
as Fleming’s right hand rule:
“Hold the thumb, the first and the second (or middle) finger of the right hand at right angles to each
other. If the thumb points to the direction of motion and first finger to the direction of the field, the
second finger will point in the direction of induced emf ” (i.e. the second finger will point to the positive
terminal of emf or will indicate the direction of current flow if the ends of the conductor are connected
to external circuit).

1.12 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

The direction of force on a current carrying conductor, situated in a magnetic field, can be found from
Fleming’s left hand rule:
“Hold the thumb, the first and the second (or middle) finger of the left hand at right angles to each
other. If the first finger points to the direction of field and the second finger to the direction of current,
the thumb will point to the direction of force or motion.”

1.13 GENERATOR AND MOTOR ACTION

It is seen from Blv and BlI equations that generator and motor actions are based on the physical
reactions on conductors situated in magnetic fields. When a relative motion between conductor and
field exists, an emf is generated in the conductor and when a conductor carries current and is situated
in a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the conductor. Both generator and motor actions take place
simultaneously in the windings of a rotating machine. Both generators and motors have current carry-
ing conductors in a magnetic field. Thus both torque and speed voltage are produced. Within the
winding it is not possible to distinguish between the generator and motor action without finding the
direction of power flow. Constructionally a generator and motor of one category are basically identical
and differ only in details necessary for its best operation for intended service. Any generator or motor
can be used for energy conversion in either direction.
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The torque produced, in a generator,
is a counter torque opposing rotation. The prime mover must overcome this counter torque. An increase
(or decrease) in electrical power output means an increase (or decrease) in counter torque, which finally
results in an increase (or decrease) in torque supplied by the prime mover to the generator.
A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The speed voltage generated in the
conductors is a counter or back emf, which opposes the applied voltage. It is through the mechanism
of back emf that a motor adjusts its electrical input to meet an increase (or decrease) in mechanical load
on the shaft.

1.14 INTERACTION OF MAGNETIC FIELDS, PRODUCTION OF TORQUE

The operation of a rotating electric machine can also be regarded as interaction between two magnetic
fields. All rotating machines have two basic parts: stator (which remains stationary and is fixed through
the frame to the foundations) and rotor, which is free to rotate. Each of them carries a winding and a
magnetic field. The machine action is due to the result of these two fields trying to line up, so that the
centre line of a north pole on one part is directly opposite the centre line of a south pole on the other
part.
Basic Concepts 13

Axis of
Stator Field

N
Axis of
Rotor Field
δ
S
Air gap
N

Fig. 1.5 Interaction of stator and rotor magnetic fields.

Figure 1.5 shows the simplified construction of a two-pole machine. Both sets of poles are non-
salient. A practical machine may have salient or non-salient poles on rotor or stator or both. The axes
of the two fields do not necessarily remain fixed in space or with respect to the part producing it.
However, in all machines flux per pole in constant.
Torque is produced by the interaction of the two magnetic fields. In Fig. 1.5 the north and south
poles of rotor are attracted by south and north poles (and repelled by north and south poles) of the
stator, resulting in a torque in the counter-clockwise direction. The same magnitude of torque is exerted
on both rotor and stator structures. The torque on the stator is transmitted, through the frame, to the
foundations.
The magnitude of the torque in proportional to product of the field strengths of the two fields. The
angle δ between the axes of the two fields is known as torque or power angle. For sinusoidal variation
of flux in the air gap (i.e. flux density varying sinusoidally with distance around the gap periphery) the
torque is also proportional to sin δ.
Example 1.14 Using the concept of interaction of magnetic fields, show the electromagnetic torque
cannot be developed, (a) if rotor has 4 poles and stator has 2 poles; (b) if rotor has 2 poles and stator
has 4 poles.
Axis of
Stator Field

N1 S1
Centre line
of
S2 N2 Rotor Poles

Air gap

Fig. 1.6
14 Energy Conversion

Solution
(a) Figure 1.6 shows the configuration. The axes of the rotor fields are at an arbitrary angle with
respect to the axis of stator field. On the N1N2 axis, the pole N1 is repelled by pole N and attracted
by pole S producing a counter-clockwise torque. The pole N2 is repelled by N pole and attracted
by S pole producing an equal clockwise torque. Hence the net torque is zero. A similar situation
exists on S1S2 axis. Therefore no net electromagnetic torque is produced.

Axis of
N1 Rotor Field

N
S2 S1
S
Air gap

N2

Fig. 1.7

(b) Figure 1.7 shows the configuration. The pole N is repelled by N1 and attracted by S1 producing a
clockwise torque. The pole S is repelled by S2 and attracted by N2 producing an equal counter-
clockwise torque. The net torque is zero.
Whenever the number of poles on rotor and stator are different, net torque is always zero. The
conclusion is that all rotating machines (generators and motors) must have the same number of poles
on the stator and rotor for steady unidirectional torque.

