Power system operation & Controls (21EE72)

Module-1

a) Introduction
b) Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
c) Classification of SCADA

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MODULE 1
Introduction
Electricity is a converted form of energy and is used extensively in industrial, commercial,
residential and transportation sectors. It can be generated and transmitted in bulk, economically, over long
distances. AC systems have become the most popular system for use, over DC, for the following reasons:
1. AC generators are simpler than DC generators.
2. Transformation of voltage levels is simple, providing great flexibility of different voltage levels at
generation, transmission and distribution.
3. AC motors, widely used, are simpler and more economical than DC motors. In modern power
systems, the grids are interconnected and vary widely in size and structure. However, they
comprise three phase systems, at both generation and transmission. Synchronous generators
(alternators) are used for generation.\
4. The prime movers (primarily turbines) act to convert mechanical energy into electric energy.
5. Thermal plants use coal as the primary fuel and hydel plants use water to run the turbine.
6. The generated power is transmitted over a wide geographical area, at voltage levels higher than
the generated voltage. At the consumer end, the voltage is again stepped down and distributed to
various consumers. Consumers of different types need voltages of different levels.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of power system

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1.1Operating States of Power Systems:

(Explain the operating states of power system, with a neat diagram or Explain in detail, the operating
states of power system with a neat diagram showing transition between states)

Figure 1.2 Different Operating states of Power system

• Normal operating state: In this state, the equality constraints (E) and inequality constraints (I)
are both satisfied. The generation is adequate to meet the demand, without any equipment being
overloaded. Further, the reserve margins are sufficient to provide security for normal stresses.
• Alert state: In this state also, the equality and inequality constraints are satisfied. However, the
reserve margins are reduced. Therefore, there is a possibility that some inequality constraints
(limits on equipment) may be violated in the event of disturbances. Preventive control will lead
the system from the alert state to the normal state.
• Emergency state: Due to severe disturbances, the system may enter an emergency state. This
could be because of imbalance between generation and loads, either at the system level or at the
local level. This could also be because of instability due to energy built-up in the system after a
fault. Some strong control measures, such as direct or indirect load shedding, generation shedding,
shunt capacitor or reactor switching, network splitting, called emergency control measures are to
be taken. If these measures are not taken on time, the system stability may be under threat and the
system may eventually break down and go to the In Extremis state.
• In extremis state: In this state, both the equality and the inequality constraints are violated. The
violation of the equality constraints implies that the generation and the load demand do not match.
This means that some part of the system load is lost. Emergency measures must be taken to
prevent a total grid collapse.

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• Restorative state: This is a transitional state, where the inequality constraints are satisfied by the
emergency control actions taken, but the system has still not come to normalcy in terms of the
equality constraints. We can have a transition either to the alert state or to the normal state.
1.2 Objectives of Power System Control:
1. The system must be able to meet the changing demand in active and reactive power. The spinning
reserve maintained should be sufficient to take care of sudden variations in the demand.
2. The power quality (read voltage quality!!) should meet certain standards with regard to frequency,
amplitude and wave shape.
3. The energy should be supplied at a minimum cost.
To achieve the above objectives, we have several levels of controls that are integrated in a complex
way which are described as below:

 The generators are provided essentially with excitation control, to keep the voltage at the desired
levels, and with prime mover control, to maintain the frequency at the desired level.
 The prime mover control is concerned with regulation of the speed, and the controls are for the
associated parameters such as water discharge quantity, boiler pressure, temperature, flows, etc.
 Power system stabilizers are used to damp oscillations of the generator following a disturbance. A
stabilizing signal is injected into the exciter system to damp the oscillations. Some of the
commonly used feedback signals are frequency and real power.
 The system generation control maintains the required active power balance in the system. The
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is responsible for maintaining this balance, which in turn is
required to hold the frequency around the nominal value. The AGC also maintains the scheduled
power flows in tie-lines, which are responsible for power transfer between different control areas.
 The transmission controls include power and voltage control devices, which help maintain the
voltage levels within limits, maintain system stability, protect the system and result in reliable
operation of the system. The control devices are tap changing transformers, Flexible AC
Transmission (FACTS) controllers, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, phase-shifting transformers
and HVDC controls.
 Distribution level controls such as capacitors, wave shaping circuits, etc., are used to provide
quality power to the consumer. These devices maintain the system voltage at the correct frequency
and amplitude, and also help in removing harmonics injected into the load or the system.
The operation and control of the system should ultimately maintain the following:
1. Stability: Continued intact operation of the system, following a disturbance. This depends on the
operating condition and the nature of the disturbance.
2. Security: It is the degree of risk in the power system’s ability to survive contingencies without
interruption to the customer. It is related to the robustness of the system.
3. Reliability: It is the probability of satisfactory operation over a long period. It denotes the ability
of the system to supply adequate service on a nearly continuous basis, with a few intermittent
interruptions over an extended time period.

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Figure 1.3 Various controls in a power system.

1.3 Key Concepts for Reliable Operation

(Explain the key concepts for reliable operation of power system)
 Balance in Generation and Load
 Balance in Reactive Power and Demand
 Ensure that thermal limits are not exceeded
 Maintain System Stability
 Meet N-1 reliability Criteria
 Prepare for emergencies
 Plan, Design and maintain to operate reliably
1.3.1 Balance the generation and the load: The load on the power system is dynamic and changing
all the time. The production by the generators must be scheduled to meet this constantly changing
load. The AGCs are used to match the generation with the demand. The demand, though dynamic, is
predictable and a load prediction is done, to keep the appropriate generation and reserve on hand.
Failure to match the generation with the demand will cause frequency deviation from the nominal
value. The frequency increases if the generation exceeds the demand and drops if the demand exceeds
the generation. Large deviations in frequency are detrimental to the life of the equipment. Over-
frequency and under frequency relays operate when the frequency deviations cross the preset values.

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1.3.2 Balance reactive power generation and demand: This balance is required to maintain the
scheduled voltages. Reactive power sources are generators and capacitor banks. They must be
constantly adjusted to maintain the voltages at all levels, within permissible range, to protect the
equipment. The generator automatic voltage regulators control the voltage level of the generators.
Today, FACTS controllers are commonly used for reactive power control.

1.3.3 Ensure thermal limits are not exceeded: The heating limits of the overhead lines must not be
exceeded; otherwise, the lines will sag into the objects given below. There are many critical blackouts
which have resulted due to sagging of lines, leading to short circuits, relay tripping and ultimately grid
collapse.

1.3.4 Maintain system stability: “Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for
a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire system remains
intact”. If a system loses stability, the grid may face a total collapse. Stability limits will specify the
maximum power that can be transferred over the lines.
Angle stability is the ability of the generators connected to the grid to remain in synchronism.

Voltage stability is the ability of the system to maintain steady acceptable voltages at all buses in the
system under normal operating conditions and also after a disturbance. Both are vital for the health of
the system.

1.3.5 Meet N−1 reliability criteria: This means that the system should remain operational and secure
even after the loss of the largest generator in the system. (N is the number of generators, N−1 indicates
loss of one generator!). Further, after a contingency, the operators must assess the health of the system
in the eventuality of another contingency, and take suitable control actions to maintain system security,
if it were to occur.

1.3.6 Plan, design and maintain to operate reliably: The planning, design and maintenance should
be such that the system should be operated reliably and within safe limits at all times. Planning
involves both short-term and long-term planning.

1.3.7 Prepare for emergencies: In spite of thorough planning and good design, emergencies such as
weather fluctuations, operator error, software failure, equipment failure, etc., can occur. Operators
must be trained to prepare for such emergencies.

