Scribd
Upload
18 views4 pages

Integration

Uploaded by

man9986482952
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
18 views4 pages

Integration

Uploaded by

man9986482952
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 4

1. What is Integration?

Integration is a fundamental concept in calculus and is essentially the reverse of


differentiation. While differentiation measures the rate of change of a function, integration is
concerned with finding the accumulation or total quantity over an interval.

In geometric terms, integration can be interpreted as finding the area under a curve defined by a
function f(x)f(x)f(x) on a certain interval [a,b][a, b][a,b]. The most common types of integrals are:

● Indefinite Integrals: Represent the general form of antiderivatives. It involves


finding a function F(x)F(x)F(x) such that F′(x)=f(x)F'(x) = f(x)F′(x)=f(x).
∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C\int f(x) \, dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C
where CCC is the constant of integration.

● Definite Integrals: These calculate the area under the curve between two specific
points aaa and bbb.
∫abf(x) dx\int_a^b f(x) \, dx∫abf(x)dx
The result is a number, not a function, representing the total accumulation.

2. Fundamental Integration Rules

There are some basic rules and formulas that form the foundation of integration:

Power Rule:

For any real number n≠−1n \neq -1n=−1:

∫xn dx=xn+1n+1+C\int x^n \, dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C∫xndx=n+1xn+1+C

● Example: ∫x2 dx=x33+C\int x^2 \, dx = \frac{x^3}{3} + C∫x2dx=3x3+C

Constant Rule:

For a constant aaa, the integral is:

∫a dx=ax+C\int a \, dx = ax + C∫adx=ax+C

● Example: ∫5 dx=5x+C\int 5 \, dx = 5x + C∫5dx=5x+C

Exponential Functions:
∫ex dx=ex+C\int e^x \, dx = e^x + C∫exdx=ex+C

For any constant kkk,

∫ekx dx=ekxk+C\int e^{kx} \, dx = \frac{e^{kx}}{k} + C∫ekxdx=kekx+C


● Example: ∫e2x dx=e2x2+C\int e^{2x} \, dx = \frac{e^{2x}}{2} +
C∫e2xdx=2e2x+C

Trigonometric Functions:

● Sine and Cosine: ∫sin⁡(x) dx=−cos⁡(x)+C,∫cos⁡(x) dx=sin⁡(x)+C\int \sin(x) \, dx =


-\cos(x) + C, \quad \int \cos(x) \, dx = \sin(x) + C∫sin(x)dx=−cos(x)
+C,∫cos(x)dx=sin(x)+C
● Secant Squared: ∫sec⁡2(x) dx=tan⁡(x)+C\int \sec^2(x) \, dx = \tan(x) +
C∫sec2(x)dx=tan(x)+C
● Cosecant Squared: ∫csc⁡2(x) dx=−cot⁡(x)+C\int \csc^2(x) \, dx = -\cot(x) +
C∫csc2(x)dx=−cot(x)+C

3. Techniques of Integration

Here are common techniques to handle more complex integrals:

Substitution (u-Substitution):

When dealing with composite functions, we use substitution to simplify the integral. It involves
setting u=g(x)u = g(x)u=g(x), where g(x)g(x)g(x) is a part of the integrand that simplifies when
differentiated.

Steps:

1. Let u=g(x)u = g(x)u=g(x).


2. Find du=g′(x) dxdu = g'(x) \, dxdu=g′(x)dx.
3. Rewrite the integral in terms of uuu and dududu.
● Example: ∫2xcos⁡(x2) dx\int 2x \cos(x^2) \, dx∫2xcos(x2)dx Let u=x2u =
x^2u=x2, so du=2x dxdu = 2x \, dxdu=2xdx. The integral becomes: ∫cos⁡(u)
du=sin⁡(u)+C=sin⁡(x2)+C\int \cos(u) \, du = \sin(u) + C = \sin(x^2) +
C∫cos(u)du=sin(u)+C=sin(x2)+C

Integration by Parts:

This method is used for the product of two functions. It is based on the product rule for
differentiation:

∫u dv=uv−∫v du\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du∫udv=uv−∫vdu

● Choosing uuu and dvdvdv: Choose uuu as the function that simplifies when
differentiated and dvdvdv as the one that is easy to integrate.
● Example:
∫xex dx\int x e^x \, dx∫xexdx
Let u=xu = xu=x and dv=ex dxdv = e^x \, dxdv=exdx.
Then, du=dxdu = dxdu=dx and v=exv = e^xv=ex.
Apply the formula:
∫xex dx=xex−∫ex dx=xex−ex+C\int x e^x \, dx = x e^x - \int e^x \, dx = x
e^x - e^x + C∫xexdx=xex−∫exdx=xex−ex+C

Partial Fractions:

Used when integrating rational functions (fractions where the numerator and denominator are
polynomials). The idea is to express the function as a sum of simpler fractions.

Steps:

1. Factor the denominator if possible.


2. Break the rational function into partial fractions.
3. Integrate each term.
● Example: ∫3x+5x2−x−6 dx\int \frac{3x + 5}{x^2 - x - 6} \, dx∫x2−x−63x+5
dx Factor the denominator: x2−x−6=(x−3)(x+2)x^2 - x - 6 = (x - 3)(x +
2)x2−x−6=(x−3)(x+2).
Write the fraction as: 3x+5(x−3)(x+2)=Ax−3+Bx+2\frac{3x + 5}{(x - 3)(x +
2)} = \frac{A}{x - 3} + \frac{B}{x + 2}(x−3)(x+2)3x+5=x−3A+x+2B Solve
for AAA and BBB, then integrate each term.

Trigonometric Substitution:

Used for integrals involving square roots of expressions like a2−x2\sqrt{a^2 -


x^2}a2−x2, a2+x2\sqrt{a^2 + x^2}a2+x2, or x2−a2\sqrt{x^2 - a^2}x2−a2.

● Example for a2−x2\sqrt{a^2 - x^2}a2−x2:


Use the substitution x=asin⁡(θ)x = a \sin(\theta)x=asin(θ), dx=acos⁡(θ) dθdx = a \cos(\
theta) \, d\thetadx=acos(θ)dθ.
After substitution, simplify the integral and solve.

4. Common Integration Shortcuts

● Recognizing Patterns: Many standard integrals have well-known solutions. For


example:
∫1x dx=ln⁡∣x∣+C\int \frac{1}{x} \, dx = \ln|x| + C∫x1dx=ln∣x∣+C
and
∫11−x2 dx=arcsin⁡(x)+C\int \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} \, dx = \arcsin(x) +
C∫1−x21dx=arcsin(x)+C
● Even and Odd Functions: If the function is even (symmetric about the y-axis),
then:
∫−aaf(x) dx=2∫0af(x) dx\int_{-a}^a f(x) \, dx = 2 \int_0^a f(x) \, dx∫−aa
f(x)dx=2∫0af(x)dx
If the function is odd (symmetric about the origin), then:
∫−aaf(x) dx=0\int_{-a}^a f(x) \, dx = 0∫−aaf(x)dx=0
● Use of Symmetry in Definite Integrals: If an integral has limits of symmetry,
such as from −a-a−a to aaa, use the properties of even and odd functions to
simplify.

5. Applications of Integration

● Area under a Curve: The definite integral calculates the area under the curve y=f(x)y =
f(x)y=f(x) from x=ax = ax=a to x=bx = bx=b.
● Volume of Solids: Using the disk and shell methods, integration can be used to find the
volume of a solid of revolution.
● Physics: In physics, integration is used to calculate quantities like work, energy, and
center of mass.

You might also like