A&P Unit 2 Exam Study Notes

Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization

Introduction to Tissues:
Tissues - Collections of specialized cells and cell products that perform specific functions.
Tissues in combination form organs, such as the heart or liver

Histology is the study of tissues.

Four Primary types of tissue:
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
-Can be rearranged onto CMEN (connective, muscle, epithelial, nervous) to help you remember.

Epithelial tissue - Covers exposed surfaces, Lines internal passageways, Forms glands.

Connective tissue - Fills internal spaces, Supports other tissues, Transports materials, Stores
energy.
Muscle tissue - Specialized for contraction, Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and muscular walls of
hollow organs.

Nervous tissue - Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another.
Epithelial tissue - includes epithelia and glands

Epithelia (singular, epithelium) - Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces

Glands, Structures that produce fluid secretions.
-Functions of epithelial tissue
1. Provide physical protection
2. Control permeability
3. Provide sensation
4. Produce specialized secretions
-Characteristics of epithelia
• Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
• Cellularity (cell junctions)
• Attachment (basement membrane)
• Avascularity (avascular)
• Regeneration

-Specializations of epithelial cells

1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
3. Produce secretions (protection and messaging)
Polarity
Apical surface - Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
Cilia on a ciliated epithelium move fluids
Basolateral surface
-Integrity of epithelia is maintained by
1. Intercellular connections
2. Attachment to the basement membrane
3. Epithelial maintenance and repair

-Intercellular connections
Cell junctions - Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material
1. Gap junctions
2. Tight junctions
3. Desmosomes
Gap junctions - Allow rapid communication, Cells held together by interlocking transmembrane
proteins (connexons), Allow small molecules and ions to pass, Coordinate contractions in heart
muscle (as intercalated discs).
Tight junctions - Between two plasma membranes, Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web,
Prevent passage of water and solutes, Keep enzymes, acids, and wastes in the lumen of the
digestive tract.
**Like a Ziploc bag seal between the two cell membranes**
Desmosomes - CAMs and proteoglycans link opposing plasma
membranes.
*Spot desmosomes - Tie cells together, Allow bending and twisting.
*Hemidesmosomes - Attach cells to the basement membrane.
*Attachment to the basement membrane: Basal lamina, Closest to the epithelium.

*Reticular lamina: Deeper portion of basement membrane, Provides strength.

*Epithelial maintenance and repair: Epithelial cells are replaced by continual division of stem
cells, Located near basement membrane.

Classification of epithelia:
1. Based on shape
Squamous—thin and flat
Cuboidal—square shaped
Columnar—tall, slender rectangles

2. Based on layers
Simple epithelium—single layer of cells =1 layer
Stratified epithelium—several layers of cells >1 layer

Squamous epithelia:
Simple squamous epithelia - Absorption and diffusion.
Mesothelium - Lines body cavities.
Endothelium - Forms inner lining of heart and blood vessels.
Stratified squamous epithelia - Protect against mechanical stresses, Keratin adds strength
and water resistance.

Cuboidal epithelia:
Simple cuboidal epithelia - Secretion and absorption, Glands and portions of kidney tubules.
Stratified cuboidal epithelia - Relatively rare, Ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands.

Transitional epithelia:
Tolerate repeated cycles of stretching without damage, Appearance changes as stretching
occurs, Found in the urinary bladder.
Columnar epithelia:
Simple columnar epithelia - Absorption and secretion, Found in stomach, small intestine, large
intestine.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelia - Typically have cilia, Found in nasal cavity, trachea,
bronchi.
Stratified columnar epithelia - Relatively rare, Provide protection in pharynx, anus, urethra.
Glandular epithelia :
Glands are collections of epithelial cells that produce
secretions
Endocrine glands - Release hormones that enter bloodstream, No ducts
Exocrine glands - Produce exocrine secretions, Discharge secretions through ducts onto
epithelial surfaces.
Gland structure: Unicellular glands & Multicellular glands
Unicellular glands - Goblet cells are unicellular exocrine glands in epithelia of intestines.
Secrete mucin, which mixes with water to form mucus.

Methods of gland secretion

1.Merocrine
2.Apocrine
3.Holocrine

Merocrine secretion - Released by secretory vesicles (exocytosis). It “merely” uses exocytosis.