1.15 HYSTERESIS LOSS

When a specimen of ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetisation, the hysteresis
loop is obtained. The salient feature of hysteresis loop is the delayed re-orientation of the domains in
response to a cyclically varying magnetising force. The process of magnetisation and demagnetisation
of a ferromagnetic material in a cyclic manner involves storage and release of energy which is not
completely reversible. As a material is magnetised during each half-cycle, it is found that the amount
of energy stored in the magnetic field exceeds that which is released upon demagnetisation. The differ-
ence between the energy absorbed when H increases from zero to Hmax and the energy released when
H decreases from Hmax to zero represents the energy which is not returned to the source but is dissipated
as heat as the domains are re-aligned in response to changing magnetic field intensity. This dissipation
of energy is known as hysteresis loss. As H varies over one complete cycle, the area of the hysteresis
loop gives the energy loss per cubic metre of material, i.e.
Energy loss in J/m3/cycle = Area of hysteresis loop.
In evaluating the performance of electric machines, it is necessary to express hysteresis loss in watts.
This can be done as under:
Energy loss
Area of hysteresis loop =
Volume × Cycles
Basic Concepts 15

Power loss × Seconds Power loss

= =
Volume × Cycles Volume × Cycle sec
or Hysteresis power loss = [Area of hysteresis loop] (volume) (f)
In order to eliminate the need of finding area of hysteresis loop, Steinmitz evolved an empirical
formula, based on his experiments, for calculating hysteresis loss. This formula is

b
Ph = kh volume f Bmgb gb g n
...(1.18)
where Ph = Hysteresis loss in watts
f = frequency in Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, T
n varies from 1.5 to 2.5 depending on the material used. Typical value of n for grain oriented silicon
sheet steel used for electrical machines is 1.6. The constant kh also depends on the material. Some
typical values are: cast steel 0.025; silicon sheet steel 0.001; permalloy 0.0001. For a particular ma-
chine, the volume of material is also constant, so that Ph can be written as
Ph = K h fBmn ...(1.19)

where b g bvolume of materialg

K h = kh

1.16 EDDY CURRENT LOSS

A voltage is induced in a conductor when it is situated in a changing magnetic field. To produce strong
magnetic effects, coils of electromagnets are wound on iron cores. When the current in the coil of an
electromagnet is changing, the core constitutes a conductor in a changing magnetic field. Voltages are
induced in the core and circulating currents are caused to flow. These circulating currents are called
eddy currents. The flow of these currents causes losses — a waste of energy and heating of core. Figure
1.8 illustrates flow of eddy currents.
In dc circuits, eddy current loss is not serious, since an induced voltage is produced only when the
circuit is switched on or off. However, in ac circuits, the flux changes continuously and eddy current
loss becomes appreciable.
It has been found that eddy currents travel cross-wise in the cores. The magnitude of eddy currents
can be reduced to a very small value by increasing the cross-sectional resistance of the iron. The cores
are made of thin sheets called laminations. Each lamination is about 0.5 mm thick and is insulated from
the others by a coating of oxides or varnish or both, so that it offers a high resistance to the flow of eddy
currents. The use of laminated cores reduces the active cross-sectional area by a small amount (about
5-10%) due to thickness of insulation. If a laminated core is taken apart, care must be exercised not to
impair the insulations between the laminations. Otherwise when the core is re-assembled and used,
large eddy currents may flow and heat the core.
Eddy current loss is given by
b
Pe = ke f 2 Bm2 t 2 volume g ...(1.20)
where Pe = eddy current loss, watts
f = frequency, Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, T
16 Energy Conversion

Eddy
current

Core

Coil

Flux

Fig. 1.8 Flow of eddy currents in iron core.

t = thickness of laminations
ke = constant depending on material
For a particular machine ke, t2 and volume can be combined into a single constant Ke so that
Pe = Ke Bm2 f 2 ...(1.21)
Taken together the hysteresis and eddy current loss is known as core-loss or iron-loss. Since
frequency and maximum flux density are constant, the core-loss in a machine is constant.

1.17 ENERGY BALANCE

In all electro-mechanical energy conversion devices, energy in one form is converted into another form.
A part of the energy input is converted into losses and dissipated as heat. All these devices have a
magnetic field which can store electrical energy. The energy balance equation for a motor can be
written as
Electrical Energy Input = Mechanical energy output + increase in energy stored in magnetic field +
energy converted into heat ...(1.22)
The above equation is valid for a generator also, if the electrical energy input and mechanical
energy output are taken as negative.
Basic Concepts 17

It is always convenient to treat the magnetic energy storage elements as lossless and represent the
losses by external elements. Therefore the energy balance equation can be written as
dWe = dWm + dW f ...(1.23)
where dWe = differential electrical energy input
dWm = differential mechanical energy output
and dWf = differential change in energy stored in magnetic field
The electrical energy dWe equals e i dt, where e is the voltage induced by the changing magnetic
field. It is through this voltage e that the external electric system supplies energy to the coupling
magnetic field and finally to the mechanical load. All electro-mechanical conversion devices employ
the magnetic field and its action and reaction on the electrical and mechanical systems.

1.18 LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

Every electro-mechanical energy conversion is accompanied by losses. A study of these losses is
necessary because of two reasons. Firstly, the losses influence the operating cost of the machine.
Secondly, the losses determine the heating of the machine and hence fix the machine rating or power
output, which can be obtained without deterioration of the insulation due to over-heating. The various
losses in rotating machines are:
(a) Copper-loss or I2 R loss in the rotor and stator windings. To calculate the losses the resistances of
the windings should be taken at the operating temperature, which is assumed to be 75°C.
(b) Iron losses, i.e. hysteresis and eddy current losses as discussed in sections 1.15 and 1.16. These
losses are constant.
(c) Mechanical or friction and windage losses. These losses are also constant unless speed varies
appreciably.
(d) Stray load losses, which mean additional hysteresis and eddy current losses arising from any
distortion in flux distribution caused by the load current. These losses are difficult to measure and
are usually taken as 1% of the machine output.
Power Output
Efficiency = ...(1.24)
Power Input
For a motor, especially the large ones, it is difficult to measure mechanical power output. Therefore
Power Input − losses
Efficiency of motor = ...(1.25)
Power Input
For a generator, it is almost impossible to measure power input. Therefore
Power Output
Efficiency of generator = ...(1.26)
Power Output + losses

1.19 LOAD TYPES

The characteristics of a motor have to match the characteristics of the load which the motor is driving.
These loads can be divided into four main types viz