Wheel Assembly

TYPES OF STRESSES:

only two basic stresses exist: (1) normal stress and (2) shear shear stress. Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses
or are a combination of these e.g. bending stress is a combination tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as
encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.

Let us define the normal stresses and shear stresses in the following sections.

Normal stresses: We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the areas concerned, then these are
termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter (  )

This is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses acts only in one direction however, such a state rarely exists,
therefore we have biaxial and triaxial state of stresses where either the two mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts or three
mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts as shown in the figures below:

Tensile or compressive stresses :

The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive whether the stresses act out of the area or into the area
Shear stresses:

Let us consider now the situation, where the cross – sectional area of a block of material is subject to a distribution of forces which
are parallel, rather than normal, to the area concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of the material, and are referred
to as shear forces. The resulting force internists are known as shear stresses.

The resulting force intensities are known as shear stresses, the mean shear stress being equal to

Where P is the total force and A the area over which it acts.

As we know that the particular stress generally holds good only at a point therefore we can define shear stress at a point as

The Greek symbol  (tau) (suggesting tangential) is used to denote shear stress.

ANALYSIS OF STERSSES
General State of stress at a point:

Stress at a point in a material body has been defined as a force per unit area. But this definition is somewhat ambiguous since it
depends upon what area we consider at that point. Let us, consider a point ‘q' in the interior of the body
Let us pass a cutting plane through a point 'q' perpendicular to the x - axis as shown below

The corresponding force components can be shown like this

dFx = xx. dax

dFy = xy. dax

dFz = xz. dax

where dax is the area surrounding the point 'q' when the cutting plane  r is to x - axis.

In a similar way it can be assumed that the cutting plane is passed through the point 'q' perpendicular to the y - axis. The
corresponding force components are shown below

The corresponding force components may be written as

dFx = yx. day

dFy = yy. day

dFz = yz. day

where day is the area surrounding the point 'q' when the cutting plane  r is to y - axis.

In the last it can be considered that the cutting plane is passed through the point 'q' perpendicular to the z - axis.
The corresponding force components may be written as

dFx = zx. daz

dFy = zy. daz

dFz = zz. daz

where daz is the area surrounding the point 'q' when the cutting plane  r is to z - axis.

Thus, from the foregoing discussion it is amply clear that there is nothing like stress at a point 'q' rather we have a situation where it
is a combination of state of stress at a point q. Thus, it becomes imperative to understand the term state of stress at a point 'q'.
Therefore, it becomes easy to express a state of stress by the scheme as discussed earlier, where the stresses on the three
mutually perpendicular planes are labelled in the manner as shown earlier. the state of stress as depicted earlier is called the
general or a triaxial state of stress that can exist at any interior point of a loaded body.

Before defining the general state of stress at a point. Let us make over selves conversant with the notations for the stresses.

We have already chosen to distinguish between normal and shear stress with the help of symbols  and  .

Cartesian - co-ordinate system

In the Cartesian co-ordinates system, we make use of the axes, X, Y and Z

Let us consider the small element of the material and show the various normal stresses acting the faces

Thus, in the Cartesian co-ordinates system the normal stresses have been represented by x, y and z.

Cylindrical - co-ordinate system

In the Cylindrical - co-ordinate system we make use of co-ordinates r,  and Z.

Thus, in the Cylindrical co-ordinates system, the normal stresses i.e components acting over a element is being denoted
by r, and z.

Sign convention: The tensile forces are termed as ( +ve ) while the compressive forces are termed as negative ( -ve ).

First sub – script: it indicates the direction of the normal to the surface.

Second subscript: it indicates the direction of the stress.

It may be noted that in the case of normal stresses the double script notation may be dispensed with as the direction of the normal
stress and the direction of normal to the surface of the element on which it acts is the same. Therefore, a single subscript notation
as used is sufficient to define the normal stresses.

Shear Stresses: With shear stress components, the single subscript notation is not practical, because such stresses are in
direction parallel to the surfaces on which they act. We therefore have two directions to specify, that of normal to the surface and
the stress itself. To do this, we stress itself. To do this, we attach two subscripts to the symbol ' ' , for shear stresses.

In cartesian and polar co-ordinates, we have the stress components as shown in the figures.

xy , yx , yz , zy , zx , xz

r , r , z , z ,zr , rz

So as shown above, the normal stresses and shear stress components indicated on a small element of material separately has
been combined and depicted on a single element. Similarly, for a cylindrical co-ordinate system let us shown the normal and shear
stresses components separately.
Now let us combine the normal and shear stress components as shown below:

Now let us define the state of stress at a point formally.