1.4 Major Threats to System Security:

1. Transient instability: This is the inability of the system to maintain stability when subjected to
large disturbances. It depends on the initial operating point, the duration of the disturbance and
also the nature of disturbance.
2. Small-signal instability: This is the inability of the system to maintain stability when subjected
to minor disturbances. It depends on the operating point. A wrong choice of controller parameters
such as integral gains, regulation of speed governor, gain of exciter, etc., can also lead to small
signal instability.

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3. Frequency instability: This is the inability of the system to maintain the frequency within the
prescribed limits. It arises due to an inability to match the generation and the demand.
4. Voltage instability: This arises when disturbances or increase in load demand can cause
uncontrollable voltage collapse.
5. Cascading effects of outages and overloads.

1.4 Preventive and Emergency Controls :

(Discuss the preventive and emergency control methods in power system operations)

Preventive control is meant to keep the system in the normal state or bring it back to the normal state
from the alert state. Automatic controls are provided for frequency and voltage control. Preventive
control measures commonly used are as follows:
1. Rescheduling of active power generated by various units, to match the changing load.
2. Start-up of generation units and providing adequate spinning reserve.
3. Switching of shunt elements for reactive power control. This will help maintain the voltage within
desired limits.
4. Change of reference points of controllable devices such as FACTs controllers, phase-shifting trans
formers, etc.
5. Change in the voltage reference points of generators and voltage control devices.
6. Change of substation configuration, like bus-bar splitting, etc.

Some of the common emergency control measures are as follows:

1. Tripping of generators.
2. Load shedding.
3. Fast valving or fast water diversion which leads to a fast reduction in generation.
4. Controlled disconnection of interconnected systems, to prevent spreading of frequency problems.
5. Controlled is landing to create local generation-load balance.
6. Blocking of tap changers of transformers.
7. Fast HVDC power transfer control.
8. Application of braking resistors.

1.5 Energy Management Centers

• The control of the modern power system is extremely complex. Modern energy management
centers have embedded a number functions in order to maintain the power system reliability.
• The energy management centers comprise both hardware and software to monitor and control the
system. In modern power systems, the monitoring is fully automated.
• Controlling is a combination of automated and manual operations.
• Sophisticated computing machines have enhanced the system operation and control facilities. A
hierarchical structure is used for control.
The functions of the energy center can be divided into three subsystem blocks as follows:
1 The dispatch subsystem: This subsystem would involve the functions of unit commitment,
economic dispatch, automatic generation control and demand forecasting.
2 Data subsystem: This subsystem is essentially for data acquisition and processing. The
subsystem will contain the units of SCADA, state estimation and all the associated alarms and
displays.
3 Security subsystem: This subsystem is basically to oversee the secure operation of the power
system. The functions included are security monitoring, contingency analysis, and decision on

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control actions based on the state of the system, such as preventive control/emergency
control/restorative control, etc. This subsystem should also take a decision on the VAR support to
be provided in the system for the voltage profile to be maintained.
The hierarchical control can be broadly classified into three levels:
1. Level 1: Load forecasting, unit commitment, trading (longer duration).
2. Level 2: Economic dispatch, optimal power flow, interchange evaluation (duration around 5–10
min).
3. Level 3: Automatic generation control, voltage control, state estimation (time in seconds). Level 1
functions require statistical data and hence probabilistic methods are used. The results of level 1
are used in level 2 and level 3 functions. These are mainly deterministic in nature.

(Explain the major components of energy management centre)

1.6 Major Components of Energy Centers :The four major components of the energy management
centers (or Systems as they are sometimes referred to) are as follows:
1.6.1 SCADA: The SCADA system consists of two subsystems – the supervisory control and the data
acquisition. The supervisory subsystem is responsible for:
(a) display at the central location, the status of circuit breakers and other devices such as tap changers,
capacitor switching, generator voltage regulators
(b) facilitating remote tripping of breakers, tap changing of transformers, etc.
1.6.2 Computers: Modern computers are having immense capabilities in terms of memory and speed.
The structure of energy management centers has changed with advent of fast computing facilities.
The main functions of the computing facilities at the control center are as follows:
• Real-time monitoring and control
• User interface
• Operating studies
• Maintenance and testing
• Simulation studies
1.6.3 User interface (with extensive GUI and display facilities): The user interface consists of
consoles, data loggers, display units and screen projections to alert operators
1.6.4 Applications software: This section is to implement the various functions discussed, namely, UC,
economic dispatch, state estimation, optimal power flow, contingency analysis, etc.