Examples: merocrine sweat glands or salivary glands.
Apocrine secretion - **Apex= top** Released by shedding cytoplasm at the top of the
cell.
Example: mammary gland
Holocrine secretion - Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells. Gland cells replaced by
stem cells. The “whole cell” explodes in holocrine secretion.
Example: sebaceous glands
Types of secretions produced by exocrine glands:
Serous glands - Watery secretions
Mucous glands - Secrete mucins
Mixed exocrine glands - Both serous and mucous

Connective Tissue
Components of connective tissues:
 1. Specialized cells
2. Extracellular protein fibers
3. Fluid called ground substance

Matrix - consists of extracellular components of connective

tissue (fibers and ground substance)
Majority of tissue volume
Determines specialized function
Functions of connective tissues:
• Establishing a structural framework for the body
• Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
• Protecting delicate organs
• Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other
types of tissue
• Storing energy reserves, especially triglycerides
• Defending the body from invading microorganisms
Categories of connective tissues
1. Connective tissue proper
Connect and protect
2. Fluid connective tissues
Transport
3. Supporting connective tissues
Structural strength
Categories of connective tissue proper:
Loose connective tissue - More ground substance, fewer fibers
Example: fat (adipose tissue)

Dense connective tissue - More fibers, less ground substance

Example: tendons

Categories of connective tissue proper:

Loose connective tissue - More ground substance, fewer fibers
Example: fat (adipose tissue)
Dense connective tissue - More fibers, less ground substance
Example: tendons
Fibroblasts - The most abundant cell type, Found in all types of connective tissue proper,
Secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement).
Fibrocytes - Second most abundant cell type, Maintain connective tissue fibers.
Adipocytes - Fat cells, Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet.
Mesenchymal cells - Stem cells that respond to injury or infection.
Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc.
Melanocytes - Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin.
Connective tissue fibers
1. Collagen fibers
2. Reticular fibers
3. Elastic fibers

Collagen fibers - Like molecular rope, Most common fibers in connective tissue proper. Long,
straight, and unbranched. Strong and flexible, but not stretchy. Resist force in one direction.
Abundant in tendons and ligaments.
Reticular fibers - Like molecular packing peanuts. Form a network of interwoven fibers (stroma).
Strong and flexible. Resist forces in many directions. Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and
structures.
Example: sheaths around organs
Elastic fibers - Like molecular bungee cord. Contain elastin. Branched and wavy. Return to
original length after stretching.
Example: elastic ligaments of vertebrae
Ground substance - Is clear, colorless, and viscous. Fills spaces between cells and slows
pathogen movement.
Ground substance + fibers = MATRIX

Loose connective tissues - “Packing materials”. Fill spaces between organs, cushion cells, and
support epithelia.

Connective Tissue Proper Loose

Types of loose connective tissues in adults:
1. Areolar tissue
2. Adipose tissue
3. Reticular tissue
Areolar tissue - Least specialized. Open framework. Viscous ground substance. Elastic fibers.
Holds capillary beds.
Example: under skin (subcutaneous layer)
Adipose tissue - Contains many adipocytes (fat cells). Adipocytes in adults do not divide. Expand
to store fat. Shrink as fats are released. Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate. To produce
more fat cells. When more storage is needed.
**May be removed (temporarily) via liposuction in cosmetic surgery.**
White fat - Most common. Stores fat and absorbs shocks. Slows heat loss (insulation).
Brown fat - Found in babies and young children. More vascularized. Adipocytes have many
mitochondria. Breakdown of lipids releases energy and warms body.
Reticular tissue - Provides support. Reticular fibers form a complex, three-dimensional stroma.
Support functional cells of organs. Found in liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone
marrow.
Dense connective tissues - Also called collagenous tissues. Contain many collagen fibers.