State of stress at a point:

By state of stress at a point, we mean an information which is required at that point such that it remains under equilibrium. or simply
a general state of stress at a point involves all the normal stress components, together with all the shear stress components as
shown in earlier figures.

Therefore, we need nine components, to define the state of stress at a point

x xy xz

y yx yz
z zx zy

If we apply the conditions of equilibrium which are as follows:

 Fx = 0;  M x = 0
 Fy = 0;  M y = 0

 Fz = 0;  M z = 0

Then we get

xy = yx
yz = zy

zx = xy

Then we will need only six components to specify the state of stress at a point i.e

x , y, z , xy , yz , zx

Now let us define the concept of complementary shear stresses.

Complementary shear stresses:

The existence of shear stresses on any two sides of the element induces complementary shear stresses on the other two sides of
the element to maintain equilibrium.

on planes AB and CD, the shear stress  acts. To maintain the static equilibrium of this element, on planes AD and BC, ' should
act, we shall see that ' which is known as the complementary shear stress would come out to equal and opposite to the . Let us
prove this thing for a general case as discussed below:

The figure shows a small rectangular element with sides of length x, y parallel to x and y directions. Its thickness normal to the
plane of paper is z in z – direction. All nine normal and shear stress components may act on the element, only those in x and y
directions are shown.
Sign convections for shear stresses:

Direct stresses or normal stresses

- tensile +ve

- compressive –ve

Shear stresses:

- tending to turn the element C.W +ve.

- tending to turn the element C.C.W – ve.

The resulting forces applied to the element are in equilibrium in x and y direction. (Although other normal and shear stress
components are not shown, their presence does not affect the final conclusion).

Assumption: The weight of the element is neglected.

Since the element is a static piece of solid body, the moments applied to it must also be in equilibrium. Let ‘O' be the centre of the
element. Let us consider the axis through the point ‘O'. the resultant force associated with normal stresses x and y acting on the
sides of the element each pass through this axis, and therefore, have no moment.

Now forces on top and bottom surfaces produce a couple which must be balanced by the forces on left and right hand faces

Thus,

yx .  x .  z .  y = xy .  x .  z .  y

In other word, the complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude. The same form of relationship can be obtained for the
other two pair of shear stress components to arrive at the relations
 GRAPHICAL SOLUTION – MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE

The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in a graphical form known as Mohr's circle. This graphical
representation is very useful in depending the relationships between normal and shear stresses acting on any inclined plane at a
point in a stresses body.

To draw a Mohr's stress circle, consider a complex stress system as shown in the figure

The above system represents a complete stress system for any condition of applied load in two dimensions

The Mohr's stress circle is used to find out graphically the direct stress  and shear stress on any plane inclined at  to the plane
on which x acts. The direction of  here is taken in anticlockwise direction from the BC.

STEPS:

In order to do achieve the desired objective we proceed in the following manner

(i) Label the Block ABCD.

(ii) Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) and shear stress (as ordinate)

(iii) Plot the stresses on two adjacent faces e.g. AB and BC, using the following sign convention.

Direct stresses tensile positive; compressive, negative

Shear stresses – tending to turn block clockwise, positive

– tending to turn block counter clockwise, negative

[ i.e. shearing stresses are +ve when its movement about the centre of the element is clockwise]

This gives two points on the graph which may than be labelled as respectively to denote stresses on these planes.

(iv) Join .

(v) The point P where this line cuts the s axis is than the centre of Mohr's stress circle and the line joining is
diameter. Therefore, the circle can now be drawn.

Now every point on the circle then represents a state of stress on some plane through C.
Concept of Shear Force and Bending moment in beams:

When the beam is loaded in some arbitrarily manner, the internal forces and moments are developed and the terms shear force
and bending moments come into pictures which are helpful to analyse the beams further. Let us define these terms

Fig 1

Now let us consider the beam as shown in fig 1(a) which is supporting the loads P 1, P2, P3 and is simply supported at two points
creating the reactions R1 and R2 respectively. Now let us assume that the beam is to divided into or imagined to be cut into two
portions at a section AA. Now let us assume that the resultant of loads and reactions to the left of AA is ‘F' vertically upwards, and
since the entire beam is to remain in equilibrium, thus the resultant of forces to the right of AA must also be F, acting downwards.
This forces ‘F' is as a shear force. The shearing force at any x-section of a beam represents the tendency for the portion of the
beam to one side of the section to slide or shear laterally relative to the other portion.