1.7 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA):

 Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a combination of supervisory control and data
acquisition, along with the associated telemetry.
 They are used to control equipment which is geographically dispersed. It consists of both hardware
and software.
 SCADA systems have made substantial progress in the past decade in terms of their performance,
functionality, scalability and utility. SCADA is only for supervisory control and does not include a
full control system.
 In electric power systems, most supervisory systems are meant to provide operators with sufficient
information and control capabilities to operate the power system in a safe and secure manner

1.7.1 Supervisory Control System

(With usual notations, explain following with reference to SCADA systems)
The intention of supervisory control is to control a specific device to make it perform in accordance with
a directed action. Some typical supervisory systems used in power systems are:

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i. SCADA: A SCADA system performs traditional operations of data acquisition and control
functions, including a limited amount of record keeping and data reporting.
ii. SCADA/AGC: It is similar to SCADA, except that AGC capabilities are included to calculate
the area control error, monitor system frequency and tie-line interchanges, and perform
economic dispatch.
1.7.2 EMS: Energy management systems incorporate all features of SCADA and also include other
computations, such as load flows, state estimation, contingency analysis, etc. It includes extensive
capabilities of record keeping and data exchange.
1.7.3 DMS: Distribution management systems are meant to monitor and control distribution feeder
loads. DMS today includes topology analysis and load flow programs that allow identification of
problems and restoration of services.
1.7.4 LMS: Load management system is meant to manage the peak load and is useful for demand-side
management. It can be a stand-alone program or integrated into EMS or DMS.

1.7.5 AMR: Automatic meter reading is incorporated into LM systems.

1.7.6 Telemetry: Telemetry refers to the technique used in transmitting and receiving information or
data over a medium. Typical data in a power system are the measurements of voltage, power
flows, circuit breaker status, etc. The information is transmitted over a medium, such as cable,
telephone, internet or radio. The information can come from multiple locations.

1.7.7 Data Acquisition It refers to the method used to access and control the information or data from
the equipment that is being controlled or monitored. The data are then forwarded via the
telemetry system. The information can be either in an analog or in a digital form. It is the data
obtained from sensors, meters, actuators, control equipment like relays, valves, etc.

1.8 Components of SCADA System:

(With a neat diagram, explain the general configuration and major components of SCADA system)
Basically SCADA systems collect information from the site (field) of the equipment, transfer it to a
central computer facility and display the information to the operator to facilitate the control of the
entire system from the central control center.
In a SCADA system, the geographically dispersed sites contain either a remote terminal unit (RTU),
which is a computer, or a programmable logic controller (PLC), which controls local actuators and
monitor the sensors. The communication equipment allows transfer of information or data from the
RTU/PLC to the central control center which houses a master terminal unit (MTU).The
communication could be via telephone, radio, cable or satellite.

The software of the SCADA system is programmed to tell the system what to monitor, what are the
operating ranges, when to initiate alarms, controls, etc. Further, the system may consist of intelligent
electronic devices (IEDs) that are smart sensors, at times combining a sensor, low level intelligent
control, a communication system and program memory in one device.

