Chapter 13

Sampling

Dr Tasneem faiez alrabee

Learning Objectives:

1. Define sampling sample, population, element, sampling unit, and subject.

2. Discuss statistical terms in sampling
3. Describe and discuss the sampling process
4. Compare and contrast specific probability sampling designs
5. Compare and contrast specific nonprobability sampling design
6. Discuss the factors to be taken into consideration of determining sample size and
determine the sample size for any given research project.
7. Discuss the role of the manager in sampling.
• Experimental designs and surveys are useful and powerful in finding answers to
research questions through data collection and subsequent analyses, but they
can do more harm than good if the population is not correctly targeted. That is,
if the data are not collected from the people, events, or objects that can provide
the correct answers to solve the problem, the research will be in vain.
• Sampling: the process of selecting the right individuals, objects, or events as
representatives for the entire population is known as sampling.

• The reason for using a sample involving several hundred and even thousands of
elements is that it would be practically impossible to collect data from, test, or
examine every element. Time and cost consuming and human resources. In
some cases, it would also be impossible to use the entire population to gain
knowledge about, or test something. Consider, for instance, the case of electric
light bulbs, if we were to burn every single bulb produced there would be none
left to sell! This is known as destructive sampling.

• Population: refers of the entire group of people, events, or things of interest

that the researcher wishes to investigates. Based on sample statistics.
• Element: is a single member of the population.
• Sample: subset of the population, it comprises some members selected from it.
Some but not all, elements of the population from the sample. Subset of the
population.
• Sampling unit: is the element or set of elements that is available for selection
in some stage of the sampling process.
• Subject: is a single member of the sample.
• Why sample ?
• 1. pragmatic reasons, reduce the cost, high speed of data collection, reduces
labor requirements, accessibility, impossible to contact all people.
• 2. Accurate and reliable results when the sample is representative.
• 3. Destructive of test all the units, such as a products.

• The need to sample:

• It would be impracticable for you to survey the entire population

• Your budget constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population
your time constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population

• Sampling techniques available to you can be divided into two types:

• Probability or representative sample
• Non-probability sampling
• Sampling Methods:
• Probability Sampling : when elements in the population have a known,
nonzero chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample we resort to a
probability sampling design. The chance or probability of each case being
selected from the population is known and is usually equal for all cases this
means it is possible to answer research question and to achieve objectives that
require you to estimate statistically the characteristics of the population from
the sample.

• Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Cluster Sample
• Multistage sample

• The Process of probability sampling can be divided into 4 stages

• Identify a suitable sampling frame based on new research questions and

objectives
• Decide on a suitable sample size
• Select the most appropriate sampling technique and select the sample
• Check that the sample is representative of the population
 • Sampling frame: for any probability sample is a complete list of all the cases in
the population from which your sample will be drawn. If your research question
or objective is concerned with members of a student society your sampling
frame will be the complete membership list for that society.
• Deciding on suitable sample size: the larger your samples size the lower the
likely error in generalizing to the population. [ table illustrate sample size for
different sizes of population at a 95 percent confidence level].
• The importance of a high response rate: Representative sample.
• Total response rate = total number of responses
• total number in sample – ineligible
• Complete refusal: none of the questions answered
• Break-off: less than 50 percent of all questions answered other than by a refusal
or no answer [ this therefore includes complete refusal.
• Selecting the most appropriate sampling technique and the sample:

• Simple Random Sampling unrestricted probability sampling: every element

in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject.
Drop pieces of paper in a hat. 1/1000, 1/999, and so on. Involves you selecting
the sample at random from the sampling frame using either a computer or
random number.
• Computer can generate random numbers.
• Systematic Sampling, restricted or complex probability sampling: if we have
the population 800 and the sample is equal to 40
• 800/40=20 then
• We choose any number randomly from the population suppose we choose
number 6.
• 6+20= 26
• 26+20=46
• 46+20=66
• 66+20=86
• To do this:
• 1. Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique number. The
first case is numbered 0, the second 1 and so on.
• 2. select the first case using a random number
• 3. calculate the sampling fraction
• 4. Select subsequent cases systematically using the sampling fraction to
determine the frequency of selection.
• To calculate the sampling fraction: that is the proportion of the total population
that you to select you use the formula:
• Sampling fraction = actual sample size
• total population
• If your sampling fraction is 1/3 you need to select one in every three cases, that
is every third case from the sampling frame.

• Stratified random sampling: subgroups of elements within the population

that may be expected to have different parameters on a variable of interest to
the researcher. Stratification, followed by random selection of subjects from
each stratum. Is a modification of random sampling in which you divided the
population into two or more relevant and significant based on one or a number
of attributes.
• Smoking, non-smoking
• Male, Female
• Top management, Middle-level management, Lower-level management.
Proportionate and disproportionate random sampling:
If an organization employs 10 top managers, 30 middle managers, 50 lower-
level managers, 100 supervisors, 500 clerks, and 20 secretaries, and the stratified
sample is about 140 people is needed for some specific survey, the researcher
might decide to include in the sample 20% of members from each stratum. This
means [ 2 from the top, 6 from the middle, 10 from the lower level, 20
supervisors, 100 clerks, and 4 secretaries].
 • Disproportionate stratified random sampling: used when there is no
accurate information about the percentage so the researcher will split the
sample into two equal groups. Then , a random sample is selected.
• To do so:
• 1. choose the stratification variable or variables
• 2. Divide the sampling frame into the discrete strata.
• 3. number each of the cases within each stratum with a unique number
• 4. select your sample using either simple random or systematic random
sampling as discussed earlier.