Therefore, now we are in a position to define the shear force ‘F' to as follows:

At any x-section of a beam, the shear force ‘F' is the algebraic sum of all the lateral components of the forces acting on either side
of the x-section.

Sign Convention for Shear Force:

The usual sign conventions to be followed for the shear forces have been illustrated in figures 2 and 3.
 Fig 2: Positive Shear Force

Fig 3: Negative Shear Force

Bending Moment:
 Fig 4

Let us again consider the beam which is simply supported at the two prints, carrying loads P 1, P2 and P3 and having the reactions
R1 and R2 at the supports Fig 4. Now, let us imagine that the beam is cut into two potions at the x-section AA. In a similar manner,
as done for the case of shear force, if we say that the resultant moment about the section AA of all the loads and reactions to the
left of the x-section at AA is M in C.W direction, then moment of forces to the right of x-section AA must be ‘M' in C.C.W. Then ‘M' is
called as the Bending moment and is abbreviated as B.M. Now one can define the bending moment to be simply as the algebraic
sum of the moments about an x-section of all the forces acting on either side of the section

Sign Conventions for the Bending Moment:

For the bending moment, following sign conventions may be adopted as indicated in Fig 5 and Fig 6.

Fig 5: Positive Bending Moment

 Fig 6: Negative Bending Moment

Sometimes, the terms ‘Sagging' and Hogging are generally used for the positive and negative bending moments respectively.

Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams:

The diagrams which illustrate the variations in B.M and S.F values along the length of the beam for any fixed loading conditions
would be helpful to analyse the beam further.

Thus, a shear force diagram is a graphical plot, which depicts how the internal shear force ‘F' varies along the length of beam. If x
denotes the length of the beam, then F is function x i.e. F(x).

Similarly, a bending moment diagram is a graphical plot which depicts how the internal bending moment ‘M' varies along the length
of the beam. Again M is a function x i.e. M(x).

Basic Relationship Between the Rate of Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment:

The construction of the shear force diagram and bending moment diagrams is greatly simplified if the relationship among load,
shear force and bending moment is established.

Let us consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a uniformly distributed load w/length. Let us imagine to cut a short slice of
length dx cut out from this loaded beam at distance ‘x' from the origin ‘0'.

Let us detach this portion of the beam and draw its free body diagram.
The forces acting on the free body diagram of the detached portion of this loaded beam are the following

• The shearing force F and F+ F at the section x and x + x respectively.

• The bending moment at the sections x and x + x be M and M + dM respectively.

• Force due to external loading, if ‘w' is the mean rate of loading per unit length then the total loading on this slice of length x is
w. x, which is approximately acting through the centre ‘c'. If the loading is assumed to be uniformly distributed, then it would pass
exactly through the centre ‘c'.

This small element must be in equilibrium under the action of these forces and couples.

Now let us take the moments at the point ‘c'. Such that

Conclusions: From the above relations, the following important conclusions may be drawn

• From Equation (1), the area of the shear force diagram between any two points, from the basic calculus is the bending moment
diagram

• The slope of bending moment diagram is the shear force, thus

Thus, if F=0; the slope of the bending moment diagram is zero and the bending moment is therefore constant.'

• The maximum or minimum Bending moment occurs where

The slope of the shear force diagram is equal to the magnitude of the intensity of the distributed loading at any position along the
beam. The –ve sign is as a consequence of our particular choice of sign conventions

Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram:

Preamble:

The advantage of plotting a variation of shear force F and bending moment M in a beam as a function of ‘x' measured from one end
of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the maximum absolute value of shear force and bending moment.

Further, the determination of value of M as a function of ‘x' becomes of paramount importance so as to determine the value of
deflection of beam subjected to a given loading.

Construction of shear force and bending moment diagrams:

A shear force diagram can be constructed from the loading diagram of the beam. In order to draw this, first the reactions must be
determined always. Then the vertical components of forces and reactions are successively summed from the left end of the beam
to preserve the mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a section is simply equal to the sum of all the vertical forces
to the left of the section.

When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with the previously calculated shear
(reaction at right end of the beam. No shear force acts through the beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction. If the shear
force diagram closes in this fashion, then it gives an important check on mathematical calculations.

The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of beam from the left hand end and
summing up the areas of shear force diagrams giving due regard to sign. The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the
shear force diagram by summation is exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load diagram.

It may also be observed that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending moment, resulting in straight line in
the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain portion of a beam, then it indicates that there is no change in moment
takes place. It may also further observe that dm/dx= F therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus the maximum or
minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero. In order to check the validity of the bending moment diagram, the terminal
conditions for the moment must be satisfied. If the end is free or pinned, the computed sum must be equal to zero. If the end is built
in, the moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated initially for the reaction. These conditions must
always be satisfied.

Illustrative problems:

1) Simply supported beam subjected to a central load (i.e. load acting at the mid-way)

By symmetry the reactions at the two supports would be W/2 and W/2. now consider any section X-X from the left end then, the
beam is under the action of following forces.
.So the shear force at any X-section would be = W/2 [Which is constant upto x < l/2]

If we consider another section Y-Y which is beyond l/2 then

for all values greater = l/2

Hence S.F diagram can be plotted as,

For B.M diagram:

If we just take the moments to the left of the cross-section,

Which when plotted will give a straight relation i.e.

It may be observed that at the point of application of load there is an abrupt change in the shear force, at this point the B.M is
maximum.

Simple Bending Theory OR Theory of Flexure for Initially Straight Beams

(The normal stress due to bending are called flexure stresses)

Preamble:

When a beam having an arbitrary cross section is subjected to a transverse loads the beam will bend. In addition to bending the
other effects such as twisting and buckling may occur, and to investigate a problem that includes all the combined effects of
bending, twisting and buckling could become a complicated one. Thus we are interested to investigate the bending effects alone, in
order to do so, we have to put certain constraints on the geometry of the beam and the manner of loading.

Assumptions:

The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:

1. Beam is initially straight, and has a constant cross-section.

2. Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has a longitudinal plane of symmetry.

3. Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.

4. The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not buckling is the primary cause of failure.

5. Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded and ‘E' is same in tension and compression.

6. Plane cross - sections remains plane before and after bending.

Let us consider a beam initially unstressed as shown in fig 1(a). Now the beam is subjected to a constant bending moment (i.e.
‘Zero Shearing Force') along its length as would be obtained by applying equal couples at each end. The beam will bend to the
radius R as shown in Fig 1(b)

As a result of this bending, the top fibres of the beam will be subjected to tension and the bottom to compression it is reasonable to
suppose, therefore, that somewhere between the two there are points at which the stress is zero. The locus of all such
points is known as neutral axis. The radius of curvature R is then measured to this axis. For symmetrical sections the N. A. is the
axis of symmetry but whatever the section N. A. will always pass through the centre of the area or centroid.

The above restrictions have been taken so as to eliminate the possibility of 'twisting' of the beam.

Concept of pure bending:

Loading restrictions:

As we are aware of the fact internal reactions developed on any cross-section of a beam may consists of a resultant normal force, a
resultant shear force and a resultant couple. In order to ensure that the bending effects alone are investigated, we shall put a
constraint on the loading such that the resultant normal and the resultant shear forces are zero on any cross-section perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the member,

That means F = 0

since or M = constant.

Thus, the zero shear force means that the bending moment is constant or the bending is same at every cross-section of the beam.
Such a situation may be visualized or envisaged when the beam or some portion of the beam, as been loaded only by pure couples
at its ends. It must be recalled that the couples are assumed to be loaded in the plane of symmetry.
When a member is loaded in such a fashion it is said to be in pure bending. The examples of pure bending have been indicated in
EX 1and EX 2 as shown below:

When a beam is subjected to pure bending are loaded by the couples at the ends, certain cross-section gets deformed and we
shall have to make out the conclusion that,

1. Plane sections originally perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
even after bending, i.e. the cross-section A'E', B'F' (refer Fig 1(a)) do not get warped or curved.

2. In the deformed section, the planes of this cross-section have a common intersection i.e. any time originally parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the beam becomes an arc of circle.
We know that when a beam is under bending the fibres at the top will be lengthened while at the bottom will be shortened provided
the bending moment M acts at the ends. In between these there are some fibres which remain unchanged in length that is they are
not strained, that is they do not carry any stress. The plane containing such fibres is called neutral surface.

The line of intersection between the neutral surface and the transverse exploratory section is called the neutral axis Neutral axis (N
A) .

Bending Stresses in Beams or Derivation of Elastic Flexural formula :

In order to compute the value of bending stresses developed in a loaded beam, let us consider the two cross-sections of a
beam HE and GF, originally parallel as shown in fig 1(a). when the beam is to bend it is assumed that these sections remain
parallel i.e. H'E' and G'F' , the final position of the sections, are still straight lines, they then subtend some angle .

Consider now fiber AB in the material, at a distance y from the N.A, when the beam bends this will stretch to A'B'

Since CD and C'D' are on the neutral axis and it is assumed that the Stress on the neutral axis zero. Therefore, there won't be any
strain on the neutral axis
Consider any arbitrary a cross-section of beam, as shown above now the strain on a fibre at a distance ‘y' from the N.A, is given by
the expression

Now the term is the property of the material and is called as a second moment of area of the cross-section and is denoted
by a symbol I.

Therefore

This equation is known as the Bending Theory Equation. The above proof has involved the assumption of pure bending without
any shear force being present. Therefore, this termed as the pure bending equation. This equation gives distribution of stresses
which are normal to cross-section i.e. in x-direction.

THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE

While dealing with the design of structures or machine elements or any component of a particular machine the physical
properties or chief characteristics of the constituent materials are usually found from the results of laboratory experiments in which
the components are subject to the simple stress conditions. The most usual test is a simple tensile test in which the value of stress
at yield or fracture is easily determined.

However, a machine part is generally subjected simultaneously to several different types of stresses whose actions are
combined therefore, it is necessary to have some basis for determining the allowable working stresses so that failure may not
occur. Thus, the function of the theories of elastic failure is to predict from the behavior of materials in a simple tensile test when
elastic failure will occur under any conditions of applied stress.

A number of theories have been proposed for the brittle and ductile materials.

Strain Energy: The concept of strain energy is of fundamental importance in applied mechanics. The application of the load
produces strain in the bar. The effect of these strains is to increase the energy level of the bar itself. Hence a new quantity called
strain energy is defined as the energy absorbed by the bar during the loading process. This strain energy is defined as the work
done by load provided no energy is added or subtracted in the form of heat. Sometimes strain energy is referred to as internal work
to distinguish it from external work ‘W'. Consider a simple bar which is subjected to tensile force F, having a small element of
dimensions dx, dy and dz.
The strain energy U is the area covered under the triangle

A three-dimension state of stress represented by 1, 2 and 3 may be thought of consisting of two distinct state of stresses i.e
Distortional state of stress

Deviatory state of stress and dilatational state of stress

Hydrostatic state of stresses.

Thus, the energy which is stored within a material when the material is deformed is termed as a strain energy. The total strain
energy Ur

UT = Ud+UH
Ud is the strain energy due to the deviatory state of stress and UH is the strain energy due to the Hydrostatic state of stress. Further,
it may be noted that the hydrostatic state of stress results in change of volume whereas the deviatory state of stress results in
change of shape.

Different Theories of Failure:

(a) Maximum Principal stress theory (due to Rankine)

(b) Maximum shear stress theory (Guest - Tresca)

(c) Shear strain energy per unit volume Theory (Von – Mises & Henchy)

In all these theories we shall assume.

Yp = stress at the yield point in the simple tensile test.

1,2,3  the three principal stresses in the three dimensional complex state of stress systems in order of magnitude.

(a) Maximum Principal stress theory:

This theory assumes that when the maximum principal stress in a complex stress system reaches the elastic limit stress in a simple
tension, failure will occur.

Therefore, the criterion for failure would be

1 = yp

For a two dimensional complex stress system 1 is expressed as

Where x, y and xy are the stresses in the any given complex stress system.

(b) Maximum shear stress theory:

This theory states that teh failure can be assumed to occur when the maximum shear stress in the complex stress system is equal
to the value of maximum shear stress in simple tension.

The criterion for the failure may be established as given below:

For a simple tension case

(c) Maximum shear strain energy per unit volume theory :

This theory states that the failure occurs when the maximum shear strain energy component for the complex state of stress system
is equal to that at the yield point in the tensile test.

Hence the criterion for the failure becomes

As we know that a general state of stress can be broken into two components i.e,

(i) Hydrostatic state of stress (the strain energy associated with the hydrostatic state of stress is known as the volumetric strain
energy)

(ii) Distortional or deviatory state of stress (The strain energy due to this is known as the shear strain energy)

As we know that the strain energy due to distortion is given as

This is the distortion strain energy for a complex state of stress, this is to be equaled to the maximum distortion energy in the simple
tension test. In order to get we may assume that one of the principal stress say (1 ) reaches the yield point (yp ) of the material.
Thus, putting in above equation 2 = 3 = 0 we get distortion energy for the simple test i.e