Three types of dense connective tissues:

1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Elastic
Dense regular connective tissue - Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers.
Tendons - attach muscles to bones.
Ligaments - connect one bone to another and stabilize organs.
Aponeuroses - are tendinous sheets that attach a broad, flat muscle to another structure.
Dense irregular connective tissue - Interwoven network of collagen fibers. Provides strength to
dermis. Forms sheath around cartilages (perichondrium) and bones (periosteum). Forms
capsules around some organs (e.g., liver, kidneys, and spleen)
Elastic tissue - Made of elastic fibers.
Example: elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae
LOCATIONS: Between vertebrae of the spinal column (ligamenta flava and ligamentum nuchae);
ligaments supporting penis; ligaments supporting transitional epithelia; in blood vessel walls.
FUNCTIONS: Stabilizes positions of vertebrae and penis; cushions shocks; permits expansion and
contraction of organs.
Connective tissues
1. Provide strength and stability
2. Maintain positions of internal organs
3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves

Fasciae (singular, fascia) - Connective tissue layers and wrappings that support and
surround organs.

Three layers of fasciae:

1. Superficial fascia - Separates skin from underlying tissues
2. Deep fascia - Sheets of dense regular connective tissue
3. Subserous fascia - Lies between deep fascia and serous membranes that
line body cavities
Fluid connective tissues include blood and lymph Blood
Contains a watery matrix called plasma
-Contains cells and cell fragments, collectively known as
formed elements
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Platelets
Lymph - Forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels. Monitored by immune system.
Returned to veins near the heart.
Supporting connective tissues include cartilage and bone
Cartilage - Provides shock absorption and protection. Matrix is a firm gel.
Contains polysaccharide derivatives called chondroitin sulfates.
Cells in the matrix are chondrocytes.
In chambers called lacunae.
**Chondrocytes in lacunae look like googly eyes**
Cartilage structure:
Avascular - Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor that discourages formation of blood
vessels.
Perichondrium -
Outer, fibrous layer (for support and protection)
Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)
 Types of cartilage
1.Hyaline cartilage
2.Elastic cartilage
3.Fibrocartilage
Hyaline cartilage - Most common type. Tough and somewhat flexible. Reduces friction between
bones. Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea. Looks like googly eyes with
nothing else around them.
Elastic cartilage - Supportive but bends easily. Found in external ear and epiglottis. Looks like
stained glass windows around lacunae.
Fibrocartilage - Very durable and tough. Limits movement. Prevents bone-to-bone contact.
Found around joints, between pubic bones, and between spinal vertebrae.
**Looks like rows of eyes in a “pod” shape....like peas**
Cartilage growth:
Interstitial growth - Enlarges cartilage from within. Grows from inside the middle.
Appositional growth - Growth at outer surface of cartilage. Grows at ends and borders.
Bone (osseous tissue) - For weight support.
Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts) - Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
Osteocytes (bone cells) lie in lacunae - Arranged around central canals within matrix
Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) allow for exchange of materials with blood
Periosteum - covers bone.
Fibrous (outer) and cellular (inner) layers

Tissue membranes
Physical barriers
Line or cover body surfaces
Consist of an epithelium supported by connective tissue

Four types of tissue membranes

1. Mucous membranes
2. Serous membranes
3. Cutaneous membrane
4. Synovial membranes
Mucous membranes (mucosae) - Wet membranes that have an outlet to the outside of body.
Line passageways that have external connections. In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and
reproductive tracts. Epithelial surfaces must be moist. To reduce friction. To facilitate absorption
or secretion.
Lamina propria is areolar tissue in mucous membranes.
Serous membranes - Wet membranes that line cavities that do not open to the
outside. Thin but strong. Parietal portion lines inner surface of cavity. Visceral portion (serosa)
covers the organs. Serous fluid reduces friction.

Serous membranes:
1. Peritoneum - Lines peritoneal cavity & Covers abdominal organs
2. Pleura - Lines pleural cavities & Covers lungs
3. Pericardium - Lines pericardial cavity & Covers heart
Cutaneous membrane - Skin that covers the body. Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry.
Synovial membranes - Line synovial joint cavities. Movement stimulates production of synovial
fluid for lubrication. Lack a true epithelium.