• Cluster Sampling: the target population is first divided into cluster. Then, a
random sample of clusters is drawn and for each selected cluster either all the
elements or a sample of elements are included in the sample. you need to divide
the population into discrete groups prior to sampling, you will group your data
by geographical area.
• Area sampling cluster consist of geographic areas such as city blocks.
• The technique has three main stages:
• 1. choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame
• 2. Number each of the clusters with a unique number.
• 3. select your sample of clusters using some form of random sampling.
• Selecting cluster randomly makes cluster sampling a probability sampling
technique.
• Multi-stage cluster sampling: can be done in several stages, the breakdown for
the sample units. Is development of cluster sampling.

• Double sampling: A sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study

to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this
primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail.
• Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a
chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you
want to produce results that are representative of the whole population,
probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice
• Advantages of probability sampling
• Here are the advantages of probability sampling:

• 1. It’s Cost-effective: This process is both cost and time effective, and a larger
sample can also be chosen based on numbers assigned to the samples and then
choosing random numbers from the more significant sample.

• 2. It’s simple and straightforward: Probability sampling is an easy way of

sampling as it does not involve a complicated process. It’s quick and saves time.
The time saved can thus be used to analyze the data and draw conclusions.

• 3. It is non-technical: This method of sampling doesn’t require any technical

knowledge because of its simplicity. It doesn’t require intricate expertise and is
not at all lengthy.

• Nonprobability Sampling: the elements in the population do not have any

probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects. The probability
of each case being selected from the total population is not known and it is
impossible to answer the research question or to address objectives that require
you to make statistical influences on the characteristics of the population.
Researchers widely use the non-probability sampling method when they aim at
conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research

• Convenience Sampling
• Judgement Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Convenience Sampling: refers to the procedure of obtaining units or people
who are most conveniently available to provide it. Best use in exploratory
research to get some basic information quickly and efficiently, and when
additional research will be conducted. Haphazard sampling from the available or
most convenient to obtain for your sample.
• Judgement Sampling: designed when limited number or category of people
have the information that is sought, and the sample based upon some appropriate
characteristic of the sample members. Used when working with very small
samples such as in case study research.
• Snowball Sampling: initial respondent are selected by probability methods and
then the second respondents' group are obtained from information provided by
initial respondents. Volunteer sampling, it is used commonly when it is difficult
to identify members of the desired population.
• 1. Make contact with one or two cases in the population
• 2. Ask the cases to identify further cases
 • Quota Sampling: ensure that certain groups are adequately represented in the
study through the assignment of a quota. A quota fixed for each subgroup is
based on the total numbers of each group in the population. Quota sampling can
be considered a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a
predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a
convenience basis.
• Used for structured interviews as part of a survey. Quota sampling is therefore a
type of stratified sample in which the selection of cases within strata is entirely
non-random. To select a quota sample:
• 1. Divide the population into specific groups.
• 2. Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available data.
• 3. Give each interviewer an assignment, which states the number of cases in
each quota from which they must collect data.
• 4. Combine the data collected by interviewers to provide the full sample.

• Table 13.2 page 246 summarizes the probability and nonprobability

sampling designs discussed thus far, and their advantages and
disadvantages.
The Sampling Process: Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number
of the right elements from the population, so that a study of the sample and an
understanding of its properties or characteristics make it possible for us to
generalize such as properties or characteristics to the population elements.
1. Define the population
2. Determining the sample frame
3. Determining the sampling design
4. Determining the sample size
5. Executing the sampling process
• Defining the population: the target population must be defined in terms of
elements, geographical boundaries, and time.
• Determining the sample frame is a physical representation of all the elements
in the population from the sample is drawn, listing of each elements in the
population.
• Determining the sampling design: select the type of sampling.
• Determining the sample size: there are factors affecting decisions on a sample
size such as: the research objectives, the cost the time, the size of the
population, the confidence level.
• Executing the sampling process: implementation.

• Precision: the quality, condition, or fact of being exact and accurate, refers to
how close our estimate is to the true population characteristic.
• SX = S/√n
• S= standard deviation of the sample
• n = is the sample size
• SX= indicates the standard error or the extent of precision offered by the sample.
• Precision is a function of the range of variability in the sampling distribution of
the sample mean. That is, if we take a number of different samples from a
population, and take the mean of each of these, we will usually find that they are
all different, are normally distributed, and have a dispersion associated with
them. The smaller this dispersion or variability, the greater the probability that
the sample mean will be closer to the population mean. If we want to reduce the
standard error, we need to increase the sample size.
• Another noteworthy point is that the smaller the variation in the population ,
the smaller error.
• Confidence: significant level as p<0.05 : A 95% confidence is the
conventionally accepted level for most business research , in other words, we
say that at least 95 times out of 100 our estimate will reflect the true population
characteristics.
• Determining the sample size: Table 13.3 provides that generalized
scientific guideline for sample size decisions.
• Rule of thumb
• 1. Sample size larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most
research.
• 2. Where samples are to be broken into subsamples ( males/females,
juniors/seniors, etc.) , a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is
necessary.

• Managerial Implications: Awareness of sampling design and sample size

decisions helps managers to understand why particular methods of sampling
are used by researchers. It facilitates understanding of the cost implications of
different designs, and trade-off between precision and confidence in relation to
the costs. It enable managers to understand the risk they take in implementing
changes based on the results of a research study. Finally, it helps managers to
assess the generalizability of the findings of a study.
 Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Samples are selected on the basis of the researcher’s

The samples are randomly selected.
subjective judgment.

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of getting

Not everyone has an equal chance to participate.
selected.

Researchers use this technique when they want to keep a tab

Sampling bias is not a concern for the researcher.
on sampling bias.

Useful in an environment having a diverse population. Useful in an environment that shares similar traits.

This method does not help in representing the population

Used when the researcher wants to create accurate samples.
accurately.

Finding the correct audience is not simple. Finding an audience is very simple.