Geophysicist Seismic Interpreter Abu Qir Petroleum What is Geophysics?
“The application of physical
theories and measurements to discover the properties of the Earth” Oil Exploration Objectives To find a specific resource - in our case hydrocarbons • Could the hydrocarbons be there? – Are the required rock units and structure present? – Has the temperature, pressure and structural history been favorable? • Where exactly is it? How deep? What location? • How much is there, if there is any at all? • Is it economical to drill for it and attempt to extract it?
We need to delineate the subsurface. This can be done in 2 principal
ways, DIRECTLY or INDIRECT (REMOTELY). Geophysical Techniques • Surface measurements (indirect) methods: Magnetic Low Res. – Regional Exploration Gravity Electrical Resistivity Electromagnetic (EM) Near Surface - Site Investigation Georadar Seismic High Res. – HC Exploration • Downhole measurements (direct) methods: Well Logging Wireline Vertical Seismic Profiling THE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ARE INDIRECT WAYS OF DETERMINING THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Data Field Geological Analysis and Survey Interpretation Processing
Translation of Translation of physical physical property Physical measurements distribution into Measurement into physical geological property information distribution
The flowchart above is a representation of the concept of
geophysical surveying from data acquisition to processing to the end product in the form of geological interpretation. SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES MAGNETIC Magnetic Survey – Physical Basis
Magnetic susceptibility Remanent magnetism of the earth materials Magnetic field of the earth Magnetic Surveys – Uses
Can be used for location and mapping of buried ferrous
metal such as steel pipes and underground storage tanks. Magnetic Anomaly – Example
Magnetic Profile Observed anomaly GRAVITY Gravity Survey – Physical Basis
Lateral variation in rock density
result in gravity anomalies, that can be measured at the surface
Mass = Density * Volume
Gravity Survey – Uses
Illustrations showing the relative surface variation of Earth's
gravitational acceleration over geologic structures (e.g.fault) Gravity Anomaly – Example
3d Image of the 1st vertical derivative of terrain corrected bouguer gravity
Airborne Survey
Gravity – Magnetic surveys
RESISTIVITY Resistivity – Physical Basis
Resistivity involves applying
a current into the subsurface and measuring the resulting potential between two other electrodes.
Resistance (R) is measured
in ohms Resistivity – Field Arrays Resistivity Profiling Movable Current Potential Electrodes Electrodes
Apparent Resistivity Profile
Resistivity – Uses
• Detection of Cavities, • Identifying Sand and Gravel Zone, • Identifying Fracture Zones, and • Ground Water Mapping Surveys Resistivity – Profiling Example
Conductivity methods also are known as active electromagnetic induction techniques, and can be used to measure the electrical conductivity of subsurface soil, rock, and groundwater. EM Survey – Uses
Mapping soil types (e.g. clay layer), locate pipes, cables, buried steel drums. EM – Field Example
This graphic illustrates a simplified electromagnetic terrain
conductivity survey over a landfill GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR) Ground Penetrating Radar – Physical Basis
GPR technologies use the
transmission of high frequency of Electromagnetic pulses (radar waves) into the ground. The signals transmitted travel into the ground and are reflected by buried objects. Reflected signals travel back to the receiving unit, are recorded, and are processed into an image. GPR – Uses
• Obtain cross-section of natural geologic and hydrogeologic
conditions at shallow depths, • Locate buried man-made objects and structures, • Detect and map some contaminant plumes and buried wastes, and • Archeological investigation. GPR – Example SEISMIC Seismic Survey
PLAY VIDEO Seismic Waves - Generation
Signal emitted by vibroseis Signal emitted by airgun and
and reflected waves received reflected waves received by by Geophones hydrophones Sound Wave Source
Geological Model Geological Model Geological Model Waves • Whenever an acoustic source is detonated on or near the surface of the Earth, an acoustic wave is produced that propagates away from the source. • Waves can travel through a body (body waves), or along the surface of a body (surface or boundary waves).
Body waves Surface Wave
Body Waves • There are 2 classes of body waves, classified by the particle motion • P waves - motion of particles is parallel to the direction of propagation
– Wave direction – Particle motion
• S waves - motion of the particles is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation
– Wave direction – Particle motion Wave Summary
Play Video P Waves
• Primary waves - named from earthquake seismology meaning the ‘first
arrival’. Also referred to as Compressional, Longitudinal wave.
• Longitudinal particle motion.
• Compressional waves (zones of compression and rarefaction), just like
ordinary sound waves in air.
• P waves have higher velocities than S waves.
• P waves are the predominant wave used in seismic prospecting. This is
what we want to generate and record. S Waves
• Secondary waves - named from earthquake seismology meaning secondary
arrival. Also referred to as Shear, Transverse wave.
• Transverse particle motion.
• Velocity is approximately 0.5 x p-wave velocity.
• Not usually used in the seismic industry, mainly because it cannot
propagate in fluids. S waves appear as noise overlaying P waves. In certain circumstances (e.g. Shallow surveying) shear waves may be deliberately generated.
• Shear waves may be SV (vertical particle motion) or SH (horizontal particle
motion). Surface Waves Associated with a surface or boundary. The amplitude decays rapidly with depth • Rayleigh wave , Love waves, Stoneley waves.
• Surface waves appear as noise overlaying P wave energy.