Muscle tissue
Specialized for contraction
Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle - Large muscles responsible for body movement
2. Cardiac muscle - Found only in the heart
3. Smooth muscle - Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs
Skeletal muscle tissue - Consists of long, thin cells called muscle fibers. Each cell is the length of
the whole muscle. Cells do not divide. New fibers are produced by divisions of myosatellite
cells. Cells have multiple nuclei arranged on the periphery Striated voluntary muscle.
Cardiac muscle tissue - Cells form branching networks connected at intercalated
discs. One nucleus per cell in the center of cell. Regulated by pacemaker cells. Only found in the
heart. Striated involuntary muscle.
Smooth muscle tissue - Cells are small and spindle shaped. Can divide and regenerate. One
nucleus in center of cell. Lines hollow organs. Nonstriated involuntary muscle.
Nervous tissue - Specialized for conducting electrical impulses. Concentrated in the brain and
spinal cord.
Types of cells in nervous tissue:
1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia (supporting cells)
Parts of a neuron:
Cell body - Contains the nucleus and nucleolus.
Dendrites - Short branches extending from the cell body. Receive incoming signals.
Axon (nerve fiber) - Long, thin extension of the cell body. Carries outgoing electrical signals to
their destination.

Tissues respond to injury in two stages:

1. Inflammation (inflammatory response)
2. Regeneration to restore normal function
Inflammatory response - Can be triggered by: Trauma (physical injury), Infection (the presence
of pathogens), Damaged cells release prostaglandins, proteins, and potassium ions & Damaged
connective tissue activates mast cells.
Process of inflammation:
Lysosomes release enzymes that destroy the injured cells and attack surrounding tissues
Tissue destruction is called necrosis, Begins several hours after injury, Necrotic tissues and
cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the
wound
Abscess—pus trapped in an enclosed area.
The ability to regenerate varies among tissues:
Epithelia, connective tissues (except cartilage), and smooth muscle regenerate well. Skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle, and nervous tissues regenerate poorly, if at all damaged cardiac muscle
cells are replaced by fibrous tissue through fibrosis.
 Chapter 5
The Integumentary System
Integumentary system (integument) - Largest system of the body. Sixteen percent of body
weight. 1.5 to 2 m2 of surface area.

-Two major parts

1. Cutaneous membrane (skin)
2. Accessory structures
Components of the cutaneous membrane
• Outer epidermis - Superficial epithelium
• Inner dermis - Connective tissues
Accessory structures - Originate in the dermis. Extend through the epidermis to skin surface.
Hair and hair follicles. Exocrine glands. Nails.
The integument contains blood vessels and sensory receptors:
-Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
-Loose connective tissue
-Below the dermis
Functions of the integument:
-Protection of underlying tissues and organs
-Excretion of salts, water, and organic wastes
-Maintenance of normal body temperature
-Production of melanin
-Production of keratin
-Synthesis of vitamin D3
-Storage of lipids
-Detection of touch, pressure, pain, etc.
-Coordination of the immune response
Epidermis - Stratified squamous epithelium: Avascular (no blood vessels), like all epithelia,
Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from capillaries in the dermis, & Cells of the epidermis
Keratinocytes - The body’s most abundant epithelial cells, Contain large amounts of keratin.
Two types of skin:
Thin skin - Covers most of the body & Has four layers of keratinocytes (B,S,G,C)
Thick skin - Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet & Has five layers of
keratinocytes (B,S,G,L,C)
 Five strata (layers) of keratinocytes in thick skin:
(From basement membrane to free surface)
-Stratum basale
-Stratum spinosum
-Stratum granulosum
-Stratum lucidum
-Stratum corneum
Surface of skin
Chocolate Stratum corneum Crazy
Love Stratum lucidum Lovers
Girls Stratum granulosum Get
Say Stratum spinosum Strange
Boys Stratum basale Bacteria
Papillary Layer of Dermis

Stratum basale (stratum germinativum) - Attached to basement membrane by

hemidesmosomes. Forms a strong bond between epidermis and dermis. Contains epidermal
ridges. Lie next to dermal papillae in dermis. Has many basal cells, or germinative cells. Stem
cells that replace superficial keratinocytes.
Specialized structures of stratum basale:
Tactile discs - Tactile (Merkel) cells with sensory nerve endings. Found in hairless skin. Respond
to touch.
Melanocytes - Contain the pigment melanin.
Stratum spinosum—the “spiny layer” - Eight to ten layers of keratinocytes bound by
desmosomes. Cells appear spiny in histological sections. Produced by division of cells in stratum
basale, some of which continue dividing. Contains dendritic (Langerhans) cells, which are active
in immune response.
Stratum granulosum—the “granular layer” - Three to five layers of keratinocytes. Produced
from cells of stratum spinosum. Most cells stop dividing and produce Keratin.