The major components of a SCADA system are thus classified as:

1. Field instrumentation
2. Remote stations
3. Communication network
4. Central monitoring station
5. Software

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Figure 1.4General configuration of SCADA

1.8.1 Field Instrumentation: This refers to all the sensors and actuators that are interfaced directly to the
equipment. They generate the analog and digital signals that are monitored by the remote station. The
generated signals are conditioned to be compatible with the RTU/PLC at the remote station. The analog
outputs of sensors have standard industry values like 0–5 V, 0–10 V, 0–20 mA, etc. Digital outputs of
sensors are used to define the status of the equipment like On-OFF, Full-Empty, Open-Closed, etc.
The major components of a SCADA system are thus classified as:
1. Field instrumentation
2. Remote stations
3. Communication network
4. Central monitoring station
5. Software
1.8.2 Remote Station (Remote Terminal Unit-RTU: (Explain in brief the components of remote
terminal unit for power system SCADA) Field instrumentation connected to the
plant/substation/equipment which is being monitored and controlled is interfaced to the remote station to
allow manipulation at a remote site. The remote station may be an RTU or a PLC. The RTU is a computer
with good interfacing for communication and flexible programmability. The PLC is used mostly in

Figure 1.5 RTU(Remote Terminal Unit)

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industries. It has very good programmability. Modern PLCs also have extensive communication features
and radio units for use with SCADA systems.

1.8.3 Communication Network : This refers to the communication equipment needed to transfer data to
and from different sites. Commonly used communication media are RS-232/RS-442/RS-485, dial-up
telephone lines or dedicated landline, microwave, satellite, X.25 packet protocols and radio via
trunked/VHF/UHF. Cables are normally used in factories and are not practical for systems spread over
wide geographical areas due to the high cost of cables. The use of radio lines is common. Dial-up
telephone lines are used for connecting remote stations economically. This is shown in Fig.

Figure 1.6 Use of Telephone lines for communication.

1.8.4 Central Monitoring Station: The central monitoring station (CMS) is the master unit of a SCADA
system. It is in charge of information collection from remote stations, generating control actions for any
event and generating reports. It could be just a single computer or a network of workstations to allow
sharing of information. The CMS in general has the following components:
1. An MMI or HMI program
2. A mimic diagram of the whole system or plant displayed on screen for the operator
3. Display of RTUs with present I/O reading
4. Window for alarms
5. Trending display.
1.8.5 Software for SCADA:
• Software for SCADA is based on real-time database (RTDB).
• SCADA software is of two types: proprietary and open.
• Proprietary software is developed by companies to communicate with their own hardware.
• Open software systems have gained popularity because of interoperability capabilities and the
ability to mix different equipment manufactured by different vendors on the same system.
• Some of the key features of SCADA software are user interface, graphics displays, alarms, trends,
RTU/PLC interface, scalability, redundancy, networking and distributed processing.
1.9 Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED)
• It is defined as devices that have single or multiple microprocessors integrated within it.
• Its main purpose involves the transmission or reception of data or control signals to or from an
external device.
• The external device in consideration with the whole system can be transducers, relays, control
units, etc.
• IEDs are regarded as a key part of industrial control systems used for the purpose of advanced
power automation.
• Thus is useful in Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems(SCADA system), Distributed
Control Systems(DCS) as a crucial component.

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Figure 1.7 Block Diagram of IED.

• Auxiliary Power Supply: An auxiliary power supply or source is basically an electric power
supplied by a backup alternate source other than the primary main source. IEDs always need an
auxiliary power supply, unlike older protection relays where an auxiliary power supply is of not
much significance. So, the acceptable power supply used by IEDs is in the range
between 15 to 150 volts in the case of DC. While 110 to 140 Volts when AC.
• Analog Inputs: In relays, inputs are provided by the current transformer and potential
transformers. However, IEDs may have sensor inputs.
• Digital Inputs: Digital inputs provided to the IEDs may be some sort of commands or any status
information. Some of these need potential free contacts while some understand with the
consideration of logic 0 or logic 1 as negative voltage and positive voltage respectively.
• Analog Outputs: Generally, transducers are used to get the output from the IEDs which is
programmable type. The output can be of active or passive nature but a passive type output
requires an external power supply.
• Digital Outputs: In the case of digital outputs, the potential contacts can be normally open,
normally closed, or solid-state contacts. Similar to digital inputs, digital outputs are also
commands or status information, and the switching capability must be properly checked as the
significant differences can be noticed.

1.10 Standard SCADA Configurations :

(Explain single master, multiple submaster, multiple remote configuration with a neat diagram)
We have two distinct layers in a SCADA system: the client layer that caters to the MMI and the data
server layer that handles most of the data control activities.
The data servers communicate with the RTUs and are connected to them either directly or via
networks or field buses that are proprietary (e.g., Siemens, H1) or non-proprietary (Profibus). Data
servers are connected to each other and to client stations via LAN. The master station and the RTUs
can be connected in a number of different ways. They are shown as follows.
1.10.1 Single Master Station Configurations
1. Single master station and single RTU

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2. Single master station and multiple RTUs

3. Single master station with multiple RTUs in multidrop circuit

1.10.2 Multiple Master Station Configurations

1. Single dual ported RTU, radial circuit

2. Multiple RTUs, multidrop circuit

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3. Multiple master stations, multiple single ported RTUs

4. Multiple master stations, multiple dual ported RTUs.

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1.10.3 Combination Systems: These are a combination of master stations and sub-master stations. These
are shown in Figure

1.10.4 Systems with Gateway Connections: With the prolific use of Ethernet, gateway connections
have become popular. Such a connection is shown in Fig.

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1.10.5 Networked Systems :Drastic technological advancements in networking have made such systems
popular. They use WAN/LAN for networking, through routers as shown in Fig.

1.11Advantages of SCADA:
• The data can be displayed in a variety of formats based on the needs of the user.
• Real data simulations can be obtained with the assistance of operators.
• It provides an interface to connect thousands of sensors across the wide region for various
monitoring and controlling operations.
• The system is capable of storing large amounts of data.
• Real data simulations can be obtained with the assistance of operators.
• Many types of data can be gathered from RTUs connected with the master unit.
• Data can be monitored from anywhere, not just the local site, thanks to advanced protocols and
application software.
• It is fast in obtaining a response.
• The SCADA system incorporates unit redundancy to provide a backup in the event of faults or
failures. This strengthens the system.

1.12 Applications of SCADA in Power System

1.12.1 Application in Power Generating Station
• Continuous monitoring of Speed and Frequency
• Geographical monitoring of coal delivery and water treatment processes
• Supervising the status of circuit breakers, protective relays and other safety related operations
• Generation operations planning
• Active and reactive power control
• Turbine protection
• Load scheduling
• Historical data processing of all generation related parameters
1.12.2Application in Power Distribution
• Improving power system efficiency by maintaining an acceptable range of power factor
• Limiting peak power demand
• Continuous monitoring and controlling of various electrical parameters in both normal and
abnormal conditions
• Trending and alarming to enable operators by addressing the problem spot
• Historian data and viewing that from remote locations
• Quick response to customer service interruptions

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Question Bank

1. Explain the operating states of power system, with a neat diagram.

2. Explain the key concepts for reliable operation of power system.
3. Explain the major components of energy management centre.
4. Explain in brief the components of remote terminal unit for power system SCADA.
5. With usual notations, explain following with reference to SCADA systems,
SCADA/AGC,EMS,DMS,LMS,AMR.
6. Explain single master, multiple sub-master, multiple remote configuration with a neat diagram.
7. With a neat diagram, explain the general configuration and major components of SCADA system.
8. Explain in detail, the operating states of power system with a neat diagram showing transition
between states.
9. Discuss the preventive and emergency control
10. Explain the major components of energy management centre.
11. Draw the typical diagram of RTU and explain major subcomponents. Discuss the standard
protocol used in SCADA. Name the SCADA manufactured for power system.
12. List and briefly explain any five key concepts of reliable operation of power systems.
13. With a neat diagram, explain various components of SCADA system.
14. Explain in brief the components of Remote Terminal Unit for power system SCADA.

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