• Particle motion is general complex.
e.g. Rayleigh waves have a retrograde elliptical motion.
• Surface waves generally have low velocity.
e.g. Rayleigh wave velocity typically 0.9 x S wave velocity.
• At the surface these are grouped together as GROUND ROLL.
Elastic Deformations
P - wave Rayleigh wave
compressions undisturbed medium
Particle motion dilatations
Love wave S - wave
Particle motion
Elastic deformations and ground particle Elastic deformations and ground particle motions associated with the passage of motions associated with the passage of body waves surface waves Wavefronts & Raypaths • When a disturbance occurs, energy radiates outwards in the medium via disturbances of the particles. • The geometry of the propagating energy can be described by either wavefronts or raypaths
Reflection Points Wavefronts and Raypaths
Wavefronts Raypaths
Wavefront at increasing Ray
time or distance Wave Parameters – Function of Time Amplitude Peak to peak Peak Period T Amplitude Amplitude
Time
180º Delay 1 Frequency (Hz) = T (seconds) • Single frequency sine wave • 1 Complete cycle (period) = 360º or 2π radians • Phase (angle) represents a relative time delay Wave Parameters – Function of Distance Amplitude Peak to peak Peak Wavelength λ Amplitude Amplitude
Distance
1 Wavenumber K = Velocity V = F * λ V= F K λ (m)
• Wavenumber is the reciprocal of wavelength, its units are cycles (λ)
per unit distance • Plots of Frequency versus Wavenumber (“FK Plots”) are useful in seismic data processing Typical P-Wave Velocities
• Air 330m/s • Water 1480m/s • Sandstone 2900m/s • Shale 3000m/s • Salt 5000m/s • Limestone 5500m/s Huygens Principle • Every point on a wavefront can be regarded as a secondary source of the wave • The envelope function defined by the secondary source wavefronts is the wavefront at a latter time (or further distance).
Propagation Direction
Envelope defining new wavefront
Interfaces • Are the boundaries where the properties of the earth media change – Particle structure – Density () – Wave Velocity (V) ρ1 , V1
Interface 1 ρ2 , V2
Interface 2 ρ3 , V3
Interface 3 Interfaces • When acoustic energy impinges on an interface between two layers. • With different elastic properties within the earth two things can happen: – Energy is reflected – Energy is transmitted • Ray theory gives the best visual representation Incident Reflected Energy Energy
V1 1 Surface/Reflector
V2 2
Transmitted Energy Reflection An elastic wave reflects from an interface at the same angle it strikes it
Angle of incidence A=Angle of reflection B
Incident Reflected Energy Energy A B V1 1 Surface V2 2
Transmitted Energy Refraction When the layer velocity changes across an interface, the direction of propagation of the energy changes. This change is given by:
Sin A V1 • SNELL’S LAW = Sin C V2
Incident Reflected Energy Energy A B V1 1 Surface V2 2
Transmitted Energy Critical Refraction In the case that angle C = 90 degrees, the transmitted energy is CRITICALLY REFRACTED along the interface with the velocity V2
In this case Snells law leads to: Angle A is now the CRITICAL ANGLE, the transmitted wave is now a Surface Sin A = V1 / V2 wave called the HEAD WAVE
Incident Reflected Energy Energy A B V1 1 Surface V2 2 Transmitted Energy C Reflections and Refractions
Reflection: The energy or wave from a seismic source which
has been reflected from an acoustic impedance contrast (reflector) or a series of contrasts within the earth.
Refraction: The change in direction of a seismic ray upon
passing into a medium with a different velocity. The mathematics of this is defined by Snell’s law. Applications
• Reflection • Refraction
• Application • Application Deep seismic – Basin Structures Site investigations – Site Investigations Coal – Velocity Structure Minerals – Weathering surveys Reflection and Transmission Coefficient Amplitude of reflected wave • Reflection Coefficient (reflectivity) RC = Amplitude of incident wave
• Consider the case of normal incidence
Density ρ1 Incident Reflected Velocity V1 Energy Energy Interface
Transmitted Density ρ2 Energy Velocity V2
At normal incidence: ρ2 V2 - ρ1 V1 RC = ρ2 V2 + ρ1 V1
• The quantity ρV is the ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE of the material
Reflection and Transmission Coefficient
• Reflection Coefficient (reflectivity): is the ratio of the
amplitude of a wave reflected off an interface to that of the wave incident upon it. Its basically the percentage of energy that will be reflected.
• Transmission Coefficient: is the ratio of amplitude of a wave
transmitted through an interface to that of the wave incident upon it. Wave Propagation Convolutional Model • The ideal seismic source Seismic Trace Reflectivity Sequence is a Spike Reflection Coefficient
Energy - Amplitude + -1 +1
water / air water / air
Seabed Time • If each interface produced a Seabed
perfect reflection, then our
seismic trace would be a series of spikes – the ideal seismic trace
• The amplitudes would mirror the
Reflection Coefficients of the interfaces – the Reflectivity Sequence Time Depth Convolutional Model • In reality our source is not a spike, therefore our trace looks different • The combination of the source signature & reflectivity (plus noise) to produce the seismic trace is called the Convolutional Model Source Signature -1 Reflectivity Sequence Seismic Trace +1
Convolution
Time Depth TWT
Reflections at Interfaces Final Image Q u e s t i o n s