Keratohyalin - Forms dense granules. Promotes cellular dehydration and cross-linking of keratin
fibers. After production of proteins, cells die.
Stratum lucidum—the “clear layer” - Found only in thick skin. Covers stratum granulosum.
Stratum corneum—the “horny layer” (dried out) – Exposed surface of skin. Water resistant. 15
to 30 layers of keratinized cells.
Keratinization - is the formation of protective layers of cells filled with keratin. New cells move
from stratum basale to stratum corneum. in 7 to 10 days exposed cells are shed after two
weeks.
Dermis - Located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer. Anchors epidermal accessory
structures (e.g., hair follicles and sweat glands).
Two components:
-Outer papillary layer
-Deeper reticular layer
Papillary layer - Consists of areolar tissue.
Contains capillaries, lymphatic vessels, and sensory neurons. Named for dermal papillae that
project between epidermal ridges. This layer is responsible for nourishing the entire epidermis
through diffusion through the basement membrane. Also increases surface area for attachment
of epidermis. Becomes inflamed in dermatitis caused by infection, radiation, mechanical
irritation, or chemicals (e.g., poison ivy). May produce itching or pain.
Reticular layer - Consists of dense irregular connective tissue. Contains collagen and elastic
fibers. The dermis contains all cells of connective tissue proper.
Dermal strength and elasticity:
Collagen fibers - Very strong, resist stretching. Easily bent or twisted. Limit flexibility to prevent
tissue damage.
Elastic fibers - Permit stretching and then recoil to original length. Provide flexibility.
Fibers and water provide flexibility and resilience known as skin turgor.
Skin damage - Loss of skin turgor is caused by Dehydration (reversible), Aging, Hormones, UV
radiation. Excessive distortion of skin from pregnancy or weight gain may cause stretch marks.
Tension lines (cleavage lines) - Produced by parallel bundles of collagen and elastic fibers
in the dermis. Resist forces applied to skin.
A cut made parallel to a tension line remains shut, heals well.
A cut at a right angle pulls open and scars.
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) - Lies deep to dermis. Connected to reticular layer by
connective tissue. Stabilizes position of the skin. Primarily adipose tissue. Large arteries and
veins are in superficial region. Site of subcutaneous injections using hypodermic needles.
Distribution of subcutaneous fat determined by sex hormones.

Skin Color
Skin color is influenced by two pigments in the epidermis:
-Melanin
-Carotene
Melanin - Red-yellow or brown-black pigment. Produced by melanocytes. Stored in intracellular
vesicles (melanosomes). Transferred to keratinocytes. Dark-skinned people have large,
numerous melanosomes. Protects skin from ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Small amounts of UV
radiation are beneficial. Too much can damage DNA and cause cancer.
Carotene - Orange-yellow pigment. Found in orange vegetables. Accumulates in epidermal cells,
deep dermis, and subcutaneous layer. Can be converted to vitamin A, required for maintenance
of epithelia. Synthesis of photoreceptor pigments in eye.
Blood flow and oxygenation influence skin color:
-Hemoglobin is bright red when bound to oxygen
-When blood vessels dilate from heat, skin reddens
-When blood flow to skin decreases, skin pales
-Hemoglobin turns dark red when oxygen is released can result in cyanosis (bluish skin)
-May be caused by extreme cold, heart failure, severe asthma, etc.
Illness and skin color:
-Jaundice: Buildup of bile produced by liver, Skin and whites of eyes may turn yellow.
-Pituitary tumor: Excess MSH increases production of melanin.
-Addison’s disease: Causes pituitary gland to release excess ACTH, which has an effect similar to
MSH.
-Vitiligo: Loss of melanocytes causing loss of color.
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) - Produced by epidermal cells in presence of UV radiation. Liver and
kidneys together convert vitamin D3 into calcitriol. Essential for absorption of calcium and
phosphate ions by small intestine. Insufficient vitamin D3 can cause rickets.

Accessory Structures

Accessory structures of the integument: Hair, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands, and
nails. Derived from embryonic epidermis. Located in dermis, but project to skin surface.
Hairs cover almost all of the body, EXCEPT Palms of hands, sides of fingers, Sides and soles of
feet, sides of toes, Lips, Portions of external genitalia.

-Functions of hair: Protect and insulate, Guard openings from particles and insects, Serve as
sensory receptors.
Hair follicles - Extend deep into dermis, Produce nonliving hairs, Wrapped in a dense connective
tissue sheath, Base is surrounded by sensory nerves (root hair plexus).
Arrector pili muscle - Involuntary smooth muscle, Contraction causes hairs to stand up
produces “goose bumps”.
Regions of the hair:
Hair root - Portion that anchors it into skin
Hair shaft - Upper part of the hair

Hair structure:
Medulla - Central core
Cortex - Intermediate layer
Cuticle - Surface layer

Hair production: Begins at the hair bulb, at base of hair follicle, Surrounds hair papilla—
connective tissue containing capillaries and nerves. At base of hair bulb, epithelial cells form a
layer known as hair matrix. (Produces hair) As cells divide, hair is pushed up and out of skin.
Types of hairs:
Vellus hairs - Soft, fine hairs that cover most of body surface
Terminal hairs - Heavy, pigmented hairs. On head, eyebrows, and eyelashes. Other parts of
body after puberty.
Hair color - Produced by melanocytes at hair matrix. Determined by genes.

Exocrine glands in skin:

Sebaceous glands (oil glands) - Holocrine glands. Discharge lipid secretion (sebum) into hair
follicles. Lubricates and protects hair shaft. Inhibits growth of bacteria.
Sweat glands - Apocrine sweat glands. Eccrine sweat glands.

Types of sebaceous glands

Sebaceous Gland: Simple branched alveolar glands. Associated with hair follicles.
Sebaceous follicles - Large sebaceous glands not associated with hair. Discharge sebum directly
onto skin surface. Located on face, back, chest, nipples, external genitalia.
Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands (salty water sweat) - Coiled, tubular glands that discharge
directly onto skin surface (sensible perspiration). Widely distributed on body surface especially
on palms and soles. Secretions are 99 percent water plus salt, etc.
Functions include: Cooling surface of skin to reduce body temperature, Excreting water and
electrolytes, & Providing protection from environmental hazards.
Apocrine sweat glands (Stinky body odor sweat) - Found in armpits, around nipples, and in
pubic region. Secrete products into hair follicles via merocrine secretion, produce sticky, cloudy
secretions. Nutrient source for bacteria, which cause odors surrounded by myoepithelial cells.
Squeeze secretions out of glands in response to hormonal or nervous signals.
Other integumentary glands:
Mammary glands - Produce milk
Ceruminous glands - Produce cerumen (earwax) & Prevents foreign particles from reaching the
eardrum.
Nails - Protect tips of fingers and toes. Made of dead cells packed with keratin. Metabolic
disorders can change nail structure.
Example: pitted nails may result from psoriasis
Structure of a nail:
Nail body - Visible portion of the nail. Covers the nail bed.
Sides of nails - Lie in lateral nail grooves. Surrounded by lateral nail folds.
Skin beneath the distal free edge of the nail is the
hyponychium (onyx, nail).

Nail production:
Occurs in an epidermal fold called the nail root. Deepest part lies very close to the bone. The
visible nail emerges from under part of the nail root. Known as the eponychium (cuticle). Near
the root, blood vessels are obscured. Producing a pale lunula (luna, moon)

Repair of the integument following an injury:

-Bleeding, swelling, and pain occur
-Mast cells trigger inflammatory response
-A scab (dried blood clot) stabilizes and protects the area
-Macrophages clean the area
-Fibroblasts and endothelial cells divide, producing granulation tissue
-Clot begins to dissolve
-Number of capillaries declines
-Noncellular scar tissue is produced (extra collagen)
-A raised keloid